Multiple sclerosis and glutamate

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 993, Issue , 2003, Pages 229-275

  Groom, Anthony J ^a   Smith, Terence ^a   Turski, Lechoslaw ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b Solvay Pharmaceuticals Inc   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

AMPA antagonists; Demyelinating disorders; Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; Glutamate; Glutamate antagonists; Multiple sclerosis

Indexed keywords

1 (4 AMINOPHENYL) 4 METHYL 7,8 METHYLENE DIOXY 4,5 DIHYDRO 3 METHYLCARBAMOYL 2,3 BENZODIAZEPINE; 1 (4 AMINOPHENYL) 4 METHYL 7,8 METHYLENE DIOXY 5H 2,3 BENZODIAZEPINE; 3 (2 CHLOROPHENYL) 2 [2 [6 [(DIETHYLAMINO)METHYL] 2 PYRIDINYL]ETHYNYL] 6 FLUORO 4(3H) QUINAZOLINE; 5 [2 (N,N DIMETHYLAMINO)OXYPHENYL)] 3 PHENYL 1,2,4 OXADIAZOLE; 6 NITRO 7 SULFAMOYLBENZO[F]QUINOXALINE 2,3 DIONE; AMPA RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANIRACETAM; AZATHIOPRINE; BETA INTERFERON; CLADRIBINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CORTICOTROPIN; CP 465022; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DIMETHYL[2 [2 (3 PHENYL 1,2,4 OXADIAZOL 5 YL)PHENOXY]ETHYL]AMINE; DIZOCILPINE; GLATIRAMER; GLUTAMIC ACID; GYK 152466; GYK 153773; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; MEMANTINE; METHOTREXATE; MITOXANTRONE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; [[3,4 DIHYDRO 7 MORPHOLINO 2,3 DIOXO 6 (TRIFLUOROMETHYL) 1(2H) QUINOXALINYL]METHYL]PHOSPHONIC ACID;

ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONFERENCE PAPER; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NERVE DEGENERATION; NEUROTOXICITY; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PLASMAPHERESIS; SIDE EFFECT; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

RODENTIA;

EID: 0038727716     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07533.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (142)

1. CUZNER, M.L., G.M. HAYES, J. NEWCOMBE & M.N. WOODROOFE. 1988. The nature of inflammatory components during demyelination in multiple sclerosis. J. Neuroimmunol. 20: 203-209.
2. KERLERO DE ROSBO, N., C.C. BERNARD, R.D. SIMMONS & P.R. CARNEGIE. 1985. Concomitant detection of changes in myelin basic protein and permeability of blood-spinal cord barrier in acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by electroimmunoblotting. J. Neuroimmunol. 9: 349-361.
3. KERLERO DE ROSBO, N., R. MILO, M.B. LEES, et al. 1993. Reactivity to myelin antigens in multiple sclerosis. Peripheral blood lymphocytes respond predominantly to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. J. Clin. Invest. 92: 2602-2608.
4. RAINE, C.S., L. SCHEINBERG & J.M. WALTZ. 1981. Multiple sclerosis. Oligodendrocyte survival and proliferation in an active established lesion. Lab. Invest. 45: 534-546.
5. EBERS, G.C. 1984. Oligoclonal banding in MS. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 436: 206-212.
6. LININGTON, C., M. BRADL, H. LASSMANN, et al. 1988. Augmentation of demyelination in rat acute allergic encephalomyelitis by circulating mouse monoclonal antibodies directed against a myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. Am. J. Pathol. 130: 443-454.
7. MATTHEWS, P.M. 1999. Axonal loss and demyelination in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 67: 708-709.
8. PENDER, M.P., K.B. NGUYEN, P.A. MCCOMBE & J.F. KERR. 1991. Apoptosis in the nervous system in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neurol. Sci. 104: 81-87.
9. CHARCOT, M. 1868. Histologie de la sclerose en plaques. Gaz. Hosp. 141: 554-555.
10. BJARTMAR, C., G. KIDD, S. MORK, et al. 2000. Neurological disability correlates with spinal cord axonal loss and reduced N-acetyl aspartate in chronic multiple sclerosis patients. Ann. Neurol. 48: 893-901.
11. DAVIE, C.A., N.C. SILVER, G.J. BARKER, et al. 1999. Does the extent of axonal loss and demyelination from chronic lesions in multiple sclerosis correlate with the clinical subgroup? J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 67: 710-715.
12. BITSCH, A., J. SCHUCHARDT, S. BUNKOWSKI, et al. 2000. Acute axonal injury in multiple sclerosis: correlation with demyelination and inflammation. Brain 123: 1174-1183.
13. EVANGELOU, N., M.M. ESIRI, S. SMITH, et al. 2000. Quantitative pathological evidence for axonal loss in normal appearing white matter in multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 47: 391-395.
14. FERGUSON, B., M.K. MATYSZAK, M.M. ESIRI & V.H. PERRY. 1997. Axonal damage in acute multiple sclerosis lesions. Brain 120: 393-399.
15. BITSCH, A., T. KUHLMANN, C. DACOSTA, et al. 2000. Tumour necrosis factor alpha mRNA expression in early multiple sclerosis lesions: correlation with demyelinating activity and oligodendrocyte pathology. Glia 29: 366-375.
16. 1H-NMR spectroscopic studies of brain. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 13: 23-31.
17. DAVIE, C.A., C.P. HAWKINS, G.J. BARKER, et al. 1994. Serial proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in acute multiple sclerosis lesions. Brain 117: 49-58.
18. REDDY, H., S. NARAYANAN, P.M. MATTHEWS, et al. 2000. Relating axonal injury to functional recovery in MS. Neurology 54: 236-239.
19. RIVERA-QUINONES, C., D. MCGAVERN, J.D. SCHMELZER, et al. 1998. Absence of neurological deficits following extensive demyelination in a class I-deficient murine model of multiple sclerosis. Nat. Med. 4: 187-193.
20. FU, L., P.M. MATTHEWS, N. DE STEFANO, et al. 1998. Imaging axonal damage of normal-appearing white matter in multiple sclerosis. Brain 121: 103-113.
21. LEE, M.A., A.M. BLAMIRE, S. PENDLEBURY, et al. 2000. Axonal injury or loss in the internal capsule and motor impairment in multiple sclerosis. Arch. Neurol. 57: 65-70.
22. BHAKOO, K.K. & D. PEARCE. 2000. In vitro expression of N-acetyl aspartate by oligodendrocytes: implications for proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy signal in vivo. J. Neurochem. 74: 254-262.
23. CLEGG, A., J. BRYANT & R. MILNE. 2000. Disease-modifying drugs for multiple sclerosis: a rapid and systematic review. Health Technol. Assess. 4: 1-101.
24. SHARRACK, B., R.A. HUGHES, R.W. MORRIS, et al. 2000. The effect of oral and intravenous methylprednisolone treatment on subsequent relapse rate in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Sci. 173: 73-77.
25. GOLD, R., H.P. HARTUNG & K.V. TOYKA. 2000. Animal models for autoimmune demyelinating disorders of the nervous system. Mol. Med. Today 6: 88-91.
26. WEINSHENKER, B.G., P.C. O'BRIEN, T.M. PETTERSON, et al. 1999. A randomized trial of plasma exchange in acute central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease. Ann. Neurol. 46: 878-886.
27. PATY, D.W. & D.K. LI. 1993. Interferon beta-1b is effective in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. II. MRI analysis results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. UBC MS/MRI Study Group and the IFNβ Multiple Sclerosis Study Group. Neurology 43: 662-667.
28. THE IFNβ MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS STUDY GROUP. 1993. Interferon beta-1b is effective in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. I. Clinical results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 43: 655-661.
29. THE IFNβ MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS STUDY GROUP AND THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA MS/MRI ANALYSIS GROUP. 1995. Interferon beta-1b in the treatment of multiple sclerosis: final outcome of the randomized controlled trial. Neurology 45: 1277-1285.
30. EUROPEAN STUDY GROUP ON INTERFERON BETA-1B IN SECONDARY PROGRESSIVE MS. 1998. Placebo-controlled multicentre randomised trial of interferon beta-1b in treatment of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. Lancet 352: 1491-1497.
31. SIMON, J.H., J. LULL, L.D. JACOBS, et al. 2000. A longitudinal study of T1 hypointense lesions in relapsing MS: MSCRG trial of interferon beta-1a. Multiple Sclerosis Collaborative Research Group. Neurology 55: 185-192.
32. YONG, V.W., S. CHABOT, O. STUVE & G. WILLIAMS. 1998. Interferon beta in the treatment of multiple sclerosis: mechanisms of action. Neurology 51: 682-689.
33. JOHNSON, K.P., B.R. BROOKS, J.A. COHEN, et al. 1995. Copolymer 1 reduces relapse rate and improves disability in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: results of a phase III multicenter, double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 45: 1268-1276.
34. FAZEKAS, F., F. DEISENHAMMER, S. STRASSER-FUCHS, et al. 1997. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of monthly intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Lancet 349: 589-593.
35. MILLEFIORINI, E., C. GASPERINI, C. POZZILLI, et al. 1997. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of mitoxantrone in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: 24-month clinical and MRI outcome. J. Neurol. 244: 153-159.
36. KLIVENYI, P., K. KEKESI, G. JUHASZ & L. VECSEI. 1997. Amino acid concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with multiple sclerosis. Acta. Neurol. Scand. 95: 96-98.
37. LAUNES, J., J. SIREN, L. VIINIKKA, et al. 1998. Does glutamate mediate brain damage in acute encephalitis? NeuroReport 9: 577-581.
38. STOVER, J.F., K. LOWITZSCH & O.S. KEMPSKI. 1997. Cerebrospinal fluid hypoxanthine, xanthine and uric acid levels may reflect glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity in different neurological diseases. Neurosci. Lett. 238: 25-28.
39. STOVER, J.F., U.E. PLEINES, M.C. MORGANTI-KOSSMANN, et al. 1997. Neurotransmitters in cerebrospinal fluid reflect pathological activity. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 27: 1038-1043.
40. STARCK, M., H. ALBRECHT, W. POLLMANN, et al. 1997. Drug therapy for acquired pendular nystagmus in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. 244: 9-16.
41. PLAUT, G.S. 1987. Effectiveness of amantadine in reducing relapses in multiple sclerosis. J. Roy. Soc. Med. 80: 91-93.
42. SMITH, T., A.J. GROOM, B. ZHU & L. TURSKI. 2000. Autoimmune encephalomyelitis ameliorated by AMPA antagonists. Nat. Med. 6: 62-66.
43. BRÜCK, W., M. SCHMIED, G. SUCHANEK, et al. 1994. Oligodendrocytes in the early course of multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 35: 65-73.
44. OZAWA, K., G. SUCHANEK, H. BREITSCHOPF, et al. 1994. Patterns of oligodendroglia pathology in multiple sclerosis. Brain 117: 1311-1322.
45. LASSMANN, H. 1998. Pathology of multiple sclerosis. In McAlpine's Multiple Sclerosis. A. Compston, G. Ebers, H. Lassmann, et al., Eds.: 323-358. Churchill Livingstone, London.
46. PRINEAS, J.W., R.O. BARNARD, E.E. KWON, et al. 1993. Multiple sclerosis: remyelination of nascent lesions. Ann. Neurol. 33: 137-151.
47. SCOLDING, N.J., B.P. MORGAN, W.A. HOUSTON, et al. 1989. Vesicular removal by oligodendrocytes of membrane attack complexes formed by activated complement. Nature 339: 620-622.
48. PATNEAU, D.K., P.W. WRIGHT, C. WINTERS, et al. 1994. Glial cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage express both kainate- and AMPA-preferring subtypes of glutamate receptor. Neuron 12: 357-371.
49. MATUTE, C., M.V. SANCHEZ-GOMEZ, L. MARTINEZ-MILLAN & R. MILEDI. 1997. Glutamate receptor-mediated toxicity in optic nerve oligodendrocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 8830-8835.
50. MCDONALD, J.W., S.P. ALTHOMSONS, K.L. HYRC, et al. 1998. Oligodendrocytes from forebrain are highly vulnerable to AMPA/kainate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity. Nat. Med. 4: 291-297.
51. YOSHIOKA, A., B. BACSKAI & D. PLEASURE. 1996. Pathophysiology of oligodendroglial excitotoxicity. J. Neurosci. Res. 46: 427-437.
52. YOSHIOKA, A., M. HARDY, D.P. YOUNKIN, et al. 1995. α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) receptors mediate excitotoxicity in the oligodendroglial lineage. J. Neurochem. 64: 2442-2448.
53. MATUTE, C. 1998. Characteristics of acute and chronic kainate excitotoxic damage to the optic nerve. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 10229-10234.
54. LOSSEFF, N.A. & D.H. MILLER. 1998. Measures of brain and spinal cord atrophy in multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatr. 64: S102-S105.
55. GAHRING, L.C., R.E. TWYMAN, J.E. GREENLEE & S.W. ROGERS. 1995. Autoantibodies to neuronal glutamate receptors in patients with paraneoplastic neurodegenerative syndrome enhance receptor activation. Mol. Med. 1: 245-253.
56. ROGERS, S.W., P.I. ANDREWS, L.C. GAHRING, et al. 1994. Autoantibodies to glutamate receptor GluR3 in Rasmussen's encephalitis. Science 265: 648-651.
57. CLEVELAND, D.W. & J.D. ROTHSTEIN. 2001. From Charcot to Lou Gehrig: deciphering selective motor neuron death in ALS. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2: 806-819.
58. HUGON, J., J.M. VALLAT, P.S. SPENCER, et al. 1989. Kainic acid induces early and delayed degenerative neuronal changes in rat spinal cord. Neurosci. Lett. 104: 258-262.
59. IKONOMIDOU, C., Y. QIN QIN, J. LABRUYERE & J.W. OLNEY. 1996. Motor neuron degeneration induced by excitotoxin agonists has features in common with those seen in the SOD-1 transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 55: 211-224.
60. LUDOLPH, A.C., T. MEYER & M.W. RIEPE. 2000. The role of excitotoxicity in ALS - what is the evidence? J. Neurol. 247: 7-16.
61. SHAW, P.J. & P.G. INCE. 1997. Glutamate, excitotoxicity and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Neurol. 244: S3-S14.
62. SHAW, P.J. 1998. Excitotoxicity, genetics and neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In Excitatory Amino Acids: From Genes to Therapy. P.H. Seeburg, I. Bresink & L. Turski, Eds.: 65-94. Springer, Berlin.
63. RIVERS, T.M., D.H. SPRUNT & G.P. BERRY. 1933. Observations on attempts to produce acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in monkeys. J. Exp. Med. 58: 39-53.
64. WAKSMAN, B.H. 1959. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis and the auto-allergic diseases. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 14: S1-S87.
65. + T cells specific for an astrocyte protein, S100β. J. Neural. Transm. 49: S43-S51.
66. SMITH, T., M. SCHMIED, A.K. HEWSON, et al. 1996. Apoptosis of T cells and macrophages in the central nervous system of intact and adrenalectomized Lewis rats during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Autoimmun. 9: 167-174.
67. PENDER, M.P. 1987. Demyelination and neurological signs in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 15: 11-24.
68. PENDER, M.P. 1988. The pathophysiology of myelin basic protein-induced acute experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the Lewis rat. J. Neurol. Sci. 86: 277-289.
69. SIMMONS, R.D., C.C. BERNARD, G. SINGER & P.R. CARNEGIE. 1982. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. An anatomically-based explanation of clinical progression in rodents. J. Neuroimmunol. 3: 307-318.
70. MACPHEE, I.A., F.A. ANTONI & D.W. MASON. 1989. Spontaneous recovery of rats from experimental allergic encephalomyelitis is dependent on regulation of the immune system by endogenous adrenal corticosteroids. J. Exp. Med. 169: 431-445.
71. SCHMIED, M., H. BREITSCHOPF, R. GOLD, et al. 1993. Apoptosis of T lymphocytes in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Evidence for programmed cell death as a mechanism to control inflammation in the brain. Am. J. Pathol. 143: 446-452.
72. FLANAGAN, E.M., J.B. ERICKSON, O.H. VIVEROS, et al. 1995. Neurotoxin quinolinic acid is selectively elevated in spinal cords of rats with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neurochem. 64: 1192-1196.
73. HONEGGER, C.G., W. KRENGER & H. LANGEMANN. 1989. Changes in amino acid contents in the spinal cord and brainstem of rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Neurochem. 53: 423-427.
74. TURECKY, L., B. LISKA & I. PECHAN. 1980. Glycine in the central nervous system in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neurochem. 35: 735-738.
75. HARDIN-POUZET, H., M. KRAKOWSKI, L. BOURBONNIERE, et al. 1997. Glutamate metabolism is down-regulated in astrocytes during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Glia 20: 79-85.
76. CAMMER, W., F.A. TANSEY & C.F. BROSNAN. 1990. Reactive gliosis in the brains of Lewis rats with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 27: 111-120.
77. BOLTON, C. & C. PAUL. 1997. MK-801 limits neurovascular dysfunction during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 282: 397-402.
78. WALLSTRÖM, E., P. DIENER, A. LJUNGDAHL, et al. 1996. Memantine abrogates neurological deficits, but not CNS inflammation, in Lewis rat experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J. Neurol. Sci. 137: 89-96.
79. TACHIBANA, M., R.J. WENTHOLD, H. MORIOKA & R.S. PETRALIA. 1994. Light and electron microscopic immunocytochemical localization of AMPA-selective glutamate receptors in the rat spinal cord. J. Comp. Neurol. 344: 431-454.
80. LI, S. & P.K. STYS. 2000. Mechanisms of ionotropic glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity in isolated spinal cord white matter. J. Neurosci. 20: 1190-1198.
81. HAYDON, P.G. 2001. Glia: listening and talking to the synapse. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2: 185-193.
82. VESCE, S., P. BEZZI & A. VOLTERRA. 1999. The active role of astrocytes in synaptic transmission. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56: 991-1000.
83. PIANI, D., K. FREI, K.Q. DO, et al. 1991. Murine brain macrophages induced NMDA receptor mediated neurotoxicity in vitro by secreting glutamate. Neurosci. Lett. 133: 159-162.
84. 3H]NAAG catabolism in vivo. Neurosci. Lett. 100: 295-300.
85. GONG, C., A. BERENT, D. GOLOVOY, et al. 2000. Inhibition of NAALADase protects neurons against glucose-induced programmed cell death in models of diabetic neuropathy. Soc. Neurosci. (Abstr.) 26: 1135.
86. SLUSHER, B.S., J.J. VORNOV, A.G. THOMAS, et al. 1999. Selective inhibition of NAALADase, which converts NAAG to glutamate, reduces ischemic brain injury. Nat. Med. 5: 1396-1402.
87. SLUSHER, B.S., K.M. WOZNIAK, T. HARTMAN, et al. 2000. NAALADase inhibition increases survival and delays clinical symptoms in an SOD transgenic model of ALS. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 26: 113.
88. WOZNIAK, K.M., N. CALLIZOT, P. POINDRON & B.S. SLUSHER. 2000. NAALADase inhibition enhances behavioral and morphological recovery following sciatic nerve crush in mice. Soc. Neurosci. (Abstr.) 26: 1145.
89. CARNEGIE, P.R., P.R. DUNKLEY, B.E. KEMP & A.W. MURRAY. 1974. Phosphorylation of selected serine and threonine residues in myelin basic protein by endogenous and exogenous protein kinases. Nature 249: 147-150.
90. DUNKLEY, P.R. & P.R. CARNEGIE. 1974. Amino acid sequence of the smaller basic protein from rat brain myelin. Biochem. J. 141: 243-255.
91. SHEARDOWN, M.J., E.O. NIELSEN, A.J. HANSEN, et al. 1990. 2,3-Dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoyl-benzo(F)quinoxaline: a neuroprotectant for cerebral ischemia. Science 247: 571-574.
92. TARNAWA, I. & E.S. VIZI. 1998. 2,3-Benzodiazepine AMPA antagonists. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 13: 41-57.
93. + neurotoxicity by N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists. Nature 349: 414-418.
94. TURSKI, L., A. HUTH, M. SHEARDOWN, et al. 1998. ZK200775: a phosphonate quinoxalinedione AMPA antagonist for neuroprotection in stroke and trauma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 10960-10965.
95. PAXINOS, G. & C. WATSON. 1998. The Rat Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates. Academic Press, London.
96. CRUZ-ORIVE, L.M. & E.R. WEIBEL. 1990. Recent stereological methods for cell biology: a brief survey. Am. J. Physiol. 258: L148-L156.
97. IKONOMIDOU, C., F. BOSCH, M. MIKSA, et al. 1999. Blockade of NMDA receptors and apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing brain. Science 283: 70-74.
98. PETRALIA, R.S., Y.X. WANG, E. MAYAT & R.J. WENTHOLD. 1997. Glutamate receptor subunit 2-selective antibody shows a differential distribution of calcium-impermeable AMPA receptors among populations of neurons. J. Comp. Neurol. 385: 456-476.
99. KWAK, S. & R. NAKAMURA. 1995. Acute and late neurotoxicity in the rat spinal cord in vivo induced by glutamate receptor agonists. J. Neurol. Sci. 129: S99-S103.
100. MAGNUSON, D.S., T.C. TRINDER, Y.P. ZHANG, et al. 1999. Comparing deficits following excitotoxic and contusion injuries in the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord of the adult rat. Exp. Neurol. 156: 191-204.
101. MIX, E., J. CORREALE, T. OLSSON, et al. 1992. Calcium antagonists suppress experimental allergic neuritis (EAN). J. Autoimmun. 5: 69-82.
102. BOLTON, C., J.K. O'NEILL, S.J. ALLEN & D. BAKER. 1997. Regulation of chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 114: 74-80.
103. MASON, D., I. MCPHEE & F. ANTONI. 1990. The role of the neuroendocrine system in determining genetic susceptibility to experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the rat. Immunology 70: 1-5.
104. TOKAREV, D. & D. JEZOVA. 1997. Effect of central administration of the non-NMDA receptor antagonist DNQX on ACTH and corticosterone release before and during immobilization stress. Meth. Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 19: 323-328.
105. AHMED, Z., D. GVERIC, G. PRYCE, et al. 2001. Myelin/axonal pathology in interleukin-12 induced serial relapses of experimental allergic encephalomylitis in the Lewis rat. Am. J. Pathol. 158: 2127-2138.
106. STEWART, G.R., J.W. OLNEY, M. PATHIKONDA & W.D. SNIDER. 1991. Excitotoxicity in the embryonic chick spinal cord. Ann. Neurol. 30: 758-766.
107. KREUTZBERG, G.W., W.F. BLAKEMORE & M.B. GRAEBER. 1997. Cellular pathology of the central nervous system. In Greenfield's Neuropathology. D.I. Graham & P.L. Lantos, Eds.: 85-156. Arnold, London.
108. PITT, D., P. WERNER & C.S. RAINE. 2000. Glutamate excitotoxicity in a model of multiple sclerosis. Nat. Med. 6: 67-70.
109. TEKKOK, S.B. & M.P. GOLDBERG. 2001. AMPA/kainate receptor activation mediates hypoxic oligodendrocyte death and axonal injury in cerebral white matter. J. Neurosci. 21: 4237-4248.
110. HUMBLE, J.G., W.H.W. JAYNE & R.J.V. PULVERTAFT. 1956. Biological interaction between lymphocytes and other cells. Brit. J. Hæmat. 2: 183-188.
111. HUGHES, D., C.S. RAINE & E.J. FIELD. 1968. Invasion of neurones in vitro by non immune lymphocytes. An electron microscopic study. Brit. J. Exp. Pathol. 49: 356-359.
112. WYLLIE, A.H., G.J. BEATTIE & A.D. HARGREAVES. 1981. Chromatin changes in apoptosis. Histochem. J. 13: 681-692.
113. SCARAVILLI, F., S.F. AN, M. GROVES & M. THOM. 1999. The neuropathology of paraneoplastic syndromes. Brain Pathol. 9: 251-260.
114. DALMAU, J., H.S. GULTEKIN & J.B. POSNER. 1999. Paraneoplastic neurologic syndromes: pathogenesis and physiopathology. Brain Pathol. 9: 275-284.
115. LINDA, H., H. HAMMARBERG, F. PIEHL, et al. 1999. Expression of MHC class I heavy chain and beta2-microglobulin in rat brainstem motoneurons and nigral dopaminergic neurons. J. Neuroimmunol. 101: 76-86.
116. NEUMANN, H., A. CAVALIÉ, D.E. JENNE & H. WEKERLE. 1995. Induction of MHC class I genes in neurons. Science 269: 549-552.
117. CORRIVEAU, R.A., G.S. HUH & C.J. SHATZ. 1998. Regulation of class I MHC gene expression in the developing and mature CNS by neural activity. Neuron 21: 505-520.
118. BAUER, J., C.G. BIEN, T.L. DECKWERTH, et al. 2001. Destruction of neurons by cytotoxic T cells in Rasmussen's encephalitis. J. Neuroimmunol. 118: A140.
119. ADAMS, C.W.M., R.N. POSTON & S.J. BUK. 1989. Pathology, histochemistry and immunocytochemistry of lesions in acute multiple sclerosis. J. Neurol. Sci. 92: 291-306.
120. KÖNIG, H., J.J. TROUT, A.D. GOLDSTONE & C.Y. LU. 1992. Capillary NMDA receptors regulate blood-brain barrier function and breakdown. Brain Res. 588: 297-303.
121. TRAPP, B.D., R. RANSOHOFF & R. RUDICK. 1999. Axonal pathology in multiple sclerosis: relationship to neurologic disability. Curr. Opinion Neurol. 12: 295-302.
122. ROGER, R.C., G.E. HERMANN, J.C. BRESNAHAN & M.S. BEATTIE. 2000. TNF, glutamate and neurodegeneration in the rat spinal cord. Soc. Neurosci. (Abstr.) 26: 1186.
123. VILLAROYA, H., K. VIOLLEAU, A. BEN YOUNES-CHENNOUFI & N. BAUMANN. 1996. Myelin-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in Lewis rats: tumour necrosis factor α levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid. Immunohistochemical expression in glial cells and macrophages of optic nerve and spinal cord. J. Neuroimmunol. 64: 55-61.
124. BROSNAN, C.F., K. SELMAJ & C.S. RAINE. 1988. Hypothesis: A role for tumor necrosis factor in immune-mediated demyelination and its relevance to multiple sclerosis. J. Neuroimmunol. 18: 87-94.
125. FINE, S.M., R.A. ANGEL, S.W. PERRY, et al. 1996. Tumor necrosis factor α inhibits glutamate uptake by primary human astrocytes. Implications for pathogenesis of HIV-1 dementia. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 15303-15306.
126. HAN, Y., T. HE, D. HUANG, et al. 2001. TNF-α mediates SDF-1α-induced NF-κB activation and cytotoxic effects in primary astocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 108: 425-435.
127. WERNER, P., D. PITT & C.S. RAINE. 2001. Multiple sclerosis: altered glutamate homeostasis in lesions correlates with oligodendrocyte and axonal damage. Ann. Neurol. 50: 169-180.
128. BEZZI, P., M. DOMERCQ, L. BRAMBILLA, et al. 2001. CXCR4-activated astrocyte glutamate release via TNF-α: amplification by microglia triggers neurotoxicity. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 702-710.
129. NODA, M., H. NAKANISHI, J. NABEKURA & N. AKAIKE. 2000. AMPA-kainate subtypes of glutamate receptor in rat cerebral microglia. J. Neurosci. 20: 251-258.
130. TAUPIN, V., T. RENNO, L. BOURBONNIERE, et al. 1997. Increased severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, chronic macrophage/microglial reactivity, and demyelination in transgenic mice producing tumor necrosis factor-α in the central nervous system. Eur. J. Immunol. 27: 905-913.
131. INCE, P., N. STOUT, P. SHAW, et al. 1993. Parvalbumin and calbindin D-28k in the human motor system and in motor neuron disease. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 19: 291-299.
132. WILLIAMS, T.L., N.C. DAY, P.G. INCE, et al. 1997. Calcium-permeable α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptors: a molecular determinant of selective vulnerability in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 42: 200-207.
133. HERMANN, G.E., R.C. ROGERS, J.C. BRESNAHAN & M.S. BEATTIE. 2001. Tumor necrosis factor-α induces cFOS and strongly potentiates glutamate-mediated cell death in the rat spinal cord. Neurobiol. Dis. 8: 590-599.
134. ARAQUE, A., R.P. SANZGIRI, V. PARPURA & P.G. HAYDON. 1999. Astrocyte-induced modulation of synaptic transmission. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 77: 699-706.
135. PARPURA, V., T.A. BASARSKY, F. LIU, et al. 1994 Glutamate-mediated astrocyte-neuron signalling. Nature 369: 744-747.
136. BAKER, D., J.K. O'NEILL, S.E. GSCHMEISSNER, et al. 1990. Induction of chronic relapsing experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in Biozzi mice. J. Neuroimmunol. 28: 261-270.
137. KORNEK, B., M.K. STORCH, J. BAUER, et al. 2001. Distribution of a calcium channel subunit in dystrophic axons in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Brain 124: 1114-1124.
138. + channels improves experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and inhibits T cell activation. J. Immunol. 166: 936-944.
139. NEUSCH, C., N. ROZENGURT, R.E. JACOBS, et al. 2001. Kir4.1 potassium channel subunit is crucial for oligodendrocyte development and in vivo myelination. J. Neurosci. 21: 5429-5438.
140. SHRAGER, P. & S.D. NOVAKOVIC. 1995. Control of myelination, axonal growth, and synapse formation in spinal cord explants by ion channels and electrical activity. Brain Res. Dev. 88: 68-78.
141. WAXMAN, S.G. & J.M. RITCHIE. 1993. Molecular dissection of the myelinated axon. Ann. Neurol. 33: 121-136.
142. 2+ channels and anoxic injury in rat CNS white matter. J. Neurophysiol. 85: 900-911.