Researching mere exposure effects to advertising: Theoretical foundations and methodological implications

International Journal of Market Research

Volumn 49, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 191-219

  Grimes, Anthony ^a   Kitchen, Philip J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HULL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33947591107     PISSN: 14707853     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/147078530704900205     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Allport, D.A., Tipper, S.P. & Chmiel, N.R.J. (1985) Perceptual integration and post-categorical filtering. In: M.I. Posner and O. Marn (eds) Attention and Performance, Vol. 11. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 107-132.
2. Ambler, T., Ioannides, A. & Rose, G.S. (2000) Brands on the brain: neuro images of advertising. Business Strategy Review, 11, 3, pp. 17-30.
3. Anand, P., Holbrook, M.B. & Stephens, D. (1988) The formation of affective judgments: the cognitive-affective model versus the independence hypothesis. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 3, pp. 386-391.
4. Baker, W.E. (1999) When can affective conditioning and mere exposure directly influence brand choice? Journal of Advertising, 28, 4, Winter, pp. 31-46.
5. Bargh, J.A. & Pietromonaco, P. (1982) Automatic information processing and social perception: the influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, pp. 437-449.
6. Bargh, J.A, Chaiken, S., Govender, R. & Pratto, F. (1992) The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, pp. 893-912.
7. Bauer, R.A. & Greyser, S.A. (1968) Advertising in America: The Consumer View. Boston: Harvard University, Graduate School of Business Administration, Division of Research.
8. Bierley, C., McSweeney, F.K. & Vannieuwkerk, R. (1985) Classical conditioning of preferences for stimuli. Journal of Consumer Research, 12, 3, pp. 316-323.
9. Blaxton, T.A. (1989) Investigating dissociations between memory measures: support for transfer - appropriate processing framework. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 15 (July), pp. 657-668.
10. Bonnano, G.A. & Stilling, N.A. (1986) Preference, familiarity and recognition after repeated brief exposures to random geometric shapes. American Journal of Psychology, 99, pp. 403-415.
11. Bornstein, R.F. (1989) Exposure and affect: overview and meta-analysis of research 1968-1987. Psychological Bulletin, 106 (September), pp. 265-288.
12. Branthwaite, A. & Lunn, T. (1985) Projective techniques in social and market research. In: R. Walker (ed.) Applied Qualitative Research. Aldershot, NJ: Gower, pp.101-129.
13. Brunel, F.F., Tietje, B.C. & Greenwald, A.G. (2004) Is the implicit association test a valid and valuable measure of implicit consumer social cognition? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, 4, pp. 385-404.
14. Crabb, B.T. & Dark, V. (1999) Perceptual implicit memory requires attentional encoding. Memory & Cognition, 27, 2, pp. 267-275.
15. Di Pace, E., Longoni, A.M. & Zoccolotti, P. (1991) Semantic processing of unattended parafoveal words. Acta Psychologica, 77 (August), pp. 21-34.
16. Duke, C.R. & Carlson, L. (1993) A conceptual approach to alternative memory measures for advertising effectiveness. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 15, 2, pp. 1-14.
17. Duke, C.R. & Carlson, L. (1994) Applying implicit memory measures: word fragment completion in advertising tests. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 16, 2, pp. 29-40.
18. du Plessis, E. (1994) Recognition vs recall. Journal of Advertising Research, 34, 2, pp. 75-91.
19. Economist (2005) Inside the mind of the consumer, The Economist, 00130613, 6 December 2004, 371(8379).
20. Ekman, P. & Rosenberg, E.L. (1997) What the Face the Reveals: Basic and Applied Studies of Spontaneous Expression Using the Facial Action Coding System. New York: Oxford University Press.
21. Elman, J.L. & McClelland, J.L. (1985) An architecture for parallel processing in speech recognition: the trace model. In: M.R. Schroeder (ed.) Speech and Speaker Recognition. Basel: Karger, pp. 6-35.
22. Ewing, M., Napoli, J. & du Plessis, E. (2001) Factors affecting in-market recall of food product advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 39, 1, pp. 29-33.
23. Fuentes, L.J., Carmona, E., Agis, I.F. & Catena, A. (1994) The role of the anterior attention system in semantic processing of both foveal and parafoveal words. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 6 (Winter), pp. 17-25.
24. Goode, A. (2001) The value of implicit memory. Admap, 423, December.
25. Gordon, W. & Longmaid, R. (1988) Qualitative Market Research: A Practitioner's and Buyer's Guide. Aldershot: Gower.
26. Graf, P. & Schacter, D.L. (1985) Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesiac subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Learning, Memory & Cognition, 11, pp. 501-518.
27. Greenbaum, T.L. (1993) The Handbook for Focus Group Research. New York, NY: Lexington.
28. Greenwald, A.G. & Leavitt, C. (1984) Audience involvement in advertising: four levels. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, pp. 590-595.
29. Greenwald, A.G. & Nosek, B.A. (2001) Health of the implicit association test at age 3. Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, pp. 85-93.
30. Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E. & Schwarz, J.L.K. (1998) Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, pp. 1464-1480.
31. Grimes, A. & Doole, I. (1998) Exploring the relationships between colour associations and branding: a cross-cultural comparison of the UK and Taiwan. Journal of Marketing Management, 14, 7, pp. 799-817.
32. Grunert, K.G. (1996) Automatic and strategic processes in advertising effects. Journal of Marketing, 60, 4, pp. 88-101.
33. Hall, B.F. (2004) On measuring the power of communications. Journal of Advertising Research, 44, 2, pp. 181-187.
34. Heath, R. (2002) Low involvement processing: does the link test measure it? Admap, September, p. 431.
35. Heath, R. (2004) Emotional advertising works: what marketers need to know about low attention processing. Market Leader, Autumn.
36. Henry, H. (1986) Motivation Research. Bradford: MCB University Press.
37. Hill, A. (1993) Non-conscious processes and semantic image profiling. Journal of the Market Research Society, 35, 1, pp. 315-323.
38. Jacoby, L.L. (1991) A process dissociation framework: separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30 (October), pp. 513-541.
39. Jacoby, L.L. & Dallas, M. (1981) On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110 (September), pp. 306-340.
40. Jacoby, L.L., Lindsay, D.S. & Toth, J.P. (1992) Unconscious influences revealed: attention, awareness and control. American Psychologist, 47 (June), pp. 802-809.
41. Janiszewski, C. (1988) Preconscious processing effects: the independence of attitude formation and conscious thought. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 2, pp. 199-209.
42. Janiszewski, C. (1990a) The influence of print advertisement organization on affect toward a brand name. Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 1, pp. 53-65.
43. Janiszewski, C. (1990b) The influence of nonattended material on the processing of advertising claims. Journal of Marketing Research, 27, 3, pp. 263-278.
44. Janiszewski, C. (1993) Preattentive mere exposure effects. Journal of Consumer Research, 20, 3, pp. 376-392.
45. Jones, J.P. (2003) How clients can improve their advertising by improving their decision making. In: P.J. Kitchen (ed.) The Future of Marketing. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, pp. 99-112.
46. Kardes, F.R. (1986) Effects of initial product judgments on subsequent memory-based judgments. Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (June), pp. 1-11.
47. Kihlstrom, J.E (1996) Perception without awareness of what is perceived, learning without awareness of what is learned. In: M. Velmans (ed.) The Science of Consciousness: Psychological, Neuropsychological, and Clinical Reviews. London: Routledge, pp. 2346.
48. Krishnan, S.H. & Chakravarti, D. (1999) Memory measures for pretesting advertisements: an integrative conceptual framework. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 8, 1, pp. 1-38.
49. Krishnan, S. & Pluzinski, C. (1993) Brand name memory following ad exposure: inhibition, interference and attenuation processes as revealed by direct and indirect tests of memory. Advances in Consumer Research, 20, p. 655.
50. Krugman, H.E. (1986) Low recall and high recognition of advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 26 (February/March), pp. 79-86.
51. La Barbera, P.A. & Tucciarone, J.D. (1995) GSR reconsidered: a behaviour approach to evaluating and improving the sales potency of advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 35, 5, pp. 33-53.
52. Lee, A.Y. (2002) Effects of implicit memory on memory-based versus stimulus-based brand choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 39, 4, pp. 440-454.
53. Lee, A.Y. & Labroo, A.A. (2004) The effect of conceptual and perceptual fluency on brand evaluation. Journal of Marketing Research, 41, 2, pp.151-165.
54. Lee, M.P.Y. (2001) Low-involvement processing: effects of stimulus exposure and repetition on implicit memory, explicit memory and affect. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 62, 4-A, p. 1507.
55. Levy, S.J. (1985) Dreams, fairytales, animals and cars. Psychology & Marketing, 2, pp. 67-81.
56. Light, L.L., Prull, M.W. & Kennison, R.F. (2000) Divided attention, aging and priming in exemplar generation and category verification. Memory & Cognition, 28, 5, pp. 856-872.
57. Lodish, L.M., Magid, A., Kalmenson, S., Livelsberger, J. & Lubetkin, B. (1995) In: B. Richardson & M.E. Stevens, How TV advertising works: a meta-analysis of 289 real world split cable TV advertising experiments. Journal of Marketing Research, 32 (May), pp. 125-139.
58. Lombardi, W.J., Higgins, E.T. & Bargh, J.A. (1987) The role of consciousness in priming effects on categorization: assimilation versus contrast as a function of the priming task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 3, pp. 411-428.
59. Maclnnis, D., Moorman, C. & Jaworski, B.J. (1991) Enhancing and measuring consumers' motivation, opportunity, and ability to process brand information from ads. Journal of Marketing, 55 (October), pp. 32-53.
60. Maison, D., Greenwald, A.G. & Bruin, R.H. (2001) The implicit association test as a measure of implicit consumer attitudes. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 32, pp. 1-9.
61. Maison, D., Greenwald, A.G. & Bruin, R.H. (2004) Predictive validity of the implicit association test in studies of brands, consumer attitudes and behaviour. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, 4, pp. 405-415.
62. Mandel, N. & Johnson, E.J. (2002) When web pages influence choice: effects of visual primes on experts and novices. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 2, pp. 235-245.
63. Mandler, G., Nakamura, Y. & Shebo Van Zandt, B. (1987) Nonspecific effects of exposure on stimuli that cannot be recognized. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13 (October), pp. 646-648.
64. Medina, J. (2004) The neurobiology of the decision to buy. Psychiatric Times, October, pp. 31-34.
65. Merikle, P.M. & Daneman, M. (1998) Psychological investigations of unconscious perception. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 5, 1, pp. 5-18.
66. Monroe, K.B. & Lee, A.Y. (1999) Remembering vs knowing: issues in buyers' processing of price information. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 27 (Spring), pp. 207-225.
67. Moray, N. (1959) Attention in dichotic listening: affective cues and the influence of instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 11, pp. 56-60.
68. Murphy, C., Cain, W.S., Gilmore, M.M. & Skinner, R.B. (1991) Sensory and semantic factors in recognition memory for odors and graphic stimuli: elderly vs young persons. American Journal of Psychology, 104, pp. 161-192.
69. Neely, J.H. (1977) Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106, pp. 226-254.
70. Nielson, S.L. & Sarason, I.G. (1981) Emotion, personality, and selective attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, pp. 945-960.
71. Petty, R.E. & Cacioppo, J.T. (1986) Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
72. Posner, M.I. & Snyder, C.R.R. (1975) Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals. In: P.M.A. Rabbitt & S. Dornick (eds) Attention and Performance V. London: Academic Press, pp. 55-85.
73. Rajaram, S. & Roediger, H.L. (1993) Direct comparison of four implicit memory tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 19, 4, pp. 765-776.
74. Ratneshwar, S. & Shocker, A.D. (1991) Substitution in use and the role of usage context in product category structures. Journal of Marketing Research, 28, pp. 281-295.
75. Reber, A.S. (1993) Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge: An Essay on the Cognitive Unconscious. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
76. Rettie, R. & Brewer, C. (2000) The verbal and visual components of package design. Journal of Product and Brand Management, 9, 1, pp. 56-70.
77. Richardson-Klavehn, A. & Bjork, R.A. (1988) Measures of memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, pp. 475-543.
78. Roediger, H.L. & Blaxton, T.A. (1987) Retrieval modes produce dissociations in memory for surface information. In: D. Gorfein & R.R. Hoffmann (eds) Memory and Cognitive Processes: The Ebbinghaus Centennial Conference. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 349-379.
79. Roediger, H.L., Srinivas, K. & Weldon, M.S. (1989) Dissociations between implicit measures of retention. In: S. Lewandowski & K. Kirnser (eds) Implicit Memory: Theoretical Issues. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 67-87.
80. Schacter, D.L. (1987) Implicit memory: history and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13 (July), pp. 501-518.
81. Schacter, D.L. (1992) Consciousness and awareness in memory and amnesia: critical issues. In: A.D. Milner & M.D. Rugg (eds) The Neuropsychology of Consciousness. London: Academic Press, pp. 180-200.
82. Schacter, D.L. (1996) Illusory memories: a cognitive neuroscience analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 26 November, 93, 24, pp. 13527-13533.
83. Seamon, J.G., Brody, N. & Kauff, D.M. (1983) Affective discrimination of stimuli that are not recognized. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 9, pp. 544-555.
84. Shapiro, S. & Krishnan, H.S. (2001) Memory-based measures for assessing advertising effects: a comparison of explicit and implicit memory effects. Journal of Advertising, Fall, 30, 3, pp. 1-14.
85. Shapiro, S., MacInnis, D.J. & Heckler, S.E. (1997) The effects of incidental ad exposure on the formation of consideration sets. Journal of Consumer Research, 24, June.
86. Singer, E. (2004) They know what you want, New Scientist, 31 July, pp. 36-37.
87. Skinner, H. & Stephens, P. (2003) Speaking the same language: the relevance of neuro-linguistic programming to effective marketing communications. Journal of Marketing Communications, 9, pp. 177-192.
88. Sperling, G. (1960) The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs, 74, pp. 1-29.
89. Swinney, D.A. (1979) Lexical access during sentence comprehension: (re)consideration of context effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 18, pp. 645-659.
90. Swinney, D.A. (1982) The structure and time-course of information interaction during speech comprehension: lexical segmentation, access, and interpretation. In: J. Mehler, E.C.T. Walker & M.H. Garett (1982) Perspectives on Mental Representation: Experimental and Theoretical Studies of Cognitive Processes and Capacities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 151-167.
91. Thomas, K.M., King, S.W., Franzen, P.L., Welsh, T.F., Berkowitz, A.L., Noll, D.C., Birmaher, C. & Casey, B.J. (1999) A developmental function MRI study of spatial working memory. Neuroimage, 10, 3, September, pp. 327-338.
92. Tulving, E. & Schacter, D.L. (1990) Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247 (January), pp. 301-306.
93. Tulving, E., Schacter, D.L. & Stark, H.A. (1982) Priming effects in word-fragment completion are independent of recognition memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 8 (July), pp. 336-342.
94. Tulving, E., Kapur, S., Craik, F.I.M., Moscovitch, M. & Houle, S. (1994) Hemispheric encoding/retrieval asymmetry in episodic memory: positron emission tomography findings. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 91, pp. 2016-2020.
95. Velmans, M. (1991) Is human information processing conscious? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 4, pp. 651-669.
96. Wedel, M. & Pieters, R. (2000) Eye fixations of advertisements and memory for brands: a model and findings. Marketing Science, 19, 4, Fall, pp. 297-312.
97. Whittlesea, B.W.A. (1993) Illusions of familiarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 19, 6, pp. 1235-1253.
98. Wolters, G. & Phaf, R.H. (2002) Contrasts and dissociations suggest qualitative differences between conscious and unconscious processes. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 25, 3, pp. 359-360.
99. Zajonc, R.B. (1980) Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, pp. 151-175.
100. Zaltman, G. (2003) How Customers Think: Essential Insights into the Mind of the Market. Harvard: Harvard Business School Press.