Autoantibodies in diabetes

Diabetes

Volumn 54, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2005, Pages

  Pihoker, Catherine ^a,b   Gilliam, Lisa K ^a   Hampe, Christiane S ^a   Lernmark, Åke ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALLOANTIBODY; AUTOANTIBODY; AUTOANTIGEN; EPITOPE; GLUTAMATE DECARBOXYLASE 65 ANTIBODY; HLA DQ2 ANTIGEN; HLA DQ8 ANTIGEN; HLA DQB1 ANTIGEN; IA ANTIGEN; INSULIN; INSULIN ANTIBODY; PANCREAS ISLET CELL ANTIBODY;

ANTIBODY RESPONSE; ANTIGEN PRESENTATION; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; AUTOIMMUNITY; CELL KILLING; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE COURSE; GENETIC RISK; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GENOTYPE; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HLA SYSTEM; HUMAN; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; INSULIN TREATMENT; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; ONSET AGE; PANCREAS ISLET BETA CELL; PANCREAS ISLET CELL; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; SEROCONVERSION; STANDARDIZATION;

AUTOANTIBODIES; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1; EPITOPES; HLA ANTIGENS; HUMANS; ISLETS OF LANGERHANS; MODELS, IMMUNOLOGICAL;

EID: 33644750399     PISSN: 00121797     EISSN: 00121797     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2337/diabetes.54.suppl_2.S52     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Bottazzo GF, Florin-Christensen A, Doniach D: Islet cell antibodies in diabetes mellitus with autoimmune polyendocrine deficiencies. Lancet 2:1279-1283, 1974
2. Gilliam LK, Palmer JP, Lernmark Å: Autoantibodies and the disease process of type 1 diabetes mellitus. In Diabetes Mellitus: A Fundamental and Clinical Text. 3rd ed. LeRoith D, Taylor SI, Olefsky JM, Eds. Philadelphia, Lippincott, 2004, p. 499-518
3. Mansson L, Torn C, Landin-Olsson M: Islet cell antibodies represent autoimmune response against several antigens. Int J Exp Diabetes Res 2:85-90, 2001
4. Notkins AL, Lernmark Å: Autoimmune type 1 diabetes: resolved and unresolved issues. J Clin Invest 108:1247-1252, 2001
5. Ochs H, Davis S, Wedgwood R: Immunologic responses to bacteriophage ØX174 in immunodeficiency diseases. J Clin Invest 50:2559-2568, 1971
6. Mathis D, Vence L, Benoist C: Beta-cell death during progression to diabetes. Nature 414:792-798, 2001
7. Hoppu S, Ronkainen MS, Kulmala P, Akerblom HK, Knip M: GAD65 antibody isotypes and epitope recognition during the prediabetic process in siblings of children with type I diabetes. Clin Exp Immunol 136:120-128, 2004
8. Achenbach P, Warncke K, Reiter J, Naserke HE, Williams AJ, Bingley PJ, Bonifacio E, Ziegler AG: Stratification of type 1 diabetes risk on the basis of islet autoantibody characteristics. Diabetes 53:384-392, 2004
9. Kimpimaki T, Kupila A, Hamalainen AM, Kukko M, Kulmala P, Savola K, Simell T, Keskinen P, Ilonen J, Simell O, Knip M: The first signs of beta-cell autoimmunity appear in infancy in genetically susceptible children from the general population: the Finnish Type 1 Diabetes Prediction and Prevention Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4782-4788, 2001
10. Rewers M, Bugawan TL, Norris JM, Blair A, Beaty B, Hoffman M, McDuffie RS Jr, Hamman RF, Klingensmith G, Eisenbarth GS, Erlich HA: Newborn screening for HLA markers associated with IDDM: Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY). Diabetologia 39:807-812, 1996
11. Ziegler AG, Hummel M, Schenker M, Bonifacio E: Autoantibody appearance and risk for development of childhood diabetes in offspring of parents with type 1 diabetes: the 2-year analysis of the German BABYDIAB Study. Diabetes 48:460-468, 1999
12. Lanzavecchia A: Receptor-mediated antigen uptake and its effect on antigen presentation to class 11-restricted T lymphocytes. Annu Rev Immunol 8:773-793, 1990
13. Riley WJ, Maclaren NK, Krischer J, Spillar RP, Silverstein JH, Schatz DA, Schwartz S, Malone J, Shah S, Vadheim C, Rotter JI: A prospective study of the development of diabetes in relatives of patients with insulin-dependent diabetes. N Engl J Med 323:1167-1172, 1990
14. Verge CF, Gianani R, Kawasaki E, Yu L, Pietropaolo M, Jackson RA, Chase HP, Eisenbarth GS: Prediction of type I diabetes in first-degree relatives using a combination of insulin, GAD, and ICA512bdc/IA-2 autoantibodies. Diabetes 45:926-933, 1996
15. Bingley PJ, Bonifacio E, Williams AJK, Genovese S, Bottazzo GF, Gale EAM: Prediction of IDDM in the general population: strategies based on combinations of autoantibody markers. Diabetes 46:1701-1710, 1997
16. Gardner SG, Gale EA, Williams AJ, Gillespie KM, Lawrence KE, Bottazzo GF, Bingley PJ: Progression to diabetes in relatives with islet autoantibodies: is it inevitable? Diabetes Care 22:2049-2054, 1999
17. Graham J, Hagopian WA, Kockum I, Li LS, Sanjeevi CB, Lowe RM, Schaefer JB, Zarghami M, Day HL, Landin-Olsson M, Palmer JP, Janer-Villanueva M, Hood L, Sundkvist G, Lernmark Å, Breslow N, Dahlquist G, Blohme G: Genetic effects on age-dependent onset and islet cell autoantibody markers in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 51:1346-1355, 2002
18. Feeney SJ, Myers MA, Mackay IR, Zimmet PZ, Howard N, Verge CF, Rowley MJ: Evaluation of ICA512As in combination with other islet cell autoantibodies at the onset of IDDM. Diabetes Care 20:1403-1407, 1997
19. Karvonen M, Pitkaniemi M, Pitkaniemi J, Kohtamaki K, Tajima N, Tuomilehto J: Sex difference in the incidence of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: an analysis of the recent epidemiological data: World Health Organization DIAMOND Project Group. Diabete Metab Rev 13:275-291, 1997
20. Greenbaum CJ, Sears KL, Kahn SE, Palmer JP: Relationship of beta-cell function and autoantibodies to progression and nonprogression of subclinical type 1 diabetes: follow-up of the Seattle Family Study. Diabetes 48:170-175, 1999
21. Krischer JP, Cuthbertson DD, Yu L, Orban T, Maclaren N, Jackson R, Winter WE, Schatz DA, Palmer JP, Eisenbarth GS: Screening strategies for the identification of multiple antibody-positive relatives of individuals with type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:103-108, 2003
22. DPT-1 Study Group: Effects of insulin in relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 346:1685-1691, 2002
23. Gale EA, Bingley PJ, Emmett CL, Collier T: European Nicotinamide Diabetes Intervention Trial (ENDIT): a randomised controlled trial of intervention before the onset of type 1 diabetes. Lancet 363:925-931, 2004
24. Knip M: Natural course of preclinical type 1 diabetes. Horm Res 57:6-11, 2002
25. Hagopian WA, Sanjeevi CB, Kockum I, Landin-Olsson M, Karlsen AE, Sundkvist G, Dahlquist G, Palmer J, Lernmark Å: Glutamate decarboxylase-, insulin- and islet cell-antibodies and HLA typing to detect diabetes in a general population-based study of Swedish children. J Clin Invest 95:1505-1511, 1995
26. Kupila A, Muona P, Simell T, Arvilommi P, Savolainen H, Hamalainen A, Korhonen S, Kimpimaki T, Sjoroos M, Ilonen J, Knip M, Simell O: Feasibility of genetic and immunological prediction of type I diabetes in a population-based birth cohort. Diabetologia 44:290-297, 2001
27. Kimpimaki T, Kulmala P, Savola K, Kupila A, Korhonen S, Simell T, Ilonen J, Simell O, Knip M: Natural history of β-cell autoimmunity in young children with increased genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes recruited from the general population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:4572-4579, 2002
28. Keskinen P, Korhonen S, Kupila A, Veijola R, Erkkila S, Savolainen H, Arvilommi P, Simell T, Ilonen J, Knip M, Simell O: First-phase insulin response in young healthy children at genetic and immunological risk for type I diabetes. Diabetologia 45:1639-1648, 2002
29. Warram JH, Krolewski AS, Gottlieb MS, Kahn CR: Differences in risk of insulin-dependent diabetes in offspring of diabetic mothers and diabetic fathers. N Engl J Med 311:149-152, 1984
30. Koczwara K, Bonifacio E, Ziegler AG: Transmission of maternal islet antibodies and risk of autoimmune diabetes in offspring of mothers with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 53:1-4, 2004
31. Ziegler AG, Schmid S, Huber D, Hummel M, Bonifacio E: Early infant feeding and risk of developing type 1 diabetes-associated autoantibodies. JAMA 290:1721-1728, 2003
32. Virtanen SM, Knip M: Nutritional risk predictors of beta cell autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes at a young age. Am J Clin Nutr 78:1053-1067, 2003
33. Norris JM, Barriga K, Klingensmith G, Hoffman M, Eisenbarth GS, Erlich HA, Rewers M: Timing of initial cereal exposure in infancy and risk of islet autoimmunity. JAMA 290:1713-1720, 2003
34. Barker JM, Barriga KJ, Yu L, Miao D, Erlich HA, Norris JM, Eisenbarth GS, Rewers M: Prediction of autoantibody positivity and progression to type 1 diabetes: Diabetes Autoimmunity Study in the Young (DAISY). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3896-3902, 2004
35. Bingley PJ, Bonifacio E, Mueller PW: Diabetes Antibody Standardization Program: first assay proficiency evaluation. Diabetes 52:1128-1136, 2003
36. Eisenbarth GS, Moriyama H, Robles DT, Liu E, Yu L, Babu S, Redondo M, Gottlieb P, Wegmann D, Rewers M: Insulin autoimmunity: prediction/precipitation/ prevention type 1A diabetes. Autoimmun Rev 1:139-145, 2002
37. Schatz D, Muir A, Fuller K, Atkinson MA, Crockett S, Huang H: Prospective assessment in newborns for diabetes autoimmunity (PANDA): a newborn screening program in the general population of Florida (Abstract). Diabetes 49:A67, 2000
38. Wion E, Brantley M, Stevens J, Gallinger S, Peng H, Glass M, Hagopian W: Population-wide infant screening for HLA-based type 1 diabetes risk via dried blood spots from the public health infrastructure. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1005:400-403, 2003
39. Berzina L, Shtauvere-Brameus A, Ludvigsson J, Sanjeevi CB: Newborn screening for high-risk human leukocyte antigen markers associated with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: the ABIS study. Ann N Y Acad Sci 958:312-316, 2002
40. Larsson K, Elding-Larsson H, Cederwall E, Kockum K, Neiderud J, Sjoblad S, Lindberg B, Lernmark B, Cilio C, Ivarsson SA, Lernmark Å: Genetic and perinatal factors as risk for childhood type 1 diabetes. Diabete Metab Res Rev 20:429-437, 2004
41. Knip M: Environmental triggers and determinants of beta-cell autoimmunity and type 1 diabetes. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 4:213-223, 2003
42. Pugliese A: Genetics of type 1 diabetes. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 33:1-16, 2004
43. Knip M, Kukko M, Kulmala P, Veijola R, Simell O, Akerblom HK, Ilonen J: Humoral beta-cell autoimmunity in relation to HLA-defined disease susceptibility in preclinical and clinical type 1 diabetes. Am J Med Genet 115:48-54, 2002
44. Savola K, Bonifacio E, Sabbah E, Kulmala P, Vahasalo P, Karjalainen J, Tuomilehto-Wolf E, Merilainen J, Åkerblom H, Knip M: IA-2 antibodies: a sensitive marker of IDDM with clinical onset in childhood and adolescence. Diabetologia 41:424-429, 1998
45. Ziegler R, Alper CA, Awdeh ZL, Castano L, Brink SJ, Soeldner JS, Jackson RA, Eisenbarth GS: Specific association of HLA-DR4 with increased prevalence and level of insulin autoantibodies in first-degree relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 40:709-714, 1991
46. American Diabetes Association: Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 28 (Suppl. 1):S37-S42, 2005
47. Winter WE, Harris N, Schatz DA: Type 1 diabetes islet autoantibody markers. Diabetes Technol Ther 4:817-839, 2002
48. Kawasaki E, Takino H, Yano M, Uotani S, Matsumoto K, Takao Y, Yamaguchi Y, Akazawa S, Nagataki S: Autoantibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase in patients with IDDM and autoimmune thyroid disease. Diabetes 43:80-86, 1994
49. Komulainen J, Kulmala P, Savola K, Lounamaa R, Ilonen J, Reijonen H, Knip M, Akerblom HK: Clinical, autoimmune, and genetic characteristics of very young children with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 22:1950-1955, 1999
50. Yu L, Robles DT, Abiru N, Kaur P, Rewers M, Kelemen K, Eisenbarth GS: Early expression of antiinsulin autoantibodies of humans and the NOD mouse: evidence for early determination of subsequent diabetes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97:1701-1706, 2000
51. Blohmé G, Nyström L, Arnqvist HJ, Lithner F, Littorin B, Olsson PO, Scherstén B, Wibell L, Ostman J: Male predominance of type 1 (insulindependent) diabetes mellitus in young adult: results from a 5-year prospective nationwide study of the 15-34 year age group in Sweden. Diabetologia 35:55-62, 1992
52. Green A, Patterson CC: Trends in the incidence of childhood-onset diabetes in Europe 1989-1998. Diabetologia 44:B3-B8, 2001
53. Onkamo P, Vaananen S, Karvonen M, Tuomilehto J: Worldwide increase in incidence of type I diabetes: the analysis of the data on published incidence trends. Diabetologia 42:1395-1403, 1999
54. Hathout EH, Hartwick N, Fagoaga OR, Colacino AR, Sharkey J, Racine M, Nelsen-Cannarella S, Mace JW: Clinical, autoimmune, and HLA characteristics of children diagnosed with type 1 diabetes before 5 years of age. Pediatrics 111:860-863, 2003
55. Scott CR, Smith JM, Cradock MM, Pihoker C: Characteristics of youth-onset noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus at diagnosis. Pediatrics 100:84-91, 1997
56. Fagot-Campagna A, Pettitt DJ, Engelgau MM, Burrows NR, Geiss LS, Valdez R, Beckles GL, Saaddine J, Gregg EW, Williamson DF, Narayan KM: Type 2 diabetes among North American children and adolescents: an epidemiologic review and a public health perspective. J Pediatr 136:664-672, 2000
57. Brooks-Worrell BM, Greenbaum CJ, Palmer JP, Pihoker C: Autoimmunity to islet proteins in children diagnosed with new-onset diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:2222-2227, 2004
58. Hagopian WA, Karlsen AE, Gottsater A, Landin-Olsson M, Grubin CE, Sundkvist G, Petersen JS, Boel E, Dyrberg T, Lernmark Å: Quantitative assay using recombinant human islet glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD-64) showed 64K autoantibody positivity at onset predicts diabetes type. J Clin Invest 91:368-374, 1993
59. Hamaguchi K, Kimura A, Kusuda Y, Yamashita T, Yasunami M, Takahasi M, Abe N, Yoshimatsu H: Clinical and genetic characteristics of GAD-antibody positive patients initially diagnosed as having type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 66:163-171, 2004
60. Naik RG, Palmer JP: Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA). Rev Endocr Metab Disord 4:233-241, 2003
61. Tuomi T, Carlsson A, Li H, Isomaa B, Miettinen A, Nilsson A, Nissen M, Ehrnstrom BO, Forsen B, Snickars B, Lahti K, Forsblom C, Saloranta C, Taskinen MR, Groop LC: Clinical and genetic characteristics of type 2 diabetes with and without GAD antibodies. Diabetes 48:150-157, 1999
62. Borg H, Gottsater A, Fernlund P, Sundkvist G: A 12-year prospective study of the relationship between islet antibodies and beta-cell function at and after the diagnosis in patients with adult-onset diabetes. Diabetes 51:1754-1762, 2002
63. Örtqvist E, Falorni A, Scheynius A, Persson B, Lernmark Å: Age governs gender-dependent islet cell autoreactivity and predicts the clinical course in childhood IDDM. Acta Pediatr 86:1166-1171, 1997
64. Hathout EH, Thomas W, El-Shahawy M, Nahab F, Mace JW: Diabetic autoimmune markers in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes. Pediatrics 107:102-105, 2001
65. SEARCH Writing Group: SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth: a multicenter study of the prevalence, incidence and classification of diabetes mellitus in youth. Control Clin Trials 25:458-471, 2004
66. Bingley PJ, Christie MR, Bonifacio E, Bonifanti R, Shattock M, Fonte MT, Bottazzo GF, Gale EA: Combined analysis of autoantibodies improves prediction of IDDM in islet cell antibody-positive relatives. Diabetes 43:1304-1310, 1994
67. Kulmala P, Savola K, Petersen JS, Vahasalo P, Karjalainen J, Lopponen T, Dyrberg T, Akerblom HK, Knip M: Prediction of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in siblings of children with diabetes: a population-based study. J Clin Invest 101:327-336, 1998
68. Verge CF, Gianani R, Kawasaki E, Yu L, Pietropaolo M, Chase HP, Eisenbarth GS: Number of autoantibodies (against insulin, GAD or ICA512/IA2) rather than particular autoantibody specificities determines risk of type I diabetes. J Autoimmun 9:379-383, 1996
69. Savola K, Laara E, Vahasalo P, Kulmala P, Akerblom HK, Knip M: Dynamic pattern of disease-associated autoantibodies in siblings of children with type 1 diabetes: a population-based study. Diabetes 50:2625-2632, 2001
70. Bonifacio E, Lampasona V, Bingley PJ: IA-2 (islet cell antigen 512) is the primary target of humoral autoimmunity against type 1 diabetes-associated tyrosine phosphatase autoantigens. J Immunol 161:2648-2654, 1998
71. Lampasona V, Bearzatto M, Genovese S, Bosi E, Ferrari M, Bonifacio E: Autoantibodies in insulin-dependent diabetes recognize distinct cytoplasmic domains of the protein tyrosine phosphatase-like IA-2 autoantigen. J Immunol 157:2707-2711, 1996
72. Lan MS, Wasserfall C, Maclaren NK, Notkins AL: IA-2, a transmembrane protein of the protein tyrosine phosphatase family, is a major autoantigen in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93:6367-6370, 1996
73. Lu J, Li Q, Xie H, Chen ZJ, Borovitskaya AE, Maclaren NK, Notkins AL, Lan MS: Identification of a second transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase, IA-2beta, as an autoantigen in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: precursor of the 37-kDa tryptic fragment. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93:2307-2311, 1996
74. Kawasaki E, Yu L, Gianani R, Verge CF, Babu S, Bonifacio E, Eisenbarth GS: Evaluation of islet cell antigen (ICA) 512/IA-2 autoantibody radioassays using overlapping ICA512/IA-2 constructs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:375-380, 1997
75. Kawasaki E, Yu L, Rewers MJ, Hutton JC, Eisenbarth GS: Definition of multiple ICA512/phogrin autoantibody epitopes and detection of intramolecular epitope spreading in relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 47:733-742, 1998
76. Kolm-Litty V, Berlo S, Bonifacio E, Bearzatto M, Engel AM, Christie M, Ziegler AG, Wild T, Endl J: Human monoclonal antibodies isolated from type I diabetes patients define multiple epitopes in the protein tyrosine phosphatase-like IA-2 antigen. J Immunol 165:4676-4684, 2000
77. Dromey JA, Weenink SM, Peters GH, Endl J, Tighe PJ, Todd I, Christie MR: Mapping of epitopes for autoantibodies to the type 1 diabetes autoantigen IA-2 by peptide phage display and molecular modeling: overlap of antibody and T cell determinants. J Immunol 172:4084-4090, 2004
78. Naserke HE, Ziegler AG, Lampasona V, Bonifacio E: Early development and spreading of autoantibodies to epitopes of IA-2 and their association with progression to type 1 diabetes. J Immunol 161:6963-6969, 1998
79. Solimena M, Dirkx R Jr, Hermel JM, Pleasic WS, Shapiro JA, Caron L, Rabin DU: ICA 512, an autoantigen of type I diabetes, is an intrinsic membrane protein of neurosecretory granules. EMBO J 15:2102-2114, 1996
80. Bearzatto M, Naserke H, Piquer S, Koczwara K, Lampasona V, Williams A, Christie MR, Bingley PJ, Ziegler AG, Bonifacio E: Two distinctly HLA-associated contiguous linear epitopes uniquely expressed within the islet antigen 2 molecule are major autoantibody epitopes of the diabetes-specific tyrosine phosphatase-like protein autoantigens. J Immunol 168:4202-4208, 2002
81. Seissler J, Schott M, Morgenthaler NG, Scherbaum WA: Mapping of novel autoreactive epitopes of the diabetes-associated autoantigen IA-2. Clin Exp Immunol 122:157-163, 2000
82. Zhang B, Lan MS, Notkins AL: Autoantibodies to IA-2 in IDDM: location of major antigenic determinants. Diabetes 46:40-43, 1997
83. Miao D, Yu L, Tiberti C, Cuthbertson DD, Rewers M, di Mario U, Eisenbarth GS, Dotta F: ICA512(IA-2) epitope specific assays distinguish transient from diabetes associated autoantibodies. J Autoimmun 18:191-196, 2002
84. Falorni A, Gambelunghe G, Forini F, Kassi G, Cosentino A, Candeloro P, Bolli GB, Brunetti P, Calcinaro F: Autoantibody recognition of COOH-terminal epitopes of GAD65 marks the risk for insulin requirement in adult-onset diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:309-316, 2000
85. Bonifacio E, Lampasona V, Bernasconi L, Ziegler AG: Maturation of the humoral autoimmune response to epitopes of GAD in preclinical childhood type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 49:202-208, 2000
86. Hampe CS, Hammerle LP, Bekris L, Ortqvist E, Kockum I, Rolandsson O, Landin-Olsson M, Torn C, Persson B, Lernmark Å: Recognition of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) by autoantibodies from different GAD antibody-positive phenotypes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:4671-4679, 2000
87. Bjork E, Velloso LA, Kampe O, Karlsson FA: GAD autoantibodies in IDDM, stiff-man syndrome, and autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I recognize different epitopes. Diabetes 43:161-165, 1994
88. Kobayashi T, Tanaka S, Okubo M, Nakanishi K, Murase T, Lernmark Å: Unique epitopes of glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies in slowly progressive type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:4768-4775, 2003
89. Hampe CS, Ortqvist E, Persson B, Schranz DB, Lernmark Å: Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) autoantibody epitope shift during the first year of type 1 diabetes. Horm Metab Res 31:553-557, 1999
90. Sohnlein P, Muller M, Syren K, Hartmann U, Bohm BO, Meinck HM, Knip M, Akerblom HK, Richter W: Epitope spreading and a varying but not disease-specific GAD65 antibody response in type I diabetes: the Childhood Diabetes in Finland Study Group. Diabetologia 43:210-217, 2000
91. Gilliam LK, Binder KA, Banga JP, Madec AM, Ortqvist E, Kockum I, Luo D, Hampe CS: Multiplicity of the antibody response to GAD65 in type I diabetes. Clin Exp Immunol 138:337-341, 2004
92. Padoa C, Banga JP, Madec AM, Ziegler M, Schlosser M, Ortqvist E, Kockum I, Palmer J, Rolandsson O, Binder KA, Foote J, Hampe CS: Recombinant Fab of human mAbs specific to the middle epitope of GAD65 inhibit type 1 diabetes-specific GAD65Ab. Diabetes 52:2689-2695, 2003
93. Binder KA, Banga JP, Madec AM, Ortqvist E, Luo D, Hampe CS: Epitope analysis of GAD65Ab using fusion proteins and rFab. J Immunol Methods 295:101-109, 2004
94. Richter W, Eiermann TH, Endl J, Seissler J, Wolfahrt S, Brandt M, Jungfer H, Scherbaum WA: Human monoclonal islet specific autoantibodies share features of islet cell and 64 kDa antibodies. Diabetologia 36:785-790, 1993
95. Goldsby RA: Immunoglobulins: structure and function. In Immunology. Kuby J, Goldsby RA, Osborne BA, Eds. New York, W.H. Freeman, 2000, p. 95-96
96. Papoian R, Pillarisetty R, Talal N: Immunological regulation of spontaneous antibodies to DNA and RNA. II. Sequential switch from IgM to IgG in NZB/NZW F1 mice. Immunology 32:75-79, 1977
97. Peng SL, Szabo SJ, Glimcher LH: T-bet regulates IgG class switching and pathogenic autoantibody production. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:5545-5550, 2002
98. George J, Schoenfeld Y: Natural autoantibodies. In Autoantibodies. Peter JB, Shoenfeld Y, Eds. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 1996, p. 534-539
99. Steward MW, Hay FC: Changes in immunoglobulin class and subclass of anti-DNA antibodies with increasing age in N/ZBW F1 hybrid mice. Clin Exp Immunol 26:363-370, 1976
100. Tao X, Constant S, Jorritsma P, Bottomly K: Strength of TCR signal determines the costimulatory requirements for Th1 and Th2 CD4+ T cell differentiation. J Immunol 159:5956-5963, 1997
101. Langhorne J, Cross C, Seixas E, Li C, von der Weid T: A role for B cells in the development of T cell helper function in a malaria infection in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95:1730-1734, 1998
102. Gascan H, Gauchat JF, Roncarolo MG, Yssel H, Spits H, de Vries JE: Human B cell clones can be induced to proliferate and to switch to IgE and IgG4 synthesis by interleukin 4 and a signal provided by activated CD4 T cell clones. J Exp Med 173:747-750, 1991
103. Cocks BG, de Waal Malefyt R, Galizzi JP, de Vries JE, Aversa G: IL-13 induces proliferation and differentiation of human B cells activated by the CD40 ligand. Int Immunol 5:657-663, 1993
104. Malisan F, Briere F, Bridon JM, Harindranath N, Mills FC, Max EE, Banchereau J, Martinez-Valdez H: Interleukin-10 induces immunoglobulin G isotype switch recombination in human CD40-activated naive B lymphocytes. J Exp Med 183:937-947, 1996
105. Fujieda S, Saxon A, Zhang K: Direct evidence that gamma 1 and gamma 3 switching in human B cells is interleukin-10 dependent. Mol Immunol 33:1335-1343, 1996
106. Defrance T, Vanbervliet B, Briere F, Durand I, Rousset F, Banchereau J: Interleukin 10 and transforming growth factor beta cooperate to induce anti-CD40-activated naive human B cells to secrete immunoglobulin A. J Exp Med 175:671-682, 1992
107. Zan H, Cerutti A, Dramitinos P, Schaffer A, Casali P: CD40 engagement triggers switching to IgA1 and IgA2 in human B cells through induction of endogenous TGF-beta: evidence for TGF-beta but not IL-10-dependent direct S mu→S alpha and sequential S mu→S gamma, S gamma→S alpha DNA recombination. J Immunol 161:5217-5225, 1998
108. Bonifacio E, Scirpoli M, Kredel K, Fuchtenbusch M, Ziegler AG: Early autoantibody responses in prediabetes are IgG1 dominated and suggest antigen-specific regulation. J Immunol 163:525-532, 1999
109. Hawa MI, Fava D, Medici F, Deng YJ, Notkins AL, De Mattia G, Leslie RD: Antibodies to IA-2 and GAD65 in type 1 and type 2 diabetes: isotype restriction and polyclonality. Diabetes Care 23:228-233, 2000
110. Hoppu S, Ronkainen MS, Kimpimaki T, Simell S, Korhonen S, Ilonen J, Simell O, Knip M: Insulin autoantibody isotypes during the prediabetic process in young children with increased genetic risk of type 1 diabetes. Pediatr Res 55:236-242, 2004