The role of PPARs in inflammation and immunity

Journal of Leukocyte Biology

Volumn 71, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 388-400

  Clark, Robert B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Endothelial cells; Macrophages; T cells; Thiazolidinediones

Indexed keywords

INTERLEUKIN 12; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR ALPHA; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR GAMMA;

APOPTOSIS; CELL PROLIFERATION; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DENDRITIC CELL; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; HUMAN; IMMUNITY; INFLAMMATION; MACROPHAGE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECEPTOR INTRINSIC ACTIVITY; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; IMMUNITY; INFLAMMATION; NUCLEAR PROTEINS; RECEPTORS, CYTOPLASMIC AND NUCLEAR; TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS;

EID: 0036521594     PISSN: 07415400     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (104)

1. Issemann, I., Green, S. (1998) Activation of a member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily by peroxisome proliferators. Nature 347, 645-650.
2. Kliewer, S. A., Umesono, K., Noonan, D. J., Heyman, R. A., Evans, R. M. (1992) Convergence of 9-cis retinoic acid and peroxisome proliferator signaling pathways through heterodimer formation of their receptors. Nature 358, 771-774.
3. Mangelsdorf, D. J., Thummel, C., Beato, M., Herrlich, P., Schutz, G., Umesono, K., Blumberg, B., Kastner, P., Mark, M., Chambon, P., Evans, R. M. (1995) The nuclear receptor superfamily; the second decade. Cell 83, 835-839.
4. Lemberger, T., Desvergne, B., Wahli, W. (1996) Peroxisome prolferator-activated receptors: a nuclear receptor signaling pathway in lipid physiology. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 12, 1355-1363.
5. Gearing, K., Crickmore, A., Gustafsson, J. (1994) Structure of the mouse peroxisome proliferator activated alpha gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 99, 255-263.
6. Schmidt, A., Endo, N., Rutledge, S., Vogel, R., Shinar, D., Rodan, G. (1992) Identification of a new member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily that is activated by peroxisome proliferator and fatty acid. Mol. Endocrinol. 6, 1634-1641.
7. Tontonoz, P., Hu, E., Graves, R. A., Budavari, A. I., Spiegelman, B. M. (1994) mPPARγ 2: tissue-specific regulator of an adipocyte enhancer. Genes Dev. 8, 1224-1234.
8. Zhu, Y., Alvares, K., Huang, Q., Sambasiva Rao, M., Reddy, J. (1993) Cloning of a new member of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gene family from mouse liver. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 26817-26820.
9. Mangelsdorf, D. J., Ong, E. S., Dyck, J. A., Evans, R. M. (1990) A nuclear receptor that identifies a novel retinoic acid response pathway. Nature 345, 224-229.
10. Mangelsdorf, D. J., Evans, R. M. (1995) The RXR heterodimers and orphan receptors. Cell 83, 841-850.
11. Chambon, P. (1996) A decade of molecular biology of retinoic acid receptors. FASEB J. 10, 940-954.
12. Mangelsdorf, D. J., Borgmeyer, U., Heyman, R. A., Zhou, J. Y., Ong, E. S., Oro, A. E., Kakizuka, A., Evans, R. M. (1992) Characterization of three RXR genes that mediate the action of 9-cis retinoic acid. Genes Dev. 6, 329-344.
13. Torchia, J., Glass, C., Rosenfeld, M. G. (1998) Co-activators and corepressors in the integration of transcriptional responses. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 10, 373-383.
14. Bjorklund, S., Almouzni, G., Davidson, I., Nightingale, K. P., Weiss, K. (1999) Global transcription regulators of eukaryotes. Cell 96, 759-767.
15. Zhu, Y., Qi, C., Jain, S., Rao, M. S., Reddy, J. K. (1997) Isolation and characterization of PBP, a protein that interacts with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 25500-25506.
16. Zhu, Y., Qi, C., Calandra, C., Rao, M. S., Reddy, J. K. (1996) Cloning and identification of mouse steroid receptor co-activator-1 (mSRC-1), as a co-activator or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ. Gene Exp. 6, 185-195.
17. Chinetti, G., Griglio, S., Antonucci, M., Torra, I. P., Delerive, P., Majd, Z., Fruchart, J. C., Chapman, J., Najib, J., Staels, B. (1998) Activation of proliferator-activated receptors α and γ induces apoptosis of human monocyte-derived macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 25573-25580.
18. 2. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 17042-17048.
19. Peters, J. M., Hennuyer, N., Staels, B., Fruchart, J-C., Fievet, C., Gonzales, F. J., Auwerx, J. (1997) Alterations in lipoprotein metabolism in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α-deficient mice. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 27307-27312.
20. Aoyama, T., Peters, J. M., Iritani, N., Nakajima, T., Furihata, K., Hashimoto, T., Gonzalez, F. J. (1998) Altered constitutive expression of fatty-acid-metabolizing enzymes in mice lacking the peroxisome proliferator receptor α. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 5678-5684.
21. Forman, B. M., Chen, J., Evans, R. M. (1997) Hypolipidemic drugs, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and eicosanoids are ligands for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors alpha and delta. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 4312-4317.
22. Tontonoz, P., Hu, E., Spiegelman, B. M. (1994) Stimulation of adipogeneisis in fibroblasts by PPABγ2, a lipid-activated transcription factor. Cell 79, 1147-1156.
23. Chawla, A., Schwartz, E. J., Dimaculangan, D. D., Lazar, M. A. (1994) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ: adipose-predominant expression and induction early in adipocyte differentiation. Endocrinology 135, 798-800.
24. Hu, E., Tontonoz, P., Spiegelman, B. M. (1995) Transdifferentiation of myoblasts by the adipogenic transcription factors PPARγ and C/EBP α, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 9856-9860.
25. Zhu, Y., Qi, C., Korenberg, J. R., Chen, X. N., Noya, D., Sambasiva-Rao, M., Reddy, J. K. (1995) Structural organization of mouse peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) gene: alternative promoter use and different splicing yield two mPPARγ isoforms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 7921-7925.
26. Fajas, L., Fruchart, J. C., Auwerx, J. (1998) PPARγ3 mRNA: a distinct PPARγ mRNA subtype transcribed from an independent promoter. FEBS Lett. 438, 55-60.
27. Braissant, O., Foufelle, F., Scotto, C., Dauca, M., Wahli, W. (1996) Differential expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs): tissue distributon of PPAR-α, -β, and -γ in the adult rat. Endocrinology 137, 354-366.
28. Greene, M. E., Blumberg, B., McBride, O. W., Yi, H. F., Kronquist, K., Hsieh, L., Greene, G., Nimer, S. D. (1995) Isolation of the human peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ cDNA: expression in hematopoietic cells and chromosomal mapping. Gene Expr. 4, 281-299.
29. Marx, N., Sukhova, G., Murphy, C., Libby, P., Plutzky, J. (1998) Macrophages in human atheroma contain PPARγ. Differentiation-dependent peroxisomal proliferator-activated receptor (PPARγ) expression and reduction of MMP-9 activity through PPARγ activation in mononuclear phagocytes in vitro. Am. J. Pathol. 153, 17-23.
30. Ricote, M., Huang, J., Fajas, L., Li, A., Welch, J., Najib, J., Witzum, J. L., Auwerx, J., Palinski, W., Glass, C. K. (1998) Expression of the peroxisome prolifererator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) in human atherosclerosis and regulation in macrophages by colony stimulating factors and oxidized low density lipoprotein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 7614-7619.
31. Lehman, J. M., Moore, L. B., Smith-Oliver, T. A., Wilkinson, W. O., Wilson, T. M., Kliewer, S. A. (1995) An antidiabetic thiazolidinedione is a high affinity ligand for peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 12953-12956.
32. Kliewer, S. A., Lehmann, J. M., Willson, T. M. (1999) Orphan nuclear receptors: shifting endocrinology into reverse. Science 284, 757-760.
33. Mueller, E., Sarraf, P., Tontonoz, P., Evans, R. M., Martin, K. J., Zhang, M., Fletcher, C., Singer, S., Spiegelman, B. M. (1998) Terminal differentiation of human breast cancer through PPARγ. Mol. Cell 1, 465-470.
34. Elstner, E., Muller, C., Koshizuka, K., Williamson, E. A., Park, D., Asou, H., Shintaku, P., Said, J. W., Heber, D., Koeffler, H. P. (1998) Ligands for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and retinoic acid receptor inhibit growth and induce apoptosis of human breast cancer cells in vitro and in BNX mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 8806-8811.
35. Altiok, S., Xu, M., Spiegelman, B. M. (1997) PPARγ induces cell cycle withdrawal: inhibition of E2/DP DNA-binding activity via down-regulation of PP2A. Genes Devel. 11, 1987-1998.
36. Tontonoz, P., Singer, S., Firman, B. M., Sarraf, P., Fletcher, J. A., Fletcher, C. D., Brun, R. P., Mueller, E., Altiok, S., Oppenheim, H., Evans, R. M., Spiegelman, B. M. (1997) Terminal differentiation of human liposarcoma cells induced by ligands for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and the retinoid X receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 237-241.
37. Sarraf, P., Mueller, E., Jones, D., King, F. J., DeAngelo, D. J., Partridge, J. B., Holden, S. A., Chen, L. B., Singer, S., Fletcher, C., Spiegelman, B. M. (1998) Differentiation and reversal of malignant changes in colon cancer through PPARγ. Nat. Med. 4, 1046-1052.
38. Saez, E., Tontonoz, P., Nelson, M. C., Alvarez, J. G., Ming, U. T., Baird, S. M., Thomazy, V. A., Evans, R. M. (1998) Activators of the nuclear receptor PPARγ enhance colon polyp formation. Nat. Med. 4, 1058-1061.
39. Lefebvre, A., Chen. I., Desreumaux, P., Najib, J., Fruchart, J., Geboes, K., Briggs, M., Heyman, R., Auwerx, J. (1998) Activation of the peroxisome prolifertor-activated receptor γ promotes the development of colon tumors in C57BL/6j-APCmin/+ mice. Nat. Med. 4, 1053-1057.
40. Lehmann, J. M., Lenhard, J. M., Oliver, B. B., Ringold, G. M., Kliewer, S. A. (1997) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ are activated by indomethacin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 3406-3410.
41. 2 is a ligand for the adipocyte determination factor PPARγ. Cell 83, 803-812.
42. 2 metabolite binds peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and promotes adipocyte differentiation. Cell 83, 813-819.
43. Nagy, L., Tontonoz, P., Alvarez, J. G., Chen, H., Evans, R. M. (1998) Oxidized LDL regulates macrophage gene expression through ligand activation of PPARγ. Cell 93, 229-240.
44. Funk, C. D. (1996)The molecular biology of mammalian lipoxygenases and the quest for eicosanoid functions using lipoxygenase deficient mice. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1304, 65-84.
45. Huang, J. T., Welch, J. S., Ricote, M., Binder, C. J., Willson, T. M., Kelly, C., Witzum, J. L., Funk, C. D., Conrad, D., Glass, C. K. (1999) Interleukin-4-dependent production of PPARγ ligands in macrophages by 12/15-lipoxygenases. Nature 400, 378-382.
46. Ricote, M., Huang, J. T., Welch, J. S., Glass, C. K. (1999) The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPAR γ) as a regulator of monocyte/macrophage function. J. Leukoc. Biol. 66. 733-739.
47. Peters, J. M., Hennuyer, N., Staels, B., Fruchart, J. C., Fievet, J. C., Gonzales, F. J., Auwerx, J. (1997) Alterations in lipoprotein metabolism in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-deficient mice. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 27307-27312.
48. Costet, P., Legendre, C., More, J., Edgar, A., Galtier, P., Pineau, T. (1998) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-isoform deficiency leads to progressive dyslipidemia with sexually dimorphic obesity and steatosis. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 29577-29585.
49. 4 pathway to inflammation control. Nature 384, 39-43.
50. Hill, M. R., Clarke, S., Rodgers, K., Thornhill, B., Peters, J. M., Gonzalez, F. J., Gimble, J. M. (1999) Effect of perooxisome proliferatoractivated receptor alpha activators on tumor necrosis factor expression in mice during endotoxemia. Infect. Immun. 67, 3488-3493.
51. Poynter, M. E., Daynes, R. A. (1998) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α activation modulates cellular redox status, represses nuclear factor-κB signaling, and reduces inflammatory cytokine production in aging. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 32833-32841.
52. Colville-Nash, P. R., Qureshi, S. S., Willis, D., Willoughby, D. A. (1998) Inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists: correlation with induction of heme oxygenase 1. J. Immunol. 161, 978-984.
53. Chinetti, C., Griglio, S., Antonucci, M., Pineds Torra, I., Delerive, P., Majd, Z., Jean-Fruchart, J-C., Chapman, J., Najib, J., Staels, B. (1998) Activation of proliferator-activated receptors α and γ induces apoptosis of human monocyte-derived macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 25573-25580.
54. Jackson, S. M., Parhanii, F., Xi, X. P., Berliner, J. A., Hsueh, W. A., Law, R. E., Demer, L. L. (1999) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activators target human endothelial cells to inhibit leukocyte-endothelial cell interaction. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19, 2094-2104.
55. Lee, H., Shi, W., Tontonoz, P., Wang, S., Subbanagounder, G., Hedrick, C. C., Hama, S., Borromeo, C., Evans, R. M., Berliner, J. A., Nagy, L. (2000) Role for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α in oxidized phospholipid-induced synthesis of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and interleukin-8 by endothelial cells. Circ. Res. 87, 516-521.
56. Marx, N., Sukhova, G., Collins, T., Libby, P., Plutzky, J. (1999) PPAR alpha activators inhibit cytokine-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in human endothelial cells. Circulation 99, 3125-3131.
57. Faveeuw, C., Fougeray, S., Angeli, V., Fontaine, J., Chinetti, G., Gosset, P., Delerive, P., Maliszewski, C., Capron, M., Staels, B., Moser, M., Trottein, F. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator receptor γ activators inhibit interleukin-12 production in murine dendritic cells. FEBS Lett. 486, 261-266.
58. Sugiyama, H., Nonaka, T., Kishimoto, T., Komoriya, K., Tsuji, K., Nakahata, T. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors are expressed in human cultured mast cells: a possible role of these receptors in negative regulation of mast cell activation. Eur. J. Immunol. 30, 3363-3370.
59. Sugiyama, H., Nonaka, T., Kishimoto, T., Komoriya, K., Tsuji, K., Nakahata, T. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors are expressed in mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells. FEBS Lett. 467, 259-262.
60. Chinetti, G., Fruchart, J-C., Staels, B. (2000) Peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptors (PPARs): nuclear receptors at the crossroads between lipid metabolism and inflammation. Inflamm. Res. 49, 497-505.
61. Shu, H., Wong, B., Zhou, G., Li, Y., Berger, J., Woods, J. W., Wright, S. D., Cai, T-Q. (2000) Activation of PPARα or γ reduces secretion of matrix metalloproteinase 9 but not interleukin 8 from human monocytic THP-1 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 267, 345-349.
62. Staels, B., Koenig, W., Habib, A., Merval, R., Lebret, M., Torra, I. P., Delerive, P., Fadel, A., Chinetti, G., Fruchart, J. C., Najib, J., Maclouf, J., Tedgui, A. (1998) Activation of human aortic smooth-muscle cells is inhibited by PPARα but not by PPAR γ activators. Nature 397, 790-793.
63. Delerive, P., De Bosscher, K., Besnard, S., VandenBerghe, W., Paters, J. M., Gonzalez, F. J., Fruchart, J-C., Tedgui, A., Haegeman, G., Staels, B. (1999) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α negatively regulates the vascular inflammatory gene response by negative cross-talk with transcription factors NF-κB and AP-1. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 32048-32054.
64. Delerive, P., Gervois, P., Fruchart, J-C., Staels, B. (2000) Induction of IκBα expression as a mechanism contributing to the anti-inflammatory activities of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α activators. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 36703-36707.
65. Gilroy, D. W., Colville-Nash, P. R., Chivers, W. J., Paul-Clark, M. J., Willoughby, D. A. (1999) Inducible cyclooxygenase may have antiinflammatory properties. Nat. Med. 6, 698-701.
66. Tontonoz, P., Nagy, L., Alvarez, J. G. A., Thomazy, V. A., Evans, R. M. (1998) PPARγ promotes monocyte/macrophage differentiation and uptake of oxidized LDL. Cell 93, 241-252.
67. Ricote, M., Li, A. C., Willson, T. M., Kelly, C. J., Glass, C. K. (1998) The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ is a negative regulator of macrophage activation. Nature 391, 79-82.
68. Jiang, C., Ting, A. T., Seed, B. (1998) PPAR-γ agonists inhibit production of monocyte inflammatory cytokines. Nature 391, 82-86.
69. Huang, J. T., Welch, J. S., Ricote, M., Binder, C. J., Willlson, T. M., Kelly, C., Witzum, J. L., Funk, C. D., Conrad, D., Glass, C. K. (1999) Interleukin-4-dependent production of PPARγ ligands in macrophages by 12/15-lipoxygenase. Nature 400, 378-382.
70. 2 inhibits IL-10 and IL-12 production by macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 283, 344-346.
71. Nagy, L., Tontonoz, P., Alvarez, J. G. A., Chen, H., Evans, R. M. (1998) Oxidized LDL regulates macrophage gene expression through ligand activation of PPARγ. Cell 93, 229-240.
72. Chinetti, G., Gbaguidi, F. G. Griglio, S., Mallat, Z., Antonucci, M., Poulain, P., Chapman, J., Fruchart, J. C., Tedgui, A., Fruchart, J. N., Staels, B. (2000) CLA-1/SR-BI is expressed in atherosclerotic lesion macrophages and regulated by activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Circulation 101, 2411-2417.
73. Thieringer, R., Fenyk-Melody, J. E., Le Grand, C. B., Shelton, B. A., Detmers, P. A., Somers, E. P., Carbin, L., Moller, D. E., Wright, S. D. Berger, J. (2000) Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ does not inhibit IL-6 or TNF-α responses of macrophages to lipopolysaccharide in vitro or in vivo. J. Immunol. 164, 1046-1054.
74. Zhang, X., Wang, J. M., Gong, H. W., Mukaida, N., Young, H. A. (2001) Differential regulation of chemokine expression by 15-deoxy-Δ12,14, prostaglandin J(2). J. Immunol. 166, 7104-7111.
75. Bishop-Bailey, D., Hla, T. (1999) Endothelial cell apoptosis induced by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) ligand 15deoxyΔ12-14 prostaglandin J2. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 17042-17048.
76. Marx, N., Mach, F., Sauty, A., Leung, J. H., Sarafi, M. N., Ransohoff, R. M., Libby, P., Plutzky, J., Luster, A. D. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ activators inhibit IFN-γ-induced expression of the T cell-active CXC chemokines IP-10, Mig, and I-TAC in human endothelial cells. J. Immunol. 164, 6503-6508.
77. Chen, N-G., Han, X. (2001) Dual function of troglitazone in ICAM-1 gene expression in human vascular endothelium. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 282, 717-722.
78. Kawahito, Y., Kondo, M., Tsubouchhi, Y., Hashiramoto, A., Bishop-Bailey, D., Inoue, K., Kohno, M., Yamada, R., Hla, T., Sano, H. (2000) 15-Deoxy-delta (12,14)-PGJ(2) induces synoviocyte apoptosis and suppresses adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. J. Clin. Investig. 106, 189-197.
79. Combs, C. K., Johnson, D. E., Karlo, J. C., Cannady, S. B., Landreth, G. E. (2000) Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease: inhibition of β-amyloid-stimulated proinflammatory responses and neurotoxicity by PPARγ agonists. J. Neurosci. 20, 558-567.
80. Kitamura, Y., Shimohama, S., Koike, H., Kakimura, J., Matsuoka, Y., Nomura, Y., Gebicke-Haerter, P. J., Taniguchi, T. (1999) Increased expression of cyclooxygenases and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ in Alzheimer's disease brains. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 254, 582-586.
81. McGeer, P. L., Schulzer, M., McGeer, E. G. (1996) Arthritis and anti-inflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer's disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies. Neurology 47, 425-432.
82. Heneka, M. T., Klockgether, T., Feinstein, D. L. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ ligands reduce neuronal inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and cell death in vivo. J. Neurosci. 20, 6862-6867.
83. Su, C. G., Wen, X., Bailey, S. T., Jiang, W., Rangwala, S. M., Keilbaugh, S. A., Flanigan, A., Murthy, S., Lazar, M. A., Wu, G. D. (1999) A novel therapy for colitis utilizing PPAR-γ ligands to inhibit the epithelial inflammatory response. J. Clin. Investig. 104, 383-389.
84. Nino, M., Iwabuchi, K., Kikuchi, S., Ato, M., Morohashi, T., Ogata, A., Tashiro, K., Onoe, K. (2001) Amelioration of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in C57B1/6 mice by an agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma. J. Neuroimmunol. 116, 40-48.
85. Reilly C. M., Oates, J. C., Cook, J. A., Morrow, J. D., Halushka, P. V., Gilkeson, G. S. (2000) Inhibition of mesangial cell nitric oxide in MRL/lpr mice by prostaglandin J2 and proliferator activation receptor-γ agonists. J. Immunol. 164, 1498-1504.
86. Clark, R. B., Bishop-Bailey, D., Estrada-Hernandez, T., Hla, T., Puddington, L., Padula, S. J. (2000) The nuclear receptor PPARγ and immunoregulation: PPARγ mediates inhibition of helper T cell responses. J. Immunol. 164, 1364-1371.
87. Yang, X. Y., Wang, L. H., Chen, T., Hodge, D. R., Resau, J. H., DaSilva, L., Farrar, W. L. (2000) Activation of human T lymphocytes is inhibited by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) agonists. PPARγ co-association with transcription factor NFAT. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 4541-4544.
88. Harris, S. G., Phipps, R. P. (2001) The nuclear receptor PPAR gamma is expressed by mouse T lymphocytes and PPAR gamma agonists induce apoptosis. Eur. J. Immunol. 31, 1098-1105.
89. Rocca, B., Spain, L. M., Pure, E., Langenbach, R., Patrono, C., FitzGerald, G. A. (1999) Distinct roles of prostaglandin H synthases 1 and 2 in T-cell development. J. Clin. Investig. 103, 1469-1477.
90. Rocca, B., Spain, L. M., Ciabattoni, G., Patrono, C., FitzGerald, G. A. (1999) Differential expression and regulation of cyclooxygenase isoenzymes in thymic stromal cells. J. Immunol. 162, 4589-4597.
91. Urade, Y., Ujihara, M., Horiguchi, Y., Ikai, K., Hayaishi, O. (1989) The major source of endogenous prostaglandin D2 production is likely antigen-presenting cells. Localization of glutathione-requiring prostaglandin D synthase in histiocytes, dendritic and Kupfer cells in various rat tissues. J. Immunol. 143, 2982-2989.
92. Spiegelman, B. M. (1998) PPARγ in monocytes: less pain, any gain? Cell 93, 153-155.
93. Hortelano, S., Castrillo, A., Alvarez, A. M., Bosca, L. (2000) Contribution of cyclopentenone prostaglandins to the resolution of inflammation through the potentiation of apoptosis in activated macrophages. J. Immunol. 165, 6525-6531.
94. Tsubouchi, Y., Kawahito, Y., Kohno, M., Inoue, K., Hla, T., Sano, H. (2001) Feedback control of the arachidonate cascade in rheumatoid synoviocytes by 15-deoxy-delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 283, 750-755.
95. Vaidya, S., Somers, E. P., Wright, S. D., Detmers, P. A., Bansal, V. S. (1999) 15-Deoxy-Δ12,14, prostaglandin J(2) inhibits the β(2) integrin-dependent oxidative burst: involvement of a mechanism distinct from peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligation. J. Immunol. 163, 6187-6192.
96. Petrova, T. V., Akama, K. T., Van Eldik, L. J. (1999) Cyclopentane prostaglandins suppress activation of microglia: down-regulation of inducible nitiric-oxide synthase by 15-deoxy-Δ12,14, prostaglandin J(2). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96, 4668-4673.
97. Chawla, A., Barak, Y., Nagy, L., Liao, D., Tontonoz, P., Evans, R. M. (2001) PPAR-γ dependent and independent effects on macrophagegene expression in lipid metabolism and inflammation. Nat. Med. 7, 48-52.
98. Rossi, A., Kapahl, P., Natoll, G., Takahashi, T., Chen, Y., Karin, M., Santoro, M. G. (2000) Anti-inflammatory cyclopentenone prostaglandins are direct inhibitors of IκB kinase. Nature 403, 103-108.
99. Castrillo, A., Diaz-Guerra, M. J. M., Hortelano, S., Martin-Sanz, P., Bosca, L. (2000) Inhibition of IκB kinase and IκB phosphorylation by 15-deoxy-Δ12,14, prostaglandin J(2) in activated murine macrophages. Mol. Cell. Biol. 20, 1692-1698.
100. Straus, D. S., Pascual, G., Li, M., Welch, J. S., Ricote, M., Hsiang, C-H., Sengchanthalangsy, L. L., Ghosh, G., Glass, C. K. (2000) 15-DeoxyΔ12,14, prostaglandin J(2) inhibits multiple steps in the NF-κB signaling pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 4844-4849.
101. Moore, K. J., Rosen, E. D., Fitzgerald, M. L., Randow, F., Anderson, L. P., Altshuler, D., Milstone, D. S., Mortenson, R. M., Spiegelman, B. M., Freeman, M. W. (2001) The role of PPAR-γ in macrophage differentiation and cholesterol uptake. Nat. Med. 7, 41-47.
102. Lazar, M. A. (2001) Progress in cardiovascular biology: PPAR for the course. Nat. Med. 7, 23-24.
103. Barroso, I., Gurnell, M., Crowley, V. E. F., Agostini, M., Schwabe, J. W., Soos, M. A., Li Maslen, G., Williams, T. D. M., Lewis, H., Schafer, A. J., Chatterjee, V. K. K., O'Rahilly, S. (1999) Dominant negative mutations in human PPARγ associated with severe insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Nature 402, 880-883.
104. Padilla, J., Kaur, K., Cao, H. J., Smith, T. J., Phipps, R. P. (2000) Peroxisome proliferator activator receptor-γ agonists and 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14)-PGJ(2) induce apoptosis in normal and malignant B-lineage cells. J. Immunol. 165, 6941-6948.