Difficult/therapy-resistant asthma: Pathogenesis and possible relationship with tobacco smoke

Current Respiratory Medicine Reviews

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 67-74

  Sitkauskiene, Brigita ^a,b   Krisiukeniene, Algirda ^b   Sakalauskas, Raimundas ^a  

^a KAUNAS UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE   (Lithuania)

^b Institute for Biomedical Research   (Lithuania)

Author keywords

Asthma; Pathogenesis; Smoking; Therapy resistance

Indexed keywords

BETA 2 ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; CORTICOSTEROID; CYTOKINE; DNA; GLUCOCORTICOID; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; INTERLEUKIN 8; STEROID; TOBACCO SMOKE; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR;

ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; ASTHMA; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DOWN REGULATION; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG MEGADOSE; EOSINOPHILIA; HUMAN; INHIBITION KINETICS; LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION; NEUTROPHIL; PATHOGENESIS; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DNA BINDING; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RECEPTOR BINDING; RECEPTOR INTRINSIC ACTIVITY; REVIEW; SMOKING; TREATMENT FAILURE;

EID: 33745830498     PISSN: 1573398X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157339806775486173     Document Type: Review

References (86)

1. Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention. NIH publication no. 02-3659. Global Initiative for Asthma. National institutes of Health. National heart Lung and Blood Institute, 2002 (updated 2004).
2. British Thoracic Society/Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network British Guideline on the management of asthma. Thorax 2003; 58: i1-94.
3. Barnes PJ, Woolcock AJ. Difficult asthma. Eur Respir J 1998; 12: 1209-18.
4. Agrawal A, Hanania NA. Managing asthma when it doesn't get better. Adv Stud Med 2004; 4: 235-42.
5. Barnes PJ, Pedersen S, Busse WW. Efficacy and safety of inhaled corticosteroids: new developments. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: S1-53.
6. Schwartz HJ, Lowell FC, Melby JC. Steroid resistance in bronchial asthma. Ann Intern Med 1968; 69: 493-9.
7. Ayres JG, Miles JF, Barnes PJ. Brittle asthma. Thorax 1998; 53: 315-21.
8. Woolcock AJ. Corticosteroid resistant asthma. Definitions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154: S45-8.
9. Chan MT, Leung DY, Szefler SJ, Spahn JD. Difficult-to-control asthma: clinical characteristics of steroid-insensitive asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998; 101: 594-601.
10. Ernst P, Habbick B, Suissa S, et al. Is the association between inhaled betaagonist use and life-threatening asthma because of confounding by severity? Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 75-9.
11. Chung KF, Godard P, Adelroth E, et al. Difficult/Therapy-Resistant Asthma: the need for an integrated approach to define clinical phenotypes, evaluates risk factors, understand pathophysiology and find novel therapies. ERS Task Force on Difficult/Therapy- Resistant Asthma. Eur Respir J 1999; 13: 1198-208.
12. Barnes PJ. Corticosteroid resistance in airway disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2004; 1: 264-8.
13. The ENFUMOSA cross-sectional European multicentre study of the clinical phenotype of chronic severe asthma. Eur Respir J 2003; 22: 470-7.
14. Wenzel SE, Szefler SJ, Leung DYM, Sloan SI, Rex MD, Martin RJ. Bronchoscopic evaluation of severe asthma: persistent inflammation associated with high dose glucoocorticoids. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: 737-43.
15. Jatakanon A, Uasuf C, Maziak W, Lim S, Chung KF, Barnes PJ. Neutrophilic inflammation in severe persistent asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 1532-9.
16. Nocker RET, Schoonbrood DFM, van de Graf EA, et al. Interleukin-8 in airway inflammation in patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1996; 109: 183-91.
17. Sur S, Crotty TB, Kephart GM, et al. Sudden-onset fatal asthma-a distinct entity with few eosinophils and relatively more neutrophils in the airway submucosa? Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 713-9.
18. Vignola AM, Bonanno A, Mirabella A, et al. Increased levels of elastase and α1-antitrypsin in sputum of asthmatic patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 505-11.
19. Cox G. Glucocorticoid treatment inhibits apoptosis in human neutrophils. Separation of survival and activation outcomes. J Immunol 1995; 154: 4719-25.
20. Meagher LC, Cousin JM, Seckl JR, Haslett C. Opposing effects of glucocorticoids on the rate of apoptosis in neutrophilic and eosinophilic granulocytes. J Immunol 1996; 156: 4422-8.
21. Wenzel SE, Schwartz LB, Langmack EL, et al. Evidence that severe asthma can be divided pathologically into two inflammatory subtypes with distinct physiologic and clinical characteristics. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 1001-8.
22. Sher E, Leung DYM, Surs W, et al. Steroid-resistant asthma. Cellular mechanisms contributing to inadequate response to glucocorticoid therapy. J Clin Invest 1994; 93: 33-9.
23. Leung DYM, Martin RJ, Szefler SJ, et al. Dysregulation of interleukin 4, interleukin 5, and interferon gamma gene expression in steroid-resistant asthma. J Exp Med 1995; 181: 33-40.
24. Tsoumakidou M, Tzanakis N, Kyriakou D, Chrysofakis G, Siafakas NM. Inflammatory cell profiles and T-lymphocyte subsets in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and severe persistent asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2004; 34: 234-40.
25. Kam J, Szefler S, Surs W, Sher E, Leung D. Combination IL-2 and IL-4 reduces glucocorticoid receptor-binding affinity and T cell response to glucocorticoids. J Immunol 1993; 151: 3460-6.
26. Thompson NC, Chaudhuri R, Livingston E. Asthma and cigarette smoking. Eur Respir J 2004; 24: 822-33.
27. Franchimont D, Martens H, Hagelstein M-T, et al. Tumour necrosis factor alpha decreases, and interleukin-10 increases, the sensitivity of human monocytes to dexamethasone: potential regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84: 2834-9.
28. Gaga M. Fixed obstruction in severe asthma: not just a matter of time. Eur Respir J 2004; 24: 8-10.
29. American Thoracic Society. Proceedings of the ATS workshop on refractory asthma: current understanding, recommendations, and unanswered questions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 2341-51.
30. Minshall E, Chakir J, Laviolette M, et al. Interleukin-11 expression is increased in severe asthma: association with epithelial cells and eosinophils. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 105: 232-8.
31. Haley KJ, Sunday ME, Wiggs BR, et al. Inflammatory cell distribution within and along asthmatic airways. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158:565-572.
32. Kraft M, Djukanovic R, Wilson S, et al. Alveolar tissue inflammation in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:1505-1510.
33. Caroll N, Eliott J, Morton A, et al. The structure of large and small airways in nonfatal and fatal asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:405-410.
34. Pujols L, Mullol J, Torrego A, Picado C. Glucocorticoid receptors in human airways. Allergy 2004; 59: 1042-52.
35. Sousa AR, Lane SJ, Cidlowski JA, Staynov DZ, Lee TH. Glucocorticoid resistance in asthma is associated with elevated in vivo expression of the glucocorticoid receptor beta-isoform. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 105: 943-50.
36. Hamid QA, Wenzel SE, Hauk PJ, et al. Increased glucocorticoid receptor beta in airway cells of glucocorticoid-insensitive asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 159: 1600-4.
37. Adcock IM, Lane SJ, Brown CR, Lee TH, Barnes PJ. Abnormal glucocorticoid receptor-activator protein 1 interaction in steroid-resistant asthma. J Exp Med 1995; 182: 1951-8.
38. Sousa AR, Lane SJ, Soh C, Lee TH. In vivo resistance of glucocorticoids in bronchial asthma is associated with enhanced phosphrylation of JUN N-terminal kinase and failure of prednisolone to inhibit JUN N-terminal kinase phosphorylation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999; 104: 565-74.
39. Stirling RG, Chung KF. Severe asthma: definition and mechanisms. Allergy 2001; 56: 825-40.
40. Burchard EG, Silverman EK, Rosenwasser LJ, et al. Association between a sequence variant in the IL-4 gene promoter and FEV in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 919-22.
41. Sandford AJ, Chagani T, Zhu S, et al. Polymorphisms in the IL-4, IL-4RA, and FCERIB genes and asthma severity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000; 106: 135-40.
42. Lim S, Crawley E, Woo P, Barnes PJ. Haplotype associated with low interleukin-10 production in patients with severe asthma. Lancet 1998; 352: 113.
43. Holloway JW, Dunbar PR, Riley GA, et al. Association of beta2-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms with severe asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2000; 30: 1097-103.
44. Sanak M, Pierzchalska M, Baran-Socha S, Szczeklik A. Enhanced expression of the leukotriene C(4) synthase due to overactive transcription of an allelic variant associated with aspirin-intolerant asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2000; 23: 290-6.
45. Rosenwasser LJ. Promoter polymorphism in the candidate genes, IL-4, IL-9, TGF-betal, for atopy and asthma. Int vArch Allergy Immunol 1999; 118: 268-70.
46. Siroux V, Pin I, Oryszczyn MP, Le Moual N, Kauffman F. Relationships of active smoking to asthma and asthma severity in the EGEA study. Eur Respir J 2000; 15: 470-7.
47. Plaschke P, Janson C, Norrman E, Bjornsson E, Ellbjar S, Jarvholm B. Onset and remission of allergic rhinitis and asthma and the relationship with atopic sensitization and smoking. Am J Repir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 920-4.
48. Kim Y, Kim SH, Tak YJ, et al. High prevalence of current asthma and active smoking effect among the elderly. Clin Exp Allergy 2002; 32: 1706-12.
49. Rasmussen FSHC, Lambrechtsen J, Hansen HS, Hansen NC. Impact of airway lability, atopy, and tobacco smoking on the development of asthma-like symptoms in asymptomatic teenagers. Chest 2000; 117: 1-9.
50. Vesterinen E, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M. Prospective study of asthma in relation to smoking habits among 14729 adults. Thorax 1988; 43: 534-9.
51. Troisi R, Speizer F, Rosner B, Trichopoulos D, Willet W. Cigarette smoking and incidence of chronic bronchitis and asthma in women. Chest 1995; 108: 1557-61.
52. Althuis M, Sexton M, Prybylski D. Cigarette smoking and asthma symptom severity among adult asthmatics. J Asthma 1999; 36: 257-64
53. Gallefoss F, Bakke P. Does smoking affect the outcome of patient education and self-management in asthmatics? Patient Educ Couns 2003; 49: 91-7.
54. Sippel JM, Pedula KL, Vollmer WM, Buist AS, Osborne ML. Associations of smoking with hospital-based care and quality of life in patients with obstructive airway disease. Chest 1999; 115: 691-6.
55. Raherison C, Baldi I, Tunon De Lara, J, Taytard A, Annesi-Maesano I. Asthma phenotypes according to the timing of smoking onset in young adults. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003; 7: 84-92.
56. Lange P, Parner J, Vestbo J, Schnohr P, Jensen G. A 15 year follow-up study of ventilatory function in adults with asthma. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1194-200.
57. Chalmers GW, Macleod KJ, Little SA, Thomson LJ, McSharry CP, Thomson NC. Influence of cigarette smoking on inhaled corticosteroid treatment in mild asthma. Thorax 2002; 57: 226-30.
58. Chaudhuri R, Livingston E, McMahon AD, Thomson L, Borland W, Thomson NC. Cigarette smoking impairs the therapeutic response to oral corticosteroids in chronic asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168: 1308-11.
59. Douwes J, Gibson P, Pekkanen J, Pearce N. Non-eosinophilic asthma: importance and possible mechanisms. Thorax 2002; 57: 643-8.
60. Floreani A, Rennard S. The role of cigarette smoke in the pathogenesis of asthma and as a trigger for acute symptoms. Curr Opin Pulm Med 1999; 5: 38-46.
61. Rahman I, McNee W. Oxidant/antioxidant imbalance in smokers and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1996; 51: 348-50.
62. Kennedy S, Elwood R, Wiggs B, Pare P, Hogg J. Increased airway mucosal permeability of smokers: relationship to airway reactivity. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 129: 143-8.
63. 99mTc-DTPA in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 139: 1139-43.
64. Shao MXG, Nakanaga T, Nadel JA. Cigarette smoke induces MUC5AC mucin overproduction via tumor necrosis factor-converting enzyme in human airway epithelial (NCI-H292) cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2004; L420-7.
65. Green RH, Brightling CE, Woltmann G, Parker D, Wardlaw AJ, Pavord ID. Analysis of induced sputum in adults with asthma: identification of subgroup with isolated sputum neutrophilia and poor response to inhaled corticosteroids. Thorax 2002; 57: 875-9.
66. Sitkauskiene B, Krisiukeniene A, Malakauskas K, Sakalauskas R. Inflammatory cell counts in induced sputum from non-allergic asthmatics and COPD patients. Eur Respir J 2004; 24: P2019.
67. Nightingale JA, Rogers DF, Chung FK, Barnes PJ. No effect of inhaled budesonide on the response to inhaled ozone in normal subjects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 479-86.
68. Hattotuwa K, Gizycki M, Ansari T, Jeffrey P, Barnes N. The effects of inhaled fluticasone on airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165: 1592-6.
69. Sitkauskiene B, Sakalauskas R, Malakauskas K, Lotvall J. Reversibility to a β2-agonist in COPD: relationship to atopy and neutrophil activation. Respir Med 2003; 97: 591-8.
70. Byron K, Varigos G, Wootton A. IL-4 production is increased in cigarette smokers. Clin Exp Immunol. 1994; 95: 333-6.
71. Keatings V, Collins P, Scott D, Barnes P. Differences in interleukin-8 and tumour necrosis factor-α in induced sputum from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153: 510-4.
72. Churg A, Dai J, Changshi X, Wright J. Tumour necrosis factor-α is central to acute cigarette smoke-induced inflammation and connective tissue breakdown. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166: 849-54.
73. Irusen E, Matthews JG, Takahashi A, Barnes PJ, Chung KF, Adcock IM. p38 Mitogen-activated protein kinase-induced glucocorticoid receptor phosphorylation reduces its activity: role in steroid-insensitive asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 109: 649-57.
74. Hawrylowicz C, Richards D, Loke T-K, Corrigan C, Lee T. A defect in corticosteroid-induced IL-10 production in T lymphocytes from corticosteroid-resistant patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 109: 369-70.
75. McKay A, Komai-Koma M, MacLeod K, et al. Interleukin-18 levels in induced sputum are reduced in asthmatic and normal smokers. Clin Exp Allergy 2004; 34: 904-10.
76. Galigniana MD, Piwien-Pilipuk G, Assreuy J. Inhibition of glucocorticoid receptor binding by nitric oxide. Mol Pharmacol 1999; 55: 317-23.
77. Oryszczyn MP, Annesi-Maesano I, Charpin D, Paty E, Maccario J, Kauffmann F. Relationships of active and passive smoking to total IgE in adults of the epidemiological study of the genetics and environmental of asthma, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and atopy (EGEA). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161: 1241-6.
78. Leung D, Bloom J. Update on glucocorticoid action and resistance. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003; 111: 3-22.
79. Strickland I, Kisich K, Hauk PJ, et al. High constitutive glucocorticoid receptor beta in human neutrophils enables them to reduce their spontaneous rate of cell death in response to corticosteroids. J Exp Med 2001; 193: 585-94.
80. Schaaf M, Cidlowski J. Molecular mechanisms of glucocorticoid action and resistance. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2003; 83: 37-48.
81. DiStefano A, Caramori G, Oates T, et al. Increased expression of nuclear factor-κB in bronchial biopsies from smokers and patients with COPD. Eur Respir J 2002; 20:556-63.
82. Ito K, Lim S, Caramori G, Chung K, Barnes P, Adcock I. Cigarette smoking reduces histone deacetylase 2 expression, enhances cytokine expression, and inhibits glucocorticoid actions in alveolar macrophages. FASEB J 2001; 15: 1110-2.
83. Mochida-Nishimura K, Surewicz K, Cross J, et al. Differential activation of MAPK signaling pathways and nuclear factor-κB in bronchoalveolar cells of smokers and nonsmokers. Mol Med 2001; 7: 177-85.
84. Laustiola K, Lassilia R, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M. Decreased beta-adrenergic receptor density and catecholamine response in male cigarette smokers: a study of monozygotic twin pairs discordant for smoking. Circulation 1988; 78: 1234-40.
85. Wang ZCC, Niu T, Wu D, et al. Association of asthma with beta2-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphism and cigarette smoking. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 163: 1404-9.
86. Ito K, Lim S, Caramori G, et al. Cigarette smoking reduces histone deacetylase 2 expression, enhances cytokine expression, and inhibits glucocorticoid actions in alveolar macrophages. FASEB J 2001; 15:1110-1112.