Biology, persistence and detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium hominis oocyst

Water Research

Volumn 38, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 818-862

  Carey, C M ^a   Lee, H ^a   Trevors, J T ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cryptosporidium hominis; Cryptosporidium parvum; Disinfection; Infectivity; PCR; Viability

Indexed keywords

CHLORINATION; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM; DISEASES; POTABLE WATER; PROTOZOA;

CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT INFECTION; WATERBORNE PETHOGENS;

WATER TREATMENT;

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; OZONE;

DETECTION METHOD; DISINFECTION; DRINKING WATER; MICROORGANISM; PARASITE; WATER QUALITY; WATER SUPPLY;

CHLORINATION; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM HOMINIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM; DISINFECTION; GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTION; GIARDIA LAMBLIA; HUMAN; MICROORGANISM DETECTION; NONHUMAN; OOCYST; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PURIFICATION; REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW; SAFETY; SEWAGE TREATMENT; WATER SAMPLING; WATER SUPPLY; WATER TREATMENT;

ANIMALIA; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM HOMINIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM; GIARDIA INTESTINALIS; PROTOZOA;

EID: 0842303098     PISSN: 00431354     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2003.10.012     Document Type: Article

References (263)

1. Rose J.B. Occurrence and significance of Cryptosporidium in water. J Am Water Works Assoc. 80(2):1988;53-58.
2. Gostin L.O., Lazzarini Z., Neslund V.S., Osterholm M.T. Water quality laws and waterborne diseases. Cryptosporidium and other emerging pathogens Am J Public Health. 90(6):2000;847-853.
3. Smith H.V., Rose J.B. Waterborne cryptosporidiosis. Parasitol Today. 6:1990;8-12.
4. Carreno R.A., Pokorny N.J., Lee H., Trevors J.T., DeGrandis S.A. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of Cryptosporidium species and isolate. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 26(3):2001;95-106.
5. Carreno R.A., Pokorny N.J., Weir S.C., Lee H., Trevors J.T. Decrease in Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst infectivity in vitro by using the membrane filter dissolution method for recovering oocysts from water samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 67(7):2001;3309-3313.
6. Egyed Z., Sréter T., Varga I. Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. - recent developments and future needs. Vet Parasitol. 111:2003;103-114.
7. Fayer R., Farley C.A., Lewis E.J., Trout J.M., Graczyk T.K. Potential role of the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in the epidemiology of Cryptosporidium parvum. Appl Environ Microbiol. 63(5):1997;2086-2088.
8. Fayer R., Morgan U., Upton S.J. Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium. transmission, detection and identification Int J Parasitol. 30(12-13):2000;1305- 1322.
9. Fayer R., Trout J.M., Xiao L., Morgan U., Lal A.A., Dubey J.P. Cryptosporidium canis n. sp. from domestic dogs. J Parasitol. 87:2001;1415-1422.
10. Morgan-Ryan U.M., Fall A., Ward L.A., Hijjawi N., Sulaiman I.M., Fayer R., Thompson R.C.A., Olson M.E., Lal A.A., Xiao L. Cryptosporidium hominis n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from Homo sapiens. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 49(6):2002;433-440.
11. Rose J.B., Huffman D.E., Gennaccaro A. Risk and control of waterborne cryptosporidiosis. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 26(2):2002;113-123.
12. Xiao L., Morgan U., Fayer R., Thompson R.C.A., Lal A.A. Cryptosporidium systematics and implications for public health. Parasitol Today. 16(7):2000;287-292.
13. Xiao L., Bern C., Limor J.R., Sulaiman I.M., Roberts J., Checkley W., Cabrera L., Gilman R.H., Lal A.A. Identification of 5 types of Cryptosporidium parasites in children in Lima, Peru. J Infect Dis. 183:2001;492-497.
14. Xiao L., Limor J.R., Morgan U., Sulaiman I.M., Thompson R.C.A., Lal A.A. Sequence differences in the diagnostic target region of the oocyst wall protein gene of Cryptosporidium parasites. Appl Environ Microbiol. 66(12):2001;5499- 5502.
15. Fall A., Thompson R.C.A., Hobbs R.P., Morgan-Ryan U.M. Morphology is not a reliable tool for delineating species within Cryptosporidium. J Parasitol. 89(2):2003;399-402.
16. Ong C.S.L., Eisler D.L., Alikhani A., Fung V.W.K., Tomblin J., Bowie W.R., Issac-Renton J.L. Novel Cryptosporidium genotypes specific in sporadic cryptosporidiosis cases. first report of human infections with a cervine genotype Emerg Infect Dis. 8(3):2002;263-268.
17. Okhuysen P.C., Chappell C.L. Cryptosporidium virulence determinants - are we there yet? Int J Parasitol. 32:2002;517-525.
18. O'Donoghue P. Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in man and animals. Int J Parasitol. 25(2):1995;139-195.
19. Tzipori S. Cryptosporidiosis in animals and humans. Microbiol Rev. 47(1):1983;84-96.
20. Fayer R., Ungar B.L. Cryptosporidium spp. and Cryptosporidiosis. Microbiol Rev. 50(4):1986;458-483.
21. Pozio E., Gomez Morales A., Mancini Barbieri F., La Rosa G. Cryptosporidium. different behaviour in calves of isolates of human origin Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 86(6):1992;636-638.
22. Lumb R., Smith K., O'Donoghue P., Lanser J.A. Ultrastructure of the attachment of Cryptosporidium sporozoites to tissue culture cells. Parasitol Res. 74(6):1988;531-536.
23. McLauchlin J., Casemore D.P., Moran S., Patel S. The epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis. application of experimental sub-typing and antibody detection systems to the investigation of waterborne outbreaks Folia Parasitol. 45(2):1998;83-92.
24. Sturbaum G.D., Jost B.H., Sterling C.R. Nucleotide changes within three Cryptosporidium parvum surface protein encoding genes differentiate genotype I from genotype II isolates. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 128:2003;87-90.
25. Nichols G., McLauchlin J., Samuel D. A technique for typing Cryptosporidium isolates. J Protozool. 38(6):1991;237S-240S.
26. Awad-El-Kariem F.M., Warhurst D.C., McDonald V. Detection and species identification of Cryptosporidium oocysts using a system based on PCR and endonuclease restriction. Parasitology. 109(Part 1):1994;19-22.
27. Blears M.J., Pokorny N.J., Carreno R.A., Chen S., De Grandis S.A., Lee H., Trevors J.T. DNA fingerprinting of Cryptosporidium parvum isolates using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). J Parasitol. 86(4):2000;838-841.
28. Bonnin A., Fourmaux M.N., Dubremetz J.F., Nelson R.G., Gobet P., Harly G., Buisson M., Puygauthier-Toubas D., Gabriel-Pospisil G., Naciri M., Camerlynck P. Genotyping human and bovine isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of a repetitive DNA sequence. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 137(2-3):1996;207-211.
29. Reduker D.W., Speer C.A., Blixt J.A. Ultrastructure of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and excysting sporozoites as revealed by high resolution scanning electron microscopy. J Protozool. 32(4):1985;708-711.
30. Tzipori S, Widmer G. The biology of Cryptosporidium. In: Petry F, editor. Cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis, vol. 6. S. Kargar AG; 2000 New York. p. 1-32.
31. Cevallos A., Bhat N., Verdon R., Hamer D., Stein B., Tzipori S., Pereira M.G., Keusch G., Ward H. Mediation of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in vitro by mucin-like glycoproteins defined by a neutralizing monoclonal antibody. Infect Immun. 68(9):2000;5167-5175.
32. r Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoite glycoprotein recognized by protective hyperimmune bovine colostral immunoglobulin. Infect Immun. 60(12):1992;5132-5138.
33. Enriquez F.J., Riggs M.W. Role of immunoglobulin A monoclonal antibodies against P23 in controlling murine Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Infect Immun. 66:1998;4469-4473.
34. Langer R.C., Riggs M.W. Cryptosporidium parvum apical complex glycoprotein CSL contains a sporozoite ligand for intestinal epithelial cells. Infect Immun. 67(10):1999;5282-5291.
35. Langer R.C., Schaefer D.A., Riggs M.W. Characterization of an intestinal epithelial cell receptor recognized by the Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoite ligand CSL. Infect Immun. 69(3):2001;1661-1670.
36. Kappe S., Bruderer T., Gantt S., Fujioka H., Nussenzweig V., Ménard R. Conservation of a gliding motility and cell invasion machinery in apicomplexan parasites. J Cell Biol. 147(5):1999;937-943.
37. Sagodira S., Buzoni-Gatel D., Iochmann S., Naciri M., Bout D. Protection of kids against Cryptosporidium parvum infection after immunization of dams with CP15-DNA. Vaccine. 17:1999;2346-2355.
38. Nesterenko M.V., Woods K.M., Upton S.J. Receptor/ligand interactions between Cryptosporidium parvum and the surface of the host cell. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1454:1999;165-173.
39. Current W.L., Garcia L.S. Cryptosporidiosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 4(3):1991;325-358.
40. Mac Kenzie W.R., Hoxie N.J., Proctor M.E., Gradus M.S., Blair K.A., Peterson D.E., Kazmierczak J.J., Addiss D.G., Fox K.R., Rose J.B., Davis J.P. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 331(3):1994;161-167.
41. DuPont J., Chappell C.L., Sterling C.R., Okhuysen P.C., Rose J.B., Jakubowski W. The infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers. N Engl J Med. 332(13):1995;855-859.
42. Haas CN, Rose JB. Reconciliation of microbial risk models and outbreak epidemiology: the case of the Milwaukee outbreak. In: Proceeding of the 1994 Annual Conference: Water Quality. Published in New York, 1994. American Water Works Assoc. pp. 517-23.
43. Graczyk T.K., Grimes B.H., Knight R., Da Silva A.J., Pieniazek N.J., Veal D.A. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia carried by synanthropic flies by combined fluorescent in situ hybridization and a monoclonal antibody. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 68(2):2003;228-232.
44. Smith H.V. Detection of parasites in the environment. Parasitology. 117(7):1998;S113-S141.
45. Bell A., Guasparini R., Meeds D., Mathias R.G., Farley J.D. A swimming pool-associated outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in British Columbia. Can J Public Health. 84(5):1993;334-337.
46. Rose J.B. Environmental ecology of Cryptosporidium and public health implications. Annu Rev Public Health. 18:1997;135-161.
47. Millard P.S., Gensheimer K.F., Addiss D.G., Sosin D.M., Beckett G.A., Houck-Jankoski A., Hudson A. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis from fresh-pressed apple cider. J Am Med Assoc. 272(20):1994;1592-1596.
48. Soave R., Ma P. Cryptosporidiosis. traveler's diarrhea in two families Arch Int Med. 145(1):1985;70-72.
49. Branch of Population and Public Health. Waterborne cryptosporidiosis outbreak, North Battleford, Saskatchewan, Spring 2001. Can. Comm. Dis. Rep. 27.
50. Wallis P.M., Erlandsen S.L., Isaac-Renton J.L., Olson M.E., Robertson W.J., van Keulen H. Prevalence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts and characterization of Giardia spp. isolated from drinking water in Canada. Appl Environ Microbiol. 62(8):1996;2789-2797.
51. Gennaccaro A., McLaughlin M.R., Quintero-Betancourt W., Huffman D.E., Rose J.B. Infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in final reclaimed effluent. Appl Environ Microbiol. 69(8):2003;4983-4984.
52. Mitschler R.R., Welti R., Upton S.J. A comparative study of lipid compositions of Cryptosporidium parvum (Apicomplexa). and Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 41(1):1994;8-12.
53. Bonnin A., Dubremetz J.F., Camerlynck P. Characterization and immunolocalization of an oocyst wall antigen of Cryptosporidium parvum (Protozoa: Apicomplexa). Parasitology. 103(Part 2):1991;171-177.
54. Harris J.R., Petry F. Cryptosporidium parvum. structural components of the oocyst wall J Parasitol. 85(5):1999;839-849.
55. Fayer R., Trout J.M., Nerad T. Effects of a wide range of temperatures on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 43(5):1996;64S.
56. Fayer R. Effect of high temperature on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 60(8):1994;2732-2735.
57. Robertson L.J., Campbell A.T., Smith H.V. Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under various environmental pressures. Appl Environ Microbiol. 58(11):1992;3494-3500.
58. Olson M.E., Goh J., Phillips M., Guselle N., McAllister T.A. Giardia cyst and Cryptosporidium oocysts survival in water, soil, and cattle feces. J Environ Qual. 28(6):1999;1991-1996.
59. Pokorny N.J., Weir S.C., Carreno R.A., Trevors J.T., Lee H. Influence of temperature on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst infectivity in river water samples as detected by tissue culture assay. J Parasitol. 88(3):2002;641-643.
60. Fayer R., Graczyk T.K., Lewis E.J., Trout J.M., Farley C.A. Survival of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum in seawater and Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) in the Chesapeake Bay. Appl Environ Microbiol. 64(3):1998;1070-1074.
61. Fayer R., Trout J.M., Jenkins M.C. Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts stored in water at environmental temperatures. J Parasitol. 84(6):1998;1165-1169.
62. Fayer R., Nerad T. Effects of low temperature on viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol. 62(4):1996;1431-1433.
63. Jenkins M.B., Trout J.M., Higgins J.A., Dorsch M., Veal D., Fayer R. Comparison of tests for viable and infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Parasitol Res. 89:2003;1-5.
64. Graczyk T.K., Fayer R., Trout J.M., Jenkins M.C., Higgins J.A., Lewis E.J., Farley C.A. Susceptibility of the Chesapeake Bay to environmental contamination with Cryptosporidium parvum. Environ Res Sec A. 82(2):2000;106-112.
65. Tamburrini A., Pozio E. Long-term survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in seawater and in experimentally infected mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Int J Parasitol. 29(5):1999;711-715.
66. Gómez-Couso H., Freire-Santos F., Martínez-Urtaza J., García-Martin O., Ares-Mazás M.E. Contamination of bivalve molluscs by Cryptosporidium oocysts. the need for new quality control standards Int J Food Microbiol. 87:2003;97-105.
67. O'Handley R.M., Cockwill C., McAllister T.A., Jelinski M., Morck D.W., Olson M.E. Duration of naturally acquired giardiosis and cryptosporidiosis in diary calves and their association with diarrhea. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 214(3):1999;391-396.
68. Dai X., Boll J. Evaluation of attachment of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia to soil particles. J Environ Qual. 32:2003;296-304.
69. Hsu B.M., Yeh H.H. Removal of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in drinking water treatment. a pilot-scale study Water Res. 37:2003;1111-1117.
70. Keegan A.R., Fanok S., Monis P., Saint C.P. Cell culture-Taqman PCR assay for evaluation of Cryptosporidium parvum disinfection. Appl Environ Microbiol. 69(5):2003;2505-2511.
71. Korich D.G., Mead J.R., Madore M.S., Sinclair N.A., Sterling C.R. Effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine and monochloramine on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Appl Environ Microbiol. 56(5):1990;1423-1428.
72. Rennecker J.L., Marinas R.J., Owens J.H., Rice E.W. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts with ozone. Water Res. 33(11):1999;2481-2488.
73. Steiner T.S., Thielman N.M., Guerrant R.L. Protozoal Agents. what are the dangers for the public water supply? Annu Rev Med. 48:1997;329-340.
74. Belosevic M., Craik S.A., Stafford J.L., Neumann N.F., Kruithof J., Smith D.W. Studies on the resistance/reactivation of Giardia muris cysts and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts exposed to medium-pressure ultraviolet radiation. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 204(1):2001;197-203.
75. Shin G.A., Linden K.G., Arrowood M.J., Sobsey M.D. Low-pressure UV inactivation and DNA repair potential of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol. 67(7):2001;3029-3032.
76. Slifko T.R., Huffman D.E., Dussert B.W., Owens J.H., Jakubowski W., Haas C.N., Rose J.B. Comparison of tissue culture and animal models for assessment of Cryptosporidium parvum infection. Exp Parasitol. 101:2002;97-106.
77. Driedger A.M., Rennecker J.L., Marinas B.J. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts with ozone and monochloramine at low temperature. Water Res. 35(1):2001;41-48.
78. Jenkins M.B., Bowman D.D., Ghiorse W.C. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by ammonia. Appl Environ Microbiol. 64(2):1998;784-788.
79. Weir S.C., Pokorny N.J., Carreno R.A., Trevors J.T., Lee H. Efficacy of common laboratory disinfectants on the infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in cell culture. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(5):2002;2576-2579.
80. LeChevallier M.W., Norton W.D. Giardia and Cryptosporidium in raw and finished water. J Am Water Works Assoc. 87(10):1995;54-68.
81. LeChevallier M.W., Norton W.D., Lee R.G. Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in surface water supplies. Appl Environ Microbiol. 57(9):1991;2610-2616.
82. Chauret C., Armstrong N., Fisher J., Sharma R., Springthorpe S., Sattar S. Correlating Cryptosporidium and Giardia with microbial indicators. J Am Water Works Assoc. 87(11):1995;76-84.
83. Payment P., Berte A., Prévost M., Ménard R., Barbeau B. Occurrence of pathogenic microorganisms in the Saint Lawrence River (Canada) and comparison of health risks for populations using it as their source of drinking water. Can J Microbiol. 46:2000;565-576.
84. Bukhari Z., Hargy T.M., Bolton J., Dussert B.W., Clancy J.L. Medium-pressure UV for oocysts inactivation. J Am Water Works Assoc. 91(3):1999;86-94.
85. Craik S.A., Weldon D., Finch G.R., Bolton J.R., Belosevic M. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts using medium- and low-pressure ultraviolet radiation. Water Res. 35(6):2001;1387-1398.
86. Fayer R. Effect of sodium hypochlorite exposure on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts for neonatal BALB/c mice. Appl Environ Microbiol. 61(2):1995;844-846.
87. Peeters J.E., Mazas E.A., Masschelein W.J., Villacorta Martinez de Maturana I., Debacker E. Effect of disinfection of drinking water with ozone or chlorine dioxide on survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol. 55(6):1989;1519-1522.
88. Hallier-Soulier S., Guillot E. An immunomagnetic separation-reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (IMS-RT-PCR) test for sensitive and rapid detection of viable waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum. Environ Microbiol. 5(7):2003;592-598.
89. Rennecker J.L., Driedger A.M., Rubin S.A., Marinas B.J. Synergy in sequential inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum with ozone/free chlorine and ozone/monochloramine. Water Res. 34(17):2000;4121-4130.
90. Haas C.N., Rose J.B. Developing and action level for Cryptosporidium. J Am Water Works Assoc. 87(9):1995;81-84.
91. Okhuysen P.C., Chappell C.L., Crabb J.H., Sterling C.R., DuPont H.L. Virulence of three distinct Cryptosporidium parvum isolates for healthy adults. J Infect Dis. 180(2):1999;1275-1281.
92. Weber R., Bryan R.T., Bishop H.S., Wahlquist S.P., Sullivan J.J., Juranek D.D. Threshold of detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in human stool specimens. evidence for low sensitivity of current diagnostic methods J Clin Microbiol. 29(7):1991;1323-1327.
93. Messner M.J., Chappell C.L., Okhuysen P.C. Risk assessment for Cryptosporidium. a hierarchical Bayesian analysis of human dose response data Water Res. 35(16):2001;3934-3940.
94. Farthing MJG. Clinical aspects of human cryptosporidiosis. In: Petry F, editor. Cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis, vol. 6, 1st ed. S. Kargar AG; 2000 New York. p. 50-74.
95. Chen X., Keithly J.A., Paya C.V., LaRusso N.F. Cryptosporidiosis. N Engl J Med. 346(22):2002;1723-1731.
96. Bird R.G., Smith M.D. Cryptosporidiosis enteritis in man. parasite life cycle and fine structural pathology J Pathol. 132:1980;217-233.
97. Argenzio R.A., Lecce J.G., Powell D.W. Prostanoids inhibit intestinal NaCl absorption in experimental porcine cryptosporidiosis. Gastroenterology. 104:1993;440-447.
98. Argenzio R.A., Liacos J.A., Levy M.L., Meuten D.J., Lecce J.G., Powell D.W. Villous atrophy, crypt hyperplasia, cellular infiltration, impaired glucose-Na absorption in enteric cryptosporidiosis of pigs. Gastroenterology. 98(5):1990;1129-1140.
99. Riggs M.W., Stone A.L., Yount P.A., Langer R.C., Arrowood M.J., Bentley D.L. Protective monoclonal antibody defines a circum-sporozoite-like glycoprotein exoantigen of Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites and merozoites. J Immunol. 158:1997;1787-1795.
100. Adams R.B., Guerrant R.L., Zu S., Fang G., Roche J.K. Cryptosporidium parvum infection of intestinal epithelium. morphologic and functional studies in an in vitro model J Infect Dis. 169:1994;170-177.
101. Laurent F., Kagnoff M., Savidge T.C., Naciri M., Eckmann L. Human intestinal epithelial cells respond to Cryptosporidium parvum infection with increased prostaglandin H synthase 2 expression and prostaglandin E2 and F2(alpha) production. Infect Immun. 66(4):1998;1787-1790.
102. Perkins M.E., Riojas Y.A., Wu T.W., Le Blancq S.M. CpABC, a Cryptosporidium parvum ATP binding cassette protein at the host-parasite boundary in intracellular stages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 96:1999;5734-5739.
103. Steele W.B., Kuhls T., Nida K., Reddy Meka C., Halabi I., Mosier D.A., Elliot W., Crawford D., Greenfield R. A Cryptosporidium parvum genomic region encoding hemolytic activity. Infect Immun. 63:1995;3840-3845.
104. Riggs M.W., Schaefer D.A., Kapil S.J., Barley-Maloney L., Perryman L.E. Efficacy of monoclonal antibodies against defined antigens for passive immunotherapy of chronic gastrointestinal cryptosporidiosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 46(2):2002;275-282.
105. Schaefer D.A., Auerbach-Dixon B.A., Riggs M.W. Characterization and formulation of multiple epitope-specific neutralizing monoclonal antibodies for passive immunization against cryptosporidiosis. Infect Immun. 68(5):2000;2608-2616.
106. Spano F., Putignani L., Guida S., Crisanti A. Cryptosporidium parvum: PCR-RFLP analysis of the TRAP-C1 (thrombospondin-related adhesive protein of Cryptosporidium-1) gene discriminates between two alleles differentially associated with parasite isolates of animal and human origin. Exp Parasitol. 90:1998;195-198.
107. Spano F., Putignani L., Naitza S., Puri C., Wright S., Crisanti A. Molecular cloning and expression analysis of a Cryptosporidium parvum gene encoding a new member of the thrombospondin family. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 92:1998;147-162.
108. Bjorneby J.M., Riggs M.W., Perryman L.E. Cryptosporidium parvum merozoites share neutralization sensitive epitopes with sporozoites. J Immunol. 145(1):1990;298-304.
109. Riggs M.W., McGuire T.C., Mason P.H., Perryman L.E. Neutralization- sensitive epitopes are exposed on the surface of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites. J Immunol. 143(4):1989;1340-1345.
110. Riggs M.W., McNeil M.R., Perryman L.E., Stone A.L., Scherman M.S., O'Connor R.M. Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoite pellicle antigen recognized by a neutralizing monoclonal antibody is a beta-mannosylated glycolipid. Infect Immun. 67:1999;1317-1322.
111. Barnes D.A., Bonnin A., Huang J.X., Gousset L., Wu J., Gut J., Doyle P.S., Dubremetz J.F., Ward H., Petersen C. A novel multi-domain mucin-like glycoprotein of Cryptosporidium parvum mediates invasion. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 96:1998;93-110.
112. Cevallos A., Zhang X., Waldor M.K., Jaison S., Zhou X., Tzipori S., Neutra M.R., Ward H.D. Molecular cloning and expression of a gene encoding Cryptosporidium parvum glycoproteins gp40 and gp15. Infect Immun. 68(7):2000;4108-4116.
113. Gut J., Nelson R.G. Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites deposit trails of 11A5 antigen during gliding locomotion and shed 11A5 antigen during invasion of MDCK cells in vitro. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 41:1994;42S-43S.
114. Jenkins M.B., O'Brien C., Trout J.M., Guidry A., Fayer R. Hyperimmune bovine colostrum specific for recombinant Cryptosporidium parvum antigen confers partial protection against cryptosporidiosis in immunosuppressed adult mice. Vaccine. 17:1999;2453-2460.
115. Strong W.B., Gut J., Nelson R.G. Cloning and sequence analysis of a highly polymorphic Cryptosporidium parvum gene encoding a 60-Kilodalton glycoprotein and characterization of its 15- and 45-Kilodalton zoite surface antigen products. Infect Immun. 68(7):2000;4117-4134.
116. Chen X., LaRusso N.F. Mechanisms of attachment and internalization of Cryptosporidium parvum to billary and intestinal epithelial cells. Gastroenterology. 118(2):2000;368-379.
117. Gut J., Nelson R.G. Cryptosporidium parvum. lectins mediate irreversible inhibition of sporozoite infectivity in vitro J Eukaryot Microbiol. 46(5):1999;48S-49S.
118. Keusch G., Hamer D., Kelley M., Griffiths J.K., Ward H. Cryptosporidia - who is at risk. Schweiz Med Wochenschr. 18:1995;899-908.
119. Thea D.M., Pereira M.E.A., Kotler D., Sterling C.R., Keusch G. Identification and partial purification of a lectin on the surface of the sporozoite of Cryptosporidium parvum. J Parasitol. 78(5):1992;886-893.
120. Ward H., Cevallos A. Cryptosporidium. molecular basis of host-parasite interaction Adv Parasitol. 40:1998;151-185.
121. Arrowood M.J., Sterling C.R., Healey M.C. Immunofluorescent microscopical visualization of trails left by gliding Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites. J Parasitol. 77(2):1991;315-317.
122. Perryman L.E., Jasmer D.P., Riggs M.W., Bohnet S.G., McGuire T.C., Arrowood M.J. A cloned gene of Cryptosporidium parvum encodes neutralization-sensitive epitopes. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 80:1996;137-147.
123. Hoepelman A.I. Current therapeutic approaches to cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 37:1996;871-880.
124. Herbert M.G., Hoffman P.S. Treatment of intestinal parasitic infections. a review of nitazoxanide TRENDS Parasitol. 18(3):2002;95-97.
125. Rossignol J.F., Hidalgo H., Feregrino M., Higuera F., Gomez W.H., Romero J.L., Padierna J., Geyne A., Ayers M.S. A double-'blind' placebo controlled study of nitazoxanide in the treatment of cryptosporidial diarrhoea in AIDS patients in Mexico. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 92(6):1998;663-666.
126. Theodos C.M., Griffiths J.K., D'Onfro J., Fairfield A., Tzipori S. Efficacy of nitazoxanide against Cryptosporidium parvum in cell culture and in animal models. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 42(8):1998;1959-1965.
127. Carr A., Mariott D., Field A., Vasak E., Cooper D.A. Treatment of HIV-1-associated microsporidiosis and cryptosporidiosis with combination antiretroviral therapy. Lancet. 351:1998;256-261.
128. Le Moing V., Bissuel F., Costagliola D., Eid Z., Chapuis F., Molina J.M., Salmon-Ceron D., Brasseur P., Leport C. Decreased prevalence of intestinal cryptosporidiosis in HIV-infected patients concomitant to the widespread use of protease inhibitors. AIDS. 12(11):1998;1395-1397.
129. Crabb J.H. Antibody-based immunotherapy of cryptosporidiosis. Adv Parasitol. 40:1998;121-149.
130. Griffiths J.K. Human cryptosporidiosis. epidemiology, transmission, clinical disease, treatment, diagnosis Adv Parasitol. 40:1998;37-85.
131. Riggs M.W. Recent advances in cryptosporidiosis. the immune response Microbes Infect. 4:2002;1067-1080.
132. Takashima Y., Xuan X., Kimata I., Iseki M., Kodama U., Nagane N., Nagasawa H., Matsumoto Y., Mikami T., Otsuka H. Recombinant bovine herpesvirus-1 expressing p23 protein of Cryptosporidium parvum induces neutralizing antibodies in rabbits. J Parasitol. 89(2):2003;276-282.
133. Arrowood M.J., Mead J.R., Mahrt J.L., Sterling C.R. Effects of immune colostrum and orally administered antisporozoite monoclonal antibodies on the outcome of Cryptosporidium parvum infections in neonatal mice. Infect Immun. 57(8):1989;2283-2288.
134. Chen L., Williams B.R., Yang C.Y., Cevallos A., Bhat N., Ward H., Sharon J. Polyclonal Fab phage display libraries with a high percentage of diverse clones to Cryptosporidium parvum glycoproteins. Int J Parasitol. 33:2003;281-291.
135. Greenberg P.D., Cello J.P. Treatment of severe diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium parvum with oral bovine immunoglobin concentrate in patients with AIDS. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retroviral. 13:1996;348-354.
136. Tzipori S., Roberton D., Chapman C. Remission of diarrhoea due to cryptopsoridiosis in an immunodeficient child treated with hyperimmune bovine colostrum. Br Med J. 293:1986;1276-1277.
137. Tzipori S., Roberton D., Cooper D.A., White L. Chronic cryptosporidial diarrhoea and hyperimmune cow colostrum. Lancet. ii:1987;344-345.
138. Ungar B.L.P., Ward D.J., Fayer R., Quinn C.A., White L. Cessation of Cryptosporidium-associated diarrhea in an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patient after treatment with hyperimmune bovine colostrum. Gastroenterology. 98:1990;486-489.
139. Lumb R., Lanser J.A., O'Donoghue P. Electrophoretic and immunoblot analysis of Cryptosporidium oocysts. Immunol Cell Biol. 66(Parts 5-6):1988;369-376.
140. Alak J.I., Wolf B.W., Mdurvwa E.G., Pimentel-Smith G.E., Kolavala S., Abdelrahman J., Suppiramaniam V. Supplementation with Lactobacillus reuteri or L. acidophilus reduced intestinal shedding of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in immunodeficient C57Bl/6 mice. Cell Mol Biol. 45(6):1999;855-863.
141. Alak J.I., Wolf B.W., Mdurvwa E.G., Pimentel-Smith G.E., Adeyemo O. Effect of Lactobacillus reuteri on intestinal resistance of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in a murine model of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Infect Dis. 175(1):1997;218-221.
142. Carraway M., Tzipori S., Widmer G. Identification of genetic heterogeneity in the Cryptosporidium parvum ribosomal repeat. Appl Environ Microbiol. 62(2):1996;712-716.
143. Morgan U., Constantine C.C., Forbes D.A., Thompson R.C.A. Differentiation between human and animal isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum using rDNA sequencing and direct PCR analysis. J Parasitol. 83(5):1997;825-830.
144. Morgan U., Sargent K.D., Deplazes P., Forbes D.A., Spano F., Hertzberg H., Elliot A., Thompson R.C.A. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium from various hosts. Parasitology. 117(Part 1):1998;31-37.
145. Xiao L., Escalante L., Yang C.F., Sulaiman I.M., Escalante A.A., Montali R.J., Fayer R., Lal A.A. Phylogenic analysis of Cryptosporidium parasites based on the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene locus. Appl Environ Microbiol. 65(4):1999;1578-1583.
146. Xiao L., Morgan U., Limor J.R., Escalante L., Arrowood M.J., Shulaw W., Thompson R.C.A., Fayer R., Lal A.A. Genetic diversity within Cryptosporidium parvum and related Cryptosporidium species. Appl Environ Microbiol. 65(8):1999;3386-3391.
147. Morgan U., Constantine C.C., O'Donoghue P., Meloni B.P., O'Brien P.A., Thompson R.C.A. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium isolates from humans and other animals using RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 52(6):1995;559-564.
148. Spano F., Putignani L., McLauchlin J., Casemore D.P., Crisanti A. PCR-RFLP analysis of the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein (COWP) gene discriminates between C. wrairi and C. parvum, and between C. parvum isolates of human and animal origin. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 150(2):1997;209-217.
149. Gibbons C.L., Rigi F.M., Awad-El-Kariem F.M. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris oocysts in spiked backwash water using three PCR-based protocols. Protist. 149:1998;127-134.
150. Vasquez J.R., Gooze L., Kim K., Gut J., Petersen C., Nelson R.G. Potential antifolate resistance determinants and genotypic variation in the bifunctional dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase gene from human and bovine isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 79(2):1996;153-165.
151. Giles M., Warhurst D.C., Webster K.A., West D.M., Marshall J.A. A multiplex allele specific polymerase chain reaction (MAS-PCR) on the dihydrofolate reductase gene for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum genotypes 1 and 2. Parasitology. 125:2002;35-44.
152. Peng M.M., Xiao L., Freeman W.M., Arrowood M.J., Escalante A.A., Weltman A.C., Ong C.S.L., Mac Kenzie W.R., Lal A.A., Beard C.B. Genetic polymorphism among Cryptosporidium parvum isolates. evidence of two distinct human transmission cycles Emerg Infect Dis. 3(4):1997;567-573.
153. Deng M.Q., Templeton T.J., London N.R., Bauer C., Schroeder A.A., Abrahamsen M.S. Cryptosporidium parvum genes containing thrombospondin type 1 domains. Infect Immun. 70(12):2002;6987-6995.
154. Sulaiman I.M., Xiao L., Yang C.F., Escalante A.A., Moore A.C., Beard C.B., Arrowood M.J., Lal A.A. Differentiating human from animal isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum. Emerg Infect Dis. 4(4):1998;681-685.
155. Ong C.S.L., Eisler D.L., Tomblin J., Awad-El-Kariem F.M., Beard C.B., Xiao L., Sulaiman I.M., Lal A.A., Fyfe M., King A., Bowie W.R., Isaac-Renton J.L. Molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis outbreaks and transmission in British Columbia, Canada. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 61(1):1999;63-69.
156. Straub T.M., Daly D.S., Wunshel S., Rochelle P.A., DeLeon R., Chandler D.P. Genotyping Cryptosporidium parvum with an hsp70 single-nucleotide polymorphism microarray. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(4):2002;1817-1826.
157. Sulaiman I.M., Morgan U., Thompson R.C.A., Lal A.A., Xiao L. Pylogenetic relationships of Cryptosporidium parasites based on the 70-kilodalton heat shock protein (HSP70) gene. Appl Environ Microbiol. 66(6):2000;2385-2391.
158. Guyot K., Follet-Dumoulin A., Recourt C., Lelièvre E., Cailliez J.C., Dei-Cas E. PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of a diagnostic 452-base-pair DNA fragment discriminates between Cryptosporidium parvum and C. meleagridis and between C. parvum isolates of human and animal origin. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(4):2002;2071-2076.
159. Awad-El-Kariem F.M., Robinson H.A., Dyson D.A., Evans D., Wright S., Fox M.T., McDonald V. Differentiation between human and animal strains of Cryptosporidium parvum using isoenzyme typing. Parasitology. 110(2):1995;129-132.
160. Ogunkolade B.W., Robinson H.A., McDonald V., Webster K.A., Evans D. Isoenzyme variation within the genus Cryptosporidium. Parasitol Res. 79(5):1993;385-388.
161. Nina J.M.S., McDonald V., Deer R.M.A., Wright S., Dyson D.A., Chiodini P.L., McAdam K.P. Comparative study of the antigenic composition of oocyst
162. Deng M.Q., Cliver D.O. Differentiation of Cryptosporidium parvum isolates by a simplified randomly amplified polymorphic DNA technique. Appl Environ Microbiol. 64(5):1998;1954-1957.
163. Shianna K.V., Rytter R., Spanier J.G. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA PCR analysis of bovine Cryptosporidium parvum strains isolated from the watershed of the Red River of the North. Appl Environ Microbiol. 64(6):1998;2262-2265.
164. Ortega Y., Sheehy R.R., Cama V.A., Oishi K.K., Sterling C.R. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of Cryptosporidium parvum isolates of bovine and human origin. J Protozool. 38(6):1991;40S-41S.
165. Reed C., Sturbaum G.D., Hoover P.J., Sterling C.R. Cryptosporidium parvum mixed genotypes detected by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(1):2002;427-429.
166. Perz J.F., Le Blancq S.M. Cryptosporidium parvum infection involving novel genotypes in wildlife from lower New York state. Appl Environ Microbiol. 67(3):2001;1154-1162.
167. Vos P., Hogers R., Bleeker M., Reijans M., van de Lee T., Hornes M Frijters A., Pot J., Peleman J., Kuiper M., Zabeau M. ALFP. a new technique for DNA fingerprinting Nucleic Acids Res. 23(21):1995;4407-4414.
168. McCuin R.M., Clancy J.L. Modification to Unites States Environmental Protection Agency methods 1622 and 1623 of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 69(1):2003;267-274.
169. DiGiorgio C.L., Gonzalez D.A., Huitt C.C. Cryptosporidium and Giardia recoveries in natural waters by using environmental protection agency method 1623. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(12):2002;5952-5955.
170. Quintero-Betancourt W., Gennaccaro A., Scott T.M., Rose J.B. Assessment of methods for detection of infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in reclaimed effluents. Appl Environ Microbiol. 69(9):2003;5380-5388.
171. Feng Y.Y., Ong S.L., Hu J.Y., Song L.F., Tan X.L., Ng W.J. Effect of particles on the recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts from source water samples of various turbidities. Appl Environ Microbiol. 69(4):2003;1898-1903.
172. Simmons O.D., Sobsey M.D., Heaney C.D., Schaefer F.W., Francy D.S. Concentration and detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in surface water samples by method 1622 using ultrafiltration and capsule filtration. Appl Environ Microbiol. 67:2001;1123-1127.
173. Smith H.V., Robertson L.J., Ongerth J.E. Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis, the impact of waterborne transmission. J Water Supply Res Technol. 44:1995;258-274.
174. Smith H.V., Rose J.B. Waterborne cryptosporidiosis. current status Parasitol Today. 14(1):1998;14-22.
175. Gale P., Stanfield G. Cryptosporidium during a simulated outbreak. J Am Water Works Assoc. 92(9):2000;105-116.
176. Musial C.E., Arrowood M.J., Sterling C.R., Gerba C.P. Detection of Cryptosporidium in water by using polypropylene cartridge filters. Appl Environ Microbiol. 53(4):1987;687-692.
177. Grimason AM, Humphreys S, Bukhari Z, Smith HV, Fricker CR. Where have all the oocysts gone? Losses of Cryptosporidium oocysts during sample preparation. International Symposium of Cryptosporidium, Newport Beach, California, 1997.
178. Shepherd K.M., Wyn-Jones A.P. An evaluation of methods for the simultaneous detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 62(4):1996;1317-1322.
179. Graczyk T.K., Cranfield M.R., Fayer R. Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts recovered from water by the membrane filter dissolution method retain their infectivity. J Parasitol. 83(1):1997;111-114.
180. Aldom J.E., Chagla A.H. Recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts from water by a membrane filter dissolution method. Lett Appl Microbiol. 20(3):1995;186-187.
181. Campbell A.T., Robertson L.J., Smith H.V., Girdwood R.W.A. Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts concentrated by calcium carbonate flocculation. J Appl Bacteriol. 76(6):1994;638-639.
182. Vesey G., Slade J.S., Byrne M., Shepherd K.M., Dennis P., Fricker C.R. Routine monitoring of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water using flow cytometry. J Appl Bacteriol. 75(1):1993;87-90.
183. Vesey G., Slade J.S., Byrne M., Shepherd K.M., Fricker C.R. A new method for the concentration of Cryptosporidium from water. J Appl Bacteriol. 75(1):1993;82-86.
184. Swales C., Wright S. Evaluation of a continuous flow centrifuge for recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts from large volume water samples. Water Res. 34:2000;1962-1966.
185. Fricker C.R., Crabb J.H. Water-borne cryptosporidiosis. detection methods and treatment options Adv Parasitol. 40:1998;241-278.
186. Karanis P., Kimura A. Evaluation of three flocculation methods for the purification of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from water samples. Lett Appl Microbiol. 34(6):2002;444-449.
187. Fricker C.R. Detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water. Betts W.B., Casemore D.P., Fricker C.R., Smith H.V., Watkins J. Protozoan parasites and water. 1995;The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, England.
188. Bukhari Z., Smith H.V. Effect of three concentration techniques on viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts recovered from bovine feces. J Clin Microbiol. 33(10):1995;2592-2595.
189. Rodgers M.R., Flanigan D.J., Jakubowski W. Identification of algae which interfere with the detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts and a method for alleviating this interference. Appl Environ Microbiol. 61(10):1995;3759-3763.
190. Connell K., Rodgers C.C., Shank-Givens H.L., Scheller J., Pope M.L., Miller K. Building a better protozoa data set. J Am Water Works Assoc. 92(10):2000;30-43.
191. McCuin R.M., Bukhari Z., Sobrinho J., Clancy J.L. Recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from source water concentrates using immunomagnetic separation. J Microbiol Methods. 45(2):2001;69-76.
192. LeChevallier M.W., Abbaszadegan M., Di Giovanni G.D. Detection of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in environmental water samples using an integrated cell culture-PCR (CC-PCR) system. Water Air Soil Pollut. 123(1/4):2000;53-65.
193. Rochelle P.A., De Leon R., Johnson A.M., Stewart M.H., Wolfe R.L. Evaluation of immunomagnetic separation for recovery of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 65(2):1999;841-845.
194. Sturbaum G.D., Klonicki P.T., Marshall M.M., Jost B.H., Clay B.L., Sterling C.R. Immunomagnetic separation (IMS)-fluorescent antibody detection and IMS-PCR detection of seeded Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in natural waters and their limitations. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(6):2002;2991-2996.
195. Kuhn R.C., Rock C.M., Oshima K.H. Effects of pH and magnetic material on immunomagnetic separation of Cryptosporidium oocysts from concentrated water samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(4):2002;2066-2070.
196. Bukhari Z., McCuin R.M., Fricker C.R., Clancy J.L. Immunomagnetic separation of Cryptosporidium parvum from source water samples of various turbidities. Appl Environ Microbiol. 64(11):1998;4495-4499.
197. Campbell A.T., Smith H.V. Immunomagnetic separation of Cryptosporidium oocysts from water samples. round robin comparison of techniques Water Sci Technol. 35(11/12):1997;397-402.
198. Di Giovanni G.D., Hashemi F.H., Shaw N.J., Abrams F.A., LeChevallier M.W., Abbaszadegan M. Detection of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in surface and filter backwash water samples by immunomagnetic separation and integrated cell culture-PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol. 65(8):1999;3427-3432.
199. Deng M.Q., Lam K.M., Cliver D.O. Immunomagnetic separation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts using MACS MicroBeads and high gradient separation columns. J Microbiol Methods. 40(1):2000;11-17.
200. Vesey G., Hutton P., Champion A., Ashbolt N., Williams K.L., Warton A., Veal D. Application of flow cytometric methods for the routine detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in water. Cytometry. 16(1):1994;1-6.
201. Arrowood M.J., Hurd M.R., Mead J.R. A new method for evaluating experimental cryptosporidial parasite loads using immunofluorescent flow cytometry. J Parasitol. 81(3):1995;404-409.
202. Valdez L.M., Dang H., Okhuysen P.C., Chappell C.L. Flow cytometric detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in human stool samples. J Clin Microbiol. 35(8):1997;2013-2017.
203. Lepesteur M., Blasdall S., Ashbolt N. Particle dispersion for further Cryptosporidium and Giardia detection by flow cytometry. Lett Appl Microbiol. 37:2003;218-229.
204. Kato S., Bowman D.D. Using flow cytometry to determine the viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts extracted from spiked environmental samples in chambers. Parasitol Res. 88(4):2002;326-331.
205. US Environmental Protection Agency. Method 1622: Cryptosporidium in water by filtration/IMS/FA. Office of Water EPA-821-R-99-061, 1999.
206. Alles A.J., Waldron M.A., Sierra L.S., Mattia A.R. Prospective comparison of direct immunofluorescence and conventional staining methods for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in human fecal specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 33(6):1995;1632-1634.
207. Bialek R., Binder N., Dietz K., Joachim A., Knobloch J., Zelck U.E. Comparison of fluorescence, antigen and PCR assays to detect Cryptosporidium parvum in fecal specimens. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 43:2002;283-288.
208. Clancy J.L., Gollnitz W.D., Tabib Z. Commercial labs. how accurate are they? J Am Water Works Assoc. 86(5):1994;89-97.
209. Slifko T.R., Huffman D.E., Rose J.B. A most-probable-number assay for enumeration of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Microbiol. 65(9):1999;3936-3941.
210. Vesey G., Ashbolt N., Fricker E.J., Deere D., Williams K.L., Veal D.A., Dorsch M. The use of a ribosomal RNA targeted oligonucleotide probe for fluorescent labelling of viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. J Appl Microbiol. 85(3):1998;429-440.
211. Tsai Y, Rochelle PA. Extraction of nucleic acids from environmental samples. In: Rochelle PA, editor. Environmental molecular microbiology: protocols and applications. Horizon Scientific Press; 2001 Wymondham, Norfolk, UK, p. 15-30.
212. Leng X., Mosier D.A., Oberst R.D. Simplified method for recovery and PCR detection of Cryptosporidium DNA from bovine feces. Appl Environ Microbiol. 62(2):1996;643-647.
213. Mayer C.L., Palmer C.J. Evaluation of PCR, nested PCR, fluorescent antibodies for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol. 62(6):1996;2081-2085.
214. Webster K.A., Pow J.D.E., Giles M., Catchpole J., Woodward M.J. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum using a specific polymerase chain reaction. Vet Parasitol. 50(1-2):1993;35-44.
215. Balatbat A.B., Jordon G.W., Tang Y.J., Silva J. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum DNA in human feces by nested PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 73(7):1996;1769-1772.
216. Rochelle P.A., De Leon R., Stewart M.H., Wolfe R.L. Comparison of primers and optimization of PCR conditions for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia in water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 63(1):1997;106-114.
217. Rochelle P.A., Ferguson D.M., Handojo T.J., De Leon R., Stewart M.H., Wolfe R.L. An assay combining cell culture with reverse transcriptase PCR to detect and determine the infectivity of waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum. Appl Environ Microbiol. 63(5):1997;2029-2037.
218. Chung E., Aldom J.E., Chagla A.H., Kostrzynska M., Lee H., Palmateer G., Trevors J.T., Unger S., De Grandis S.A. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in municipal water samples by the polymerase chain reaction. J Microbiol Methods. 33:1998;171-180.
219. Kostrzynska M., Sankey M., Haack E., Power C., Aldom J.E., Chagla A.H., Unger S., Palmateer G., Lee H., Trevors J.T., De Grandis S.A. Three sample preparation methods for polymerase chain reaction based detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples. J Microbiol Methods. 35(1):1999;65-71.
220. Sluter S.D., Tzipori S., Widmer G. Parameters affecting polymerase chain reaction detection of waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl Environ Biotechnol. 48(3):1997;325-330.
221. Deng M.Q., Cliver D.O., Mariam T.W. Immunomagnetic capture PCR to detect viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 63(8):1997;3134-3138.
222. Wagner-Wiening C., Kimmig P. Detection of viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol. 61(12):1995;4514-4516.
223. Gobet P., Toze S. Relevance of Cryptosporidium parvum hsp70 mRNA amplification as a tool to discriminate between viable and dead oocysts. J Parasitol. 87(1):2001;226-229.
224. Caponigro G., Parker R. Multiple functions for the poly(A)-binding protein in mRNA decapping and deadenylation in yeast. Genes Dev. 9(19):1995;2421-2432.
225. Johnson D.W., Pieniazek N.J., Griffin D.W., Misener L., Rose J.B. Development of a PCR protocol for sensitive detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 61(11):1995;3849-3855.
226. Kato S., Lindergard G., Mohammed H.O. Utility of the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein (COWP) gene in a nested PCR approach for detection infection in cattle. Vet Parasitol. 111:2003;153-159.
227. Stinear T., Matusan A., Hines K., Sandery M. Detection of a single viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst in environmental water concentrates by reverse transcription-PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol. 62(9):1996;3385-3390.
228. Widmer G., Orbacz E.A., Tzipori S. β-Tubulin mRNA as a marker of Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Appl Environ Microbiol. 65(4):1999;1584-1588.
229. Fontaine M., Guillot E. Development of a TaqMan quantitative PCR assay specific for Cryptosporidium parvum. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 214:2002;13-17.
230. Limor J.R., Lal A.A., Xiao L. Detection and differentiation of Cryptosporidium parasites that are pathogenic for humans by real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 40(7):2002;2335-2338.
231. MacDonald L.M., Sargent K.D., Armson A., Thompson A., Reynoldson J.A. The development of a real-time quantitative-PCR method for characterisation of a Cryptosporidium parvum in vitro culturing system and assessment of drug efficacy. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 121:2002;279-282.
232. Guy R.A., Payment P., Krull U.J., Horgen P.A. Real-time PCR for quantification of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in environmental water samples and sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol. 69(9):2003;5178-5185.
233. Wittwer C.T., Herrmann M.G., Gundry C.N., Elenitoba-Johnson K.S.J. Real-time multiplex PCR assays. Methods. 25(4):2001;430-442.
234. Chung E., Aldom J.E., Carreno R.A., Chagla A.H., Kostrzynska M., Lee H., Palmateer G., Trevors J.T., Unger S., Xu R., De Grandis S.A. PCR-based quantitation of Cryptosporidium parvum in municipal water samples. J Microbiol Methods. 38(1-2):1999;119-130.
235. Kruger P, Wiedenmann A, Botzenhart K. Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water: comparison of the conventional microscopic immunofluorescence method with PCR and TaqMan PCR. OECD Workshop Molecular Methods for Safe Drinking Water, Interlaken, Switzerland 1998.
236. Cockerill F.R., Uhl J.R. Applications and challenges of real-time PCR for the clinical microbiology laboratory. Reischl U., Wittwer C.T., Cockerill F.R. Rapid cycle real-time PCR. 2002;3-27 Springer, New York.
237. Fontaine M., Guillot E. An immunomagnetic separation-real-time PCR method for quantification of Cryptosporidium parvum in water samples. J Microbiol Methods. 54:2003;29-39.
238. Laxer M.A., Timblin B.K., Patel R. DNA sequences for the specific detection of Cryptosporidium parvum by the polymerase chain reaction. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 45(6):1991;688-694.
239. Tzipori S. Cryptosporidiosis. laboratory investigations and chemotherapy Adv Parasitol. 40:1998;187-221.
240. Current W.L. Cryptosporidium. its biology and potential for environmental transmission CRC Critical Rev Environ Control. 17:1987;21-51.
241. Robertson L.J., Campbell A.T., Smith H.V. In vitro excystation of Cryptosporidium parvum. Parasitology. 106(Part 1):1993;13-19.
242. Woodmansee D.B. Studies of in vitro excystation of Cryptosporidium parvum from calves. J Protozool. 34(4):1987;398-402.
243. Upton S.J., Tilley M., Brillhart D.B. Comparative development of Cryptosporidium parvum (Apicomplexa) in 11 continuous host cell lines. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 118(3):1994;233-236.
244. Upton S.J., Tilley M., Nesterenko M.V., Brillhart D.B. A simple and reliable method of producing in vitro infections of Cryptosporidium parvum (Apicomplexa). FEMS Microbiol Lett. 118(1-2):1994;45-49.
245. Campbell A.T., Robertson L.J., Smith H.V. Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. correlation of in vitro excystation with inclusion or exclusion of fluorogenic vital dyes Appl Environ Microbiol. 58(11):1992;3488-3493.
246. Black E.K., Finch G.R., Taghi-Kilani R., Belosevic M. Comparison of assays for Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability after chemical disinfection. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 135(2-3):1996;187-189.
247. Slifko T.R., Friedman D., Rose J.B., Jakubowski W. An in vitro method for detecting infectious Cryptosporidium oocysts with cell culture. Appl Environ Microbiol. 63(9):1997;3669-3675.
248. Fayer R., Speer C.A., Dubey J.P. The general biology of Cryptosporidium. Fayer R. Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis. 1997;1-42 CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
249. Fayer R., Trout J.M., Lewis E.J., Santin M., Zhou L., Lal A.A., Xiao L. Contamination of Atlantic coast commercial shellfish with Cryptosporidium. Parasitol Res. 89(2):2003;141-145.
250. Rochelle P.A., Ferguson D.M., Handojo T.J., De Leon R., Stewart M.H., Wolfe R.L. Development of a rapid detection procedure for Cryptosporidium, using in vitro cell culture combined with PCR. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 43(5):1996;72S.
251. Rochelle P.A., Marshall M.M., Mead J.R., Johnson A.M., Korich D.G., Rosen J.S., De Leon R. Comparison of in vitro cell culture and a mouse assay for measuring infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum. Appl Environ Microbiol. 68(8):2002;3809-3817.
252. Hijjawi N., Meloni B.P., Morgan U., Thompson R.C.A. Complete development and long-term maintenance of Cryptosporidium parvum human and cattle genotypes in cell culture. Int J Parasitol. 31(10):2001;1048-1055.
253. Joachim A., Eckert E., Petry F., Bialek R., Daugschies A. Comparison of viability assays for Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts after disinfection. Vet Parasitol. 111(1):2003;47-57.
254. LeChevallier M.W., Di Giovanni G.D., Clancy J.L., Bukhari Z., Bukhari S., Rosen J.S., Sobrinho J., Frey M.M. Comparison of method 1623 and cell culture-PCR for detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in source waters. Appl Environ Microbiol. 69(2):2003;971-979.
255. Upton S.J., Tilley M., Brillhart D.B. Effects of select medium supplements on in vitro development of Cryptosporidium parvum in HCT-8 cells. J Clin Microbiol. 33(2):1995;371-375.
256. Weir S.C., Pokorny N.J., Carreno R.A., Trevors J.T., Lee H. Improving the rate of infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in cell culture using centrifugation. J Parasitol. 87(6):2001;1502-1504.
257. Gold D., Stein B., Tzipori S. The utilization of sodium taurocholate in excystation of Cryptosporidium parvum and infection of tissue culture. J Parasitol. 87(5):2001;997-1000.
258. Villacorta I., de Graaf D., Charlier G., Peeters J.E. Complete development of Cryptosporidium parvum in MDBK cells. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 142(1):1996;129-132.
259. Riggs M.W., Perryman L.E. Infectivity and neutralization of Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites. Infect Immun. 55(9):1987;2081-2087.
260. Arrowood M.J., Sterling C.R. Isolation of Cryptosporidium oocysts and sporozoites using discontinuous sucrose and isopycnic Percoll gradients. J Parasitol. 73(2):1987;314-319.
261. Kilani R.T., Sekla L. Purification of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and sporozoites by cesium chloride and Percoll gradients. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 36(3):1987;505-508.
262. Morgan U.M., Thompson R.C.A. PCR detection of Cryptosporidium. the way forward? Parasitol Today. 14(6):1998;241-245.
263. Jenkins M.C., Trout J.M., Abrahamsen M.S., Lancto C.A., Higgins J.A., Fayer R. Estimating viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) directed at mRNA encoding amyloglucosidase. J Microbiol Methods. 43(2):2000;97-106.