Is the implicit association test a valid and valuable measure of implicit consumer social cognition?

Journal of Consumer Psychology

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 385-404

  Brunel, Frédéric F ^a,d   Tietje, Brian C ^b   Greenwald, Anthony G ^c  

^a BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Cal Poly State University   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^d BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 9744266703     PISSN: 10577408     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1207/s15327663jcp1404_8     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Anderson, J. R., & Bower, G. H. (1973). Human associative memory. Washington, DC: Winston.
2. Asendorpf, J. B., Banse R., & Mücke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality concepts; the case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380-393.
3. Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitudes can be measured. In H. L. Roediger, III, J. S. Nairne, I. Neath, & A. Surprenant (Eds.), The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (pp. 117-150). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
4. Banaji, M. R., & Hardin, C. D. (1996). Automatic stereotyping. Psychological Science, 7, 136-141.
5. Banse, R., Seise, J., & Zerbes, N. (2001). Implicit attitude toward s homosexuality: Reliability, validity, and controlability of the IAT. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 145-160.
6. Bargh, J. A. (1989). Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In J. S. Uleman & J. S. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 3-51). New York: Guilford.
7. Bargh, J. A. (1994). The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency and control in social cognition. In R. S. Wyer, Jr., & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed., pp. 1-40). Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
8. Bargh, J. A. (2002). Losing consciousness: Automatic influences on consumer judgment, behavior, and motivation. Journal of Consumer Research, 29, 280-285.
9. Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R., & Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 893-912.
10. Battig, W. F., & Montague, W. E. (1969). Category norms for verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension of the Connecticut category norms. Journal of Experimental Psychology Monographs, 80(3, Pt. 2).
11. Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 139-168.
12. Bellezza, F. S., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1986). Words high and low in pleasantness as rated by male and female college students. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 18, 299-303.
13. Bergami, M., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2000). Self-Categorization, affective commitment and group self-esteem as distinct aspects of social identity in the organization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 555-577.
14. Brendl, C. M., Markman, A. B., & Messner, C. (2001). How do indirect measures of evaluation work? Evaluating the inference of prejudice in the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 760-773.
15. Brown, S. P., & Stayman, D. M. (1992). Antecedents and consequences of attitude toward the ad: A meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 19, 34-51.
16. Campbell, D. T. (1950). The indirect assessment of social attitudes. Psychological Bulletin, 47, 15-38.
17. Chaiken, S., & Bargh, J. A. (1993). Occurrence versus moderation of the automatic attitude activation effect: Reply to Fazio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 759-765.
18. Churchill, G. A. (1995). Marketing research: Methodological foundations (6th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Dryden.
19. Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F. (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407-428.
20. Cunningham, W. A., Johnson, M. K., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Neural components of social evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 639-649.
21. Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12, 163-170.
22. Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2000). Exposure to admired group members reduces automatic intergroup bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 316-328.
23. Dasgupta, N., & McGhee, D. E. (2000). Automatic preference for White Americans: Eliminating the familiarity explanation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 316-330.
24. De Houwer, J. (2001). A structural and process analysis of the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 443-451.
25. Demo, D. (1985). The measurement of self-esteem: Refining our methods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1490-1502.
26. Deshpande, R., & Stayman, D. M. (1994). A tale of two cities: Distinctiveness theory and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Research, 31, 57-64.
27. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
28. Devine, P. G. (2001). Implicit prejudice and stereotyping: How automatic are they? Introduction to the special section. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 757-759.
29. Dovidio, J. F., & Fazio, R. H. (1992). New technologies for the direct and indirect assessment of attitudes. In J. M. Tanur (Ed.), Questions about questions: Inquiries into the cognitive bases of surveys (pp. 204-237). New York: Sage.
30. Fazio, R. H. (1986). How do attitudes guide behavior? In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (pp. 204-243). New York: Guilford.
31. Fazio, R. H. (1995). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations: Determinants, consequences, and correlates of attitude accessibility. In R. E. Petty & J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 247-282). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
32. Fazio, R. H. (2001). On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview. Cognition and Emotion, 15, 115-142.
33. Fazio, R. H., Chen, J.-M., McDonel, E. C., & Sherman, S. J. (1982). Attitude accessibility, attitude-behavior consistency, and the strength of the object-evaluation association. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 339-357.
34. Fazio, R. C., Jackson J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobstrusive measure of racial attitudes; a bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
35. Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327.
36. Fazio, R. H., Sanbonmatsu, D. M., Powell, M. C., & Kardes, F. R. (1986). On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 229-238.
37. Forehand, M. R., & Deshpande, R. (2001). What we see makes us who we are: Priming ethnic self-awareness and advertising response. Journal of Marketing Research, 38, 336-348.
38. Forehand, M. R., & Perkins, A. (2003). Unconscious processing of spokesperson information: The influence of implicit cognition. Manuscript submitted for publication.
39. Fournier, S. (1998). Consumers and their brands: Developing relationship theory in consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 24, 343-373.
40. Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). Orlando, FL: Academic.
41. Greenwald, A. G. (1992). Unconscious cognition reclaimed. American Psychologist, 47, 766-779.
42. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4-27.
43. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2002). A unified theory of implicit attitudes, stereotypes, self-esteem, and self-concept. Psychological Review, 109, 3-25.
44. Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022-1038.
45. Greenwald, A. G., Klinger, M. R., & Liu, T. J. (1989). Unconscious processing of dichoptically masked words. Memory and Cognition, 17, 35-47.
46. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
47. Greenwald, A. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2001). Health of the Implicit Association Test at age 3. Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 85-93.
48. Grier, S. A., & Deshpande, R. (2001). Social dimensions of consumer distinctiveness: The influence of social status on group identity and advertising persuasion. Journal of Marketing Research, 38, 216-224.
49. Haire, M. (1950). Projective techniques in marketing research. Journal of Marketing, 14, 649-656.
50. Haugvedt, C. P., Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1992). Need for cognition and advertising: understanding the role of personality variables in consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 1, 239-260.
51. Hawkins, D. I., & Coney, K. A. (1981). Uninformed response error in survey research. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 370-374.
52. Heath, T. B., McCarthy, M. S., & Mothersbaugh, D. L. (1994). Spokesperson fame and vividness effects in the context of issue-relevant thinking: The moderating role of competitive setting. Journal of Consumer Research, 20, 520-534.
53. Jacoby, L. L., Lindsay, D. S., & Toth, J. P. (1992). Unconscious influences revealed. American Psychologist, 47, 802-809.
54. Janiszewski, C. (1988). Preconscious processing effects: The independence of attitude formation and conscious thought. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 199-209.
55. Janiszewski, C. (1993). Preattentive mere exposure effects. Journal of Consumer Research, 20, 376-392.
56. Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R.(1994). The role of stereotyping in person-system justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27.
57. Kamins, M. A. (1990). An investigation into the 'match-up' hypothesis in celebrity advertising: When beauty may be only skin deep. Journal of Advertising, 19, 4-13.
58. Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001). Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 774-788.
59. Kawakami, K., Dion, K. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1998). Racial prejudice and stereotype activation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 407-416.
60. Kihlstrom, J. F. (2004). Implicit methods in social psychology. In C. Sansone, C. C. Morf, & A. T. Panter (Eds.), The Sage handbook of methods in social psychology (pp. 195-212). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
61. Kleine, S. S., Kleine, R. E., III, & Allen, C. T. (1995). How is a possession 'me' or 'not me'? Characterizing types and an antecedent of material possession attachment. Journal of Consumer Research, 22, 327-343.
62. Kuehnen, U., Schiessl, M., Bauer, N., Paulig, N., Poehlmann, C., & Schmidthals, K. (2001). How robust is the IAT? Measuring and manipulating implicit attitudes of East and West Germans. Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 135-144.
63. Lemon, N. (1973). Attitudes and their measurement. New York: Wiley.
64. Lilienfeld, S. O., Wood, J. M., & Garb, N. H. (2001). The scientific status of projective techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 1, 27-66.
65. Louie, T., Kulik, R., & Jacobson, R. (2001). When bad things happen to endorsers of good products. Marketing Letters, 12, 13-23.
66. MacKenzie, S. B., & Lutz, R. J. (1996). An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in advertising pretesting context. Journal of Marketing, 53, 48-65.
67. MacKenzie, S. B., Lutz, R. J., & Belch, G. E. (1986). The role of attitude toward the ad as a mediator of advertising effectiveness: A test of competing explanations. Journal of Marketing Research, 23, 130-143.
68. Maison, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Bruin, R. (2001). The Implicit Association Test as a measure of implicit consumer attitudes. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 32, 1-9.
69. Maison, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Bruin, R. (2004). Predictive validity of the Implicit Association Test in studies of brands, consumer attitudes, and behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, 405-415.
70. McAlexander, J. H., Schouten, J. W., & Koenig, H. F. (2002). Building brand community. Journal of Marketing, 66, 38-54.
71. McFarland, S. G., & Crouch, Z. (2002). A cognitive skill confound on the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition, 20, 483-510.
72. Mellott, D. S., & Greenwald, A. G. (2000, May). Measuring implicit ageism: Do the Implicit Association Test and Semantic Priming measure the same construct? Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.
73. Mick, D. G. (1996). Are studies of dark side variables confounded by socially desirable responding? The case of materialism. Journal of Consumer Research, 23, 106-119.
74. Mischel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. New York: Wiley.
75. Mitchell, A. A. (1986). The effect of verbal and visual components of advertisements on brand attitudes and attitude toward the advertisement. Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 12-24.
76. Mitchell, A. A., & Olson, J. C. (1981). Are product attribute beliefs the only mediator of advertising effects on brand attitude? Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 318-332.
77. Mowen, J. C., & Spears, N. (1999). Understanding compulsive buying among college students: A hierarchical approach. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 8, 407-430.
78. Muniz, A. M. J., & O'Guinn, T. C. (2001). Brand community. Journal of Consumer Research, 27, 412-432.
79. Netemeyer, R. G., & Bearden, W. O. (Eds.). (1998). Handbook of marketing scales (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
80. Netemeyer, R. G., Burton, S., & Lichtenstein, D. R. (1995). Trait aspects of vanity: Measurement and relevance to consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 21, 612-626.
81. Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). The go/no-go association task. Social Cognition, 19, 625-666.
82. Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2002). (At least) two factors mediate the relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes. In R. K. Ohme & M. Jarymowicz (Eds.), Natura automatyzmow (pp. 49-56). Warszawa, Poland: WIP PAN & SWPS.
83. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002a). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration website. Group Dynamics, 6, 101-115.
84. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002b). Math = male, me = female, therefore math doesn't equal me. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 44-59.
85. Peter, J. P. (1979). Reliability: A review of psychometric basics and recent marketing practices. Journal of Marketing Research, 16, 6-17.
86. Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., et al. (2000). Amygala activation predicts performance on indirect measures of racial bias. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729-738.
87. Rapaport, D., Gill, M. M., & Schafer, R. (1968). Diagnostic psychological testing (Rev. ed.). New York: International University Press.
88. Rothermund, K., & Wentura, D. (2001). Figure-ground asymmetries in the Implicit Association Test. Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 94-106.
89. Rozin, P., & Singh, L. (1999). The moralization of cigarette smoking in the United States. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 8, 339-342.
90. Rudman, L. A., Feinberg, J., & Fairchild, K. (2002). Minority members' implicit attitudes: Automatic ingroup bias as function of group status. Social Cognition, 20, 294-320.
91. Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash against agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 743-762.
92. Rudman, L. A., & Kilianski, S. E. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes towards female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1315-1328.
93. Schmitt, B. H. (1994). Contextual priming of visual information in advertisements. Psychology and Marketing, 11, 1-14.
94. Schwarz, N., & Bohner, G. (2001). The construction of attitudes. In A. Tesser & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intraindividual processes (pp. 413-435). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
95. Sen, S., & Bhattacharya, C. B. (2001). Does doing good always lead to doing better? Consumer reactions to corporate social responsibility. Journal of Marketing Research, 38, 225-243.
96. Shapiro, S. (1999). When an ad's influence is beyond our conscious control: Perceptual and conceptual fluency effects caused by incidental ad exposure. Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 16-36.
97. Shrum, L. J., Wyer, R. S. Jr., & O'Guinn T. C. (1998). The effects of television consumption on social perspectives: The use of priming procedures to investigate psychological processes. Journal of Consumer Research, 24, 447-458.
98. Simonin, B. L., & Ruth, J. A. (1998). Is a company known by the company it keeps? Accessing the spillover effects of brand alliances on consumer brand attitudes. Journal of Marketing Research, 35, 30-42.
99. Sirgy, M. J. (1982). Self-concept in consumer behavior: A critical review. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 287-300.
100. Snyder, M., Omoto, A. M., & Crain, A. L. (1999). Punished for their good deeds: Stigmatization of AIDS volunteers. American Behavioral Scientist, 42(7), 1175-1192.
101. Steffens, M. C., & Plewe, I. (2001). Items' cross-category associations as a confounding factor in the Implicit Association Test. Zeitschrift fur Experimentelle Psychologie, 48, 123-134.
102. Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247, 301-306.
103. Weinberger, J. (2000). William James and the unconscious: Redressing a century-old misunderstanding. Psychological Science, 11, 439-445.
104. Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1989). Memory and cognition in its social context. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
105. Wong, N. C. (2001, December 4). Apple's time to grow; computer maker expanding in downturn. The Washington Post, p. E01.
106. Yi, Y. (1993). Contextual priming effects in print advertisements: The moderating role of prior knowledge. Journal of Advertising, 22, 1-12.
107. Zaltman, G. (2000). Consumer researchers: Take a hike! Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 423-428.