Water quality laws and waterborne diseases: Cryptosporidium and other emerging pathogens

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 90, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 847-853

  Gostin, Lawrence O ^a   Lazzarini, Zita ^b,e   Neslund, Verla S ^c   Osterholm, Michael T ^d  

^a Georgetown Johns Hopkins Prog L   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^d Infection Control Advisory Network   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DRINKING WATER;

BIOLOGICAL MONITORING; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM; HEALTH CARE PLANNING; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMAN; LAW; LEGAL ASPECT; REVIEW; WATER QUALITY;

EID: 0034039597     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.90.6.847     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. Fricker CR, Crabb JH. Water-borne cryptosporidiosis: detection methods and treatment options. Adv Parasitol. 1998;40:241-278.
2. Navin TR, Juranek DD. Cryptosporidiosis: clinical, epidemiologic, and parasitologic review. Rev Infect Dis. 1984;6:313-327.
3. Current WL, Garcia LS. Cryptosporidiosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1991;4:325-358.
4. MacKenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994;331: 161-167.
5. Goldstein ST, Juranek DD, Ravenholt O, et al. Cryptosporidiosis: an outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art water treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:459-468.
6. Kramer MH, Herwaldt BL, Crann GF, Calderon RL, Juranek DD. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks - United States, 1993-1994. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 1996;45(1):1-33.
7. The CDC defines "emerging diseases" as "diseases of infectious origin whose incidence in humans has increased within the past 2 decades or threatens to increase in the near future" (Addressing Emerging Infectious Disease Threats: A Prevention Strategy for the United States. Atlanta, Ga: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1994). The Institute of Medicine lists Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis as emerging pathogen and disease (Lederberg J, Shope RE, Oaks SC Jr, eds. Emerging Infections: Microbial Threats to Health in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1992).
8. The CDC defines "emerging diseases" as "diseases of infectious origin whose incidence in humans has increased within the past 2 decades or threatens to increase in the near future" (Addressing Emerging Infectious Disease Threats: A Prevention Strategy for the United States. Atlanta, Ga: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 1994). The Institute of Medicine lists Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis as emerging pathogen and disease (Lederberg J, Shope RE, Oaks SC Jr, eds. Emerging Infections: Microbial Threats to Health in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1992).
9. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (50 Federal Register 38832-38858 [1994]).
10. Kramer MH, Herwaldt BL, Crann GF, Calderon RL, Juranek DD. Assessing the public health threat associated with waterborne cryptosporidiosis: report of a workshop. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1995;44(RR-6):1-19.
11. MacKenzie WR, Kazmierczak JJ, Davis JP. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a resort swimming pool. Epidemiol Infect. 1995; 115:545-553.
12. McAnulty JM, Fleming DW, Gonzalez AH. A community-wide outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with swimming at a wave pool. JAMA. 1994;272:1597-1600.
13. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cryptosporidium infections associated with swimming pools - Dane County, Wisconsin, 1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1994;43: 561-563.
14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Foodborne outbreak of diarrheal illness associated with Cryptosporidium parvum - Minnesota, 1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996;45:783-784.
15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreaks of Escherichia coli 0157:H7 infection and cryptosporidiosis associated with drinking unpasteurized apple cider - Connecticut and New York, October 1996. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997;46:4-8.
16. Laberge I, Griffiths MW, Griffiths MW. Prevalence, detection and control of Cryptosporidium parvum in food. Int J Food Microbiol. 1996;32:1-26.
17. Cordell RL, Addis DG. Cryptosporidiosis in child care settings: a review of the literature and recommendations for prevention and control. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1994;13:310-317.
18. Lengerich EJ, Addiss DG, Marx JJ, Ungar BL, Juranek DD. Increased exposure to cryptosporidia among dairy farmers in Wisconsin. J Infect Dis. 1993;167:1252-1255.
19. Juranek DD. Cryptosporidiosis: sources of infection and guidelines for prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21(suppl 1):S57-S61.
20. Dupont HL, Chappell CL, Sterling CR, Okhuysen PC, Rose JB, Jakubowski W. The infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:855-859.
21. Haas CH, Crockett CS, Rose JB, Gerba CP, Fazil AM. Assessing the risk posed by oocysts in drinking water. J Am Water Works Assoc. September 1996:131-136.
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks - United States, 1995-1996. MMWR CDC Surveill Summ. 1998;47(5):1-34.
23. Moore RD, Keruly JC, Chaisson RE. Decline in CMV and other opportunistic disease with combination antiretroviral therapy. 5th Conf Retrovir Oppor Infect. 1998;Feb 1-5:113. Abstract 184.
24. Moore R, Keruly JC, Gallant J, Chaisson RE. Decline in mortality rates and opportunistic disease with combination antiretroviral therapy. Int Conf AIDS. 1998;12:338-339. Abstract 22374.
25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Incidence of foodborne illnesses - FoodNet, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998; 47:782-786.
26. Beach MJ, McNeil M, Arrowood M, et al. Cryptosporidium in a water park: largest US recreational waterborne outbreak [abstract]. Presented at: 45th Annual EIS Conference; April 22-26, 1996; Atlanta, Ga.
27. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Final FoodNet Surveillance Report - 1997. Atlanta, Ga: US Dept of Health and Human Services; 1998. Estimates were based on 1.4 cases of diarrheal illness per person per year multiplied by a 1997 population of 267.6 million.
28. Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey: First Report to Congress. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency; January 1997.
29. Pub L No. 93-523; 88 Stat 1660, 42 USC 300f-300j et seq.
30. King P. The protection of groundwater and public drinking supplies: recent trends in litigation and legislation. Vanderbilt Law Rev. 1989;42: 1649-1684.
31. Lewis SE. The 1986 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act and their effect on ground water. Syracuse Law Rev. 1989;40:893-923.
32. Gray K. The Safe Drinking Water Act amendments of 1986: now a tougher act to follow. Environ Law Rep. 1986;16:10338-10345.
33. Cox WE. Evolution of the Safe Drinking Water Act: a search for effective quality assurance strategies and workable concepts of federalism. William & Mary Environ Law Policy Rev. 1997; 21:69-164.
34. Doyle TJ, Zheng W, Cerhan JR, et al. The association of drinking water source and chlorination by-products with cancer incidence among postmenopausal women in Iowa: a prospective cohort study. Am J Public Health. 1997;87: 1168-1176.
35. Wilkins JR 3d, Comstock GW. Source of drinking water at home and site-specific cancer incidence in Washington County, Maryland. Am J Epidemiol. 1981;114:178-190.
36. Surface Water Treatment Rule (54 Federal Register 27486-27541 [1989]).
37. Total Coliform Rule (54 Federal Register 27544-27568 [1989]).
38. CFR §141.140-144 (1996).
39. Eighteen months of ICR data have now been validated and verified, and final reports have been sent to ICR utilities and labs. The ICR data is being used to suport regulatory impact analysis and to validate the water treatment plant model. See: http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw 000/update20.html. Accessed April 21, 2000.
40. Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (63 Federal Register 69478-69521 [1998]).
41. Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule (63 Federal Register 69390-69475 [1998]).
42. Acorn v Edwards, 81 F3d 1387 (5th Cir 1996).
43. Alden v Maine, 1999 WL 412617 (US); 119 S.Ct. 2240-2295, 1999.
44. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v College Savings Bank and United States, 1999 WL 412723 (US); 119 SCt 2199-2219, 1999.
45. College Savings Bank v Florida Prepaid Post-secondary Education Expense Board. 1999 WL 412639 (US); 119 SCt 2219-2240, 1999.
46. Hodge JG. Implementing modern public health goals through government: an examination of New Federalism and public health law. J Contemp Health Law Policy. 1997;14:93-126.
47. Hodge JG. The role of New Federalism and public health law. J Law Health. 1997-1998; 12:309-357.
48. New York v United States, 505 US 144 (1992).
49. Environmental Defense Fund, Inc v Costle, 578 F2d 337 (DC Cir 1978).
50. National Resources Defense Council v Environmental Protection Agency, 812 F2d 721 (DC Cir 1987).
51. American Water Works Association v Environmental Protection Agency, 40 F3d 1266, 309235 (DC Cir 1994).
52. International Fabricare Institute v United Stales Environmental Protection Agency, 972 F2d 384, 400 (DC Cir 1992).
53. Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Palau.
54. Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Wisconsin, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the US Virgin Islands.
55. Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Montana, Nevada, North Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Utah, Puerto Rico, and the Marshall Islands.
56. Connecticut monitors turbidity more closely than required by federal standards [Conn PHC §19-13-B102(e)(7)(K)].
57. Louisiana prohibits the use of pressure filters for water supplies using surface water (La San Code, SWTR §5.01, §12.006).
58. CFR §141.71.
59. Alabama, Alaska, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Vermont, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Washington, Wyoming, and Palau.
60. Thirty-three states and 1 territory (Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, and Puerto Rico) require water suppliers to report any compliance failure (e.g., failure to perform tests, failure to disinfect, nonmaintenance of filter avoidance standards) or violation (e.g., elevated MCLs, including MCLs for total or fecal coliforms).
61. Most states (e.g., Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Montana, Virginia) expressly require water suppliers to report to the state an outbreak of waterborne disease that may be linked to the drinking water supply.
62. Massachusetts law requires immediate reports of "any violations of standards and regulations regulating the quality of water used for drinking, domestic, or culinary purposes to the department of public health" (Mass Gen Laws, ch 111 §160B).
63. The exception is Virginia. The District of Columbia also lacks such a requirement.
64. California, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Oklahoma, Vermont, and Washington.
65. Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, West Virginia, Wyoming, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands.
66. Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Iowa, Louisiana, New Hampshire, New Mexico, and the Marshall Islands.
67. Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
68. Alaska, Arizona, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Vermont, Wisconsin, and the Northern Mariana Islands.
69. Colorado, Idaho, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Montana, New Jersey, North Carolina, Texas, Utah, the Marshall Islands, and the US Virgin Islands.
70. In Alabama the Department of Public Health usually issues the BWA, but only the Department of Environmental Management has the authority to discontinue it.
71. Arizona, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Wyoming, and the Marshall Islands.
72. Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Wyoming, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, and the US Virgin Islands.
73. Alabama, Arizona, Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the Marshall Islands.
74. California, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Missouri, New Mexico, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the US Virgin Islands.
75. Alabama, Arizona, Georgia, Hawaii, Kansas, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Vermont, Virginia, Puerto Rico, and the Marshall Islands.
76. Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Wyoming, Palau, Puerto Rico, the Marshall Islands, and the US Virgin Islands.
77. Gostin LO, Burris S, Lazzarini Z. The law and the public's health: a study of infectious disease law in the United States. Columbia Law Rev. 1998;99:59-128.
78. Cantor KP, Hoover R, Hartge P, et al. Bladder cancer, drinking water source, and tap water consumption: a case control study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1987;79:1269-1279.
79. Zierler S, Feingold L, Danley RA, Crann G. Bladder cancer in Massachusetts related to chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water: a case control study. Arch Environ Health. 1988;43:195-200.
80. Lawrence CE, Taylor PR, Trock BJ, Rally AA. Trihalomethanes in drinking water and human colorectal cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1984; 72:563-568.
81. Young TB, Wolf DA, Kanarek MS. Case-control study of colon cancer and drinking water trihalomethanes in Wisconsin. Int J Epidemiol. 1987;16:190-197.
82. Cryptosporidium and Water: A Public Health Handbook. Atlanta, Ga: Working Group on Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis; 1997.
83. Osterholm MT, Birkhead GS, Meriweather RA. Impediments to public health surveillance in the 1990s: the lack of resources and the need for priorities. J Public Health Manage Pract. 1996;2:11-15.
84. Berkelman RL, Bryan RT, Osterholm MT, LeDuc JW, Hughes JM. Infectious disease surveillance: a crumbling foundation. Science. 1994;264:368-370.
85. Proctor ME, Blair KA, Davis JP. Surveillance data for waterborne illness detection: an assessment following a massive waterborne outbreak of Cryptosporidium infection. Epidemiol Infect. 1998;120:43-54.
86. Fidler DP, Heymann DL, Ostroff SM, O'Brien TP. Emerging and reemerging infectious diseases: challenges for international, national and state law. Int Lawyer. Fall 1997;31:773-799.
87. EPA Drinking Water Contaminant Identification Method Stakeholder Meeting, December 2-3, 1996, Washington, DC (meeting summary prepared by RESOLVE under delivery order 59, contract 68-W4-0001).
88. Perz JF, Ennever FK, Le Blancq SM. Cryptosporidium in tap water: comparison of predicted risks with observed levels of disease. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;147:289-301.
89. Smith HV, Rose JB. Waterborne cryptosporidiosis: current status. Parasitology Today. 1998;14:14-22.
90. Sullivan TFP, ed. Environmental Law Handbook. 14th ed. Rockville, Md: Government Institutes; 1997.