Nutrition in Bone Health Revisited: A Story Beyond Calcium

Journal of the American College of Nutrition

Volumn 19, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 715-737

  Ilich, Jasminka Z ^a   Kerstetter, Jane E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

Nutrients in bone health; Nutrition; Osteoporosis; Osteoporosis prevention

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM; PHOSPHORUS; VITAMIN D;

AGING; BONE ATROPHY; BONE GROWTH; BONE MASS; BONE METABOLISM; BONE MINERAL; BONE STRUCTURE; DIET; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; HEREDITY; LIFE EXPECTANCY; LIFESTYLE; METABOLIC DISORDER; NUTRITION; NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY; OSTEOPOROSIS; PATHOLOGIC FRACTURE; PREGNANCY; REVIEW;

AGING; BONE AND BONES; BONE DENSITY; CALCIUM, DIETARY; FEMALE; FRACTURES, BONE; HUMANS; MALE; MINERALS; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS; OSTEOPOROSIS; PREGNANCY; RISK FACTORS; VITAMINS;

EID: 0034510590     PISSN: 07315724     EISSN: 15411087     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718070     Document Type: Article

References (290)

1. Albright F, Smith PH, Richardson AM: Postmenopausal osteoporosis; its clinical features. JAMA 116: 2465, 1941.
2. Pocock NA, Eisman JA, Hopper JL, Yeates MG, Sambrook PN, Eberl S: Genetic determinants of bone mass in adults. A twin study. J Clin Invest 80: 706-710, 1987.
3. Dent C: Keynote address: problems in metabolic bone disease. In Frame B, Duncan H (eds): “Clinical aspects of metabolic bone disease.” Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, pp 1-7, 1973.
4. Newton-John HF, Morgan DB: The loss of bone with age, osteoporosis, and fractures. Clin Orthop 71: 229-252, 1970.
5. Johnston Jr CC: Development of clinical practice guidelines for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Int 59 Suppl 1: S30-33, 1996.
6. Kanis JA, Melton 3rd LJ, Christiansen C, Johnston CC, Khaltaev N: The diagnosis of osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 9: 1137-1141, 1994.
7. Looker AC, Orwoll ES, Johnston Jr CC, Lindsay RL, Wahner HW, Dunn WL, Calvo MS, Harris TB, Heyse SP: Prevalence of low femoral bone density in older U.S. adults from NHANES III. J Bone Miner Res 12: 1761-1768, 1997.
8. Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine: “Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride.” Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997.
9. National Research Council: “Recommended Dietary Allowances.” Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 1989.
10. Ilich JZ, Badenhop NE, Matkovic V: Primary prevention of osteoporosis: pediatric approach to disease of the elderly. Womens Health Issues 6: 194-203, 1996.
11. Matkovic V, Heaney RP: Calcium balance during human growth: evidence for threshold behavior. Am J Clin Nutr 55: 992-996, 1992.
12. Matkovic V, Ilich JZ, Andon MB, Hsieh LC, Tzagournis MA, Lagger BJ, Goel PK: Urinary calcium, sodium, and bone mass of young females. Am J Clin Nutr 62: 417-425, 1995.
13. Teegarden D, Proulx WR, Martin BR, Zhao J, McCabe GP, Lyle RM, Peacock M, Slemenda C, Johnston CC, Weaver CM: Peak bone mass in young women. J Bone Miner Res 10: 711-715, 1995.
14. Matkovic V, Jelic T, Wardlaw GM, Ilich JZ, Goel PK, Wright JK, Andon MB, Smith KT, Heaney RP: Timing of peak bone mass in Caucasian females and its implication for the prevention of osteoporosis. Inference from a cross-sectional model. J Clin Invest 93: 799-808, 1994.
15. Molgaard C, Thomsen BL, Michaelsen KF: Whole body bone mineral accretion in healthy children and adolescents. Arch Dis Child 81: 10-15, 1999.
16. Glastre C, Braillon P, David L, Cochat P, Meunier PJ, Delmas PD: Measurement of bone mineral content of the lumbar spine by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in normal children: correlations with growth parameters. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70: 1330-1333, 1990.
17. Kroger H, Kotaniemi A, Kroger L, Alhava E: Development of bone mass and bone density of the spine and femoral neck-a prospective study of 65 children and adolescents. Bone Miner 23: 171-182, 1993.
18. Chan GM: Dietary calcium and bone mineral status of children and adolescents. Am J Dis Child 145: 631-634, 1991.
19. Lee WT, Leung SS, Ng MY, Wang SF, Xu YC, Zeng WP, Lau J: Bone mineral content of two populations of Chinese children with different calcium intakes. Bone Miner 23: 195-206, 1993.
20. Lee WT, Leung SS, Lui SS, Lau J: Relationship between longterm calcium intake and bone mineral content of children aged from birth to 5 years. Br J Nutr 70: 235-248, 1993.
21. Ilich JZ, Skugor M, Hangartner T, Baoshe A, Matkovic V: Relation of nutrition, body composition and physical activity to skeletal development: a cross-sectional study in preadolescent females. J Am Coll Nutr 17: 136-147, 1998.
22. Ilich JZ, Hangartner TN, Skugor M, Roche AF, Goel PK, Matkovic V: Skeletal age as a determinant of bone mass in preadolescent females. Skeletal Radiol 25: 431-439, 1996.
23. Teegarden D, Lyle RM, McCabe GP, McCabe LD, Proulx WR, Michon K, Knight AP, Johnston CC, Weaver CM: Dietary calcium, protein, and phosphorus are related to bone mineral density and content in young women. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 749-754, 1998.
24. Abrams SA, O'Brien KO, Liang LK, Stuff JE: Differences in calcium absorption and kinetics between black and white girls aged 5-16 years. J Bone Miner Res 10: 829-833, 1995.
25. Bell N, Shary J, Stevens J, Garza M, Gordon L, Edwards J: Demonstration that bone mass is greater in black than in white children. J Bone Miner Res 6: 719-723, 1991.
26. Johnston Jr CC, Miller JZ, Slemenda CW, Reister TK, Hui S, Christian JC, Peacock M: Calcium supplementation and increases in bone mineral density in children. N Engl J Med 327: 82-87, 1992.
27. Lloyd T, Andon MB, Rollings N, Martel JK, Landis JR, Demers LM, Eggli DF, Kieselhorst K, Kulin HE: Calcium supplementation and bone mineral density in adolescent girls. JAMA 270: 841-844, 1993.
28. Chan GM, Hoffman K, McMurry M: Effects of dairy products on bone and body composition in pubertal girls. J Pediatr 126: 551-556, 1995.
29. Bonjour JP, Carrie AL, Ferrari S, Clavien H, Slosman D, Theintz G, Rizzoli R: Calcium-enriched foods and bone mass growth in prepubertal girls: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Invest 99: 1287-1294, 1997.
30. Cadogan J, Blumsohn A, Barker ME, Eastell R: A longitudinal study of bone gain in pubertal girls: anthropometric and biochemical correlates. J Bone Miner Res 13: 1602-1612, 1998.
31. Lee WT, Leung SS, Leung DM, Tsang HS, Lau J, Cheng JC: A randomized double-blind controlled calcium supplementation trial, and bone and height acquisition in children. Br J Nutr 74: 125-139, 1995.
32. Cadogan J, Eastell R, Jones N, Barker ME: Milk intake and bone mineral acquisition in adolescent girls: randomised, controlled intervention trial. BMJ 315: 1255-1260, 1997.
33. Andon MB, Ilich JZ, Tzagournis MA, Matkovic V: Magnesium balance in adolescent females consuming a low-or high-calcium diet. Am J Clin Nutr 63: 950-953, 1996.
34. Antoniazzi F, Bertoldo F, Lauriola S, Sirpresi S, Gasperi E, Zamboni G, Tato L: Prevention of bone demineralization by calcium supplementation in precocious puberty during gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84: 1992-1996, 1999.
35. Fischer S, Milinarsky A, Giadrosich V, Casanova D: Calcium supplementation and bone absorptiometry in girls. Rev Med Chil 127: 23-27, 1999.
36. Andon MB, Lloyd T, Matkovic V: Supplementation trials with calcium citrate malate: evidence in favor of increasing the calcium RDA during childhood and adolescence. J Nutr 124: 1412S-1417S, 1994.
37. Slemenda CW, Reister TK, Hui SL, Miller JZ, Christian JC, Johnston Jr CC: Influences on skeletal mineralization in children and adolescents: evidence for varying effects of sexual maturation and physical activity. J Pediatr 125: 201-207, 1994.
38. Lee WT, Leung SS, Leung DM, Cheng JC: A follow-up study on the effects of calcium-supplement withdrawal and puberty on bone acquisition of children. Am J Clin Nutr 64: 71-77, 1996.
39. Lloyd T, Rollings N, Andon M, Eggli D, Mauger E, Chinchilli V: Enhanced bone gain in early adolescence due to calcium supplementation does not persist in late adolescence. J Bone Miner Res 11: S154, 1996.
40. Lee WT, Leung SS, Leung DM, Wang SH, Xu YC, Zeng WP, Cheng JC: Bone mineral acquisition in low calcium intake children following the withdrawal of calcium supplement. Acta Paediatr 86: 570-576, 1997.
41. Heaney RP: The bone-remodeling transient: implications for the interpretation of clinical studies of bone mass change. J Bone Miner Res 9: 1515-1523, 1994.
42. Matkovic V, Kostial K, Simonovic I, Buzina R, Brodarec A, Nordin BE: Bone status and fracture rates in two regions of Yugoslavia. Am J Clin Nutr 32: 540-549, 1979.
43. Hu JF, Zhao XH, Jia JB, Parpia B, Campbell TC: Dietary calcium and bone density among middle-aged and elderly women in China. Am J Clin Nutr 58: 219-227, 1993.
44. Sandler RB, Slemenda CW, LaPorte RE, Cauley JA, Schramm MM, Barresi ML, Kriska AM: Postmenopausal bone density and milk consumption in childhood and adolescence. Am J Clin Nutr 42: 270-274, 1985.
45. Halioua L, Anderson JJ: Lifetime calcium intake and physical activity habits: independent and combined effects on the radial bone of healthy premenopausal Caucasian women. Am J Clin Nutr 49: 534-541, 1989.
46. Stracke H, Renner E, Knie G, Leidig G, Minne H, Federlin K: Osteoporosis and bone metabolic parameters in dependence upon calcium intake through milk and milk products. Eur J Clin Nutr 47: 617-622, 1993.
47. Soroko S, Holbrook TL, Edelstein S, Barrett-Connor E: Lifetime milk consumption and bone mineral density in older women. Am J Public Health 84: 1319-1322, 1994.
48. Teegarden D, Lyle RM, Proulx WR, Johnston CC, Weaver CM: Previous milk consumption is associated with greater bone density in young women. Am J Clin Nutr 69: 1014-1017, 1999.
49. Murphy S, Khaw KT, May H, Compston JE: Milk consumption and bone mineral density in middle aged and elderly women. BMJ 308: 939-941, 1994.
50. Matkovic V, Klisovic D, Ilich J: Epidemiology of fractures during growth and aging. In Matkovic V (eds): “Osteoporosis Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America.” Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders, pp 415-439, 1995.
51. Welten DC, Kemper HC, Post GB, van Staveren WA: A metaanalysis of the effect of calcium intake on bone mass in young and middle aged females and males. J Nutr 125: 2802-2813, 1995.
52. Anderson JJ, Rondano PA: Peak bone mass development of females: can young adult women improve their peak bone mass? J Am Coll Nutr 15: 570-574, 1996.
53. Kalkwarf HJ, Harrast SD: Effects of calcium supplementation and lactation on iron status. Am J Clin Nutr 67: 1244-1249, 1998.
54. Laskey MA, Prentice A, Hanratty LA, Jarjou LM, Dibba B, Beavan SR, Cole TJ: Bone changes after 3 mo of lactation: influence of calcium intake, breast-milk output, and vitamin Dreceptor genotype. Am J Clin Nutr 67: 685-692, 1998.
55. Sowers M, Corton G, Shapiro B, Jannausch ML, Crutchfield M, Smith ML, Randolph JF, Hollis B: Changes in bone density with lactation. JAMA 269: 3130-3135, 1993.
56. Sowers M, Randolph J, Shapiro B, Jannausch M: A prospectivestudy of bone density and pregnancy after an extended period of lactation with bone loss. Obstet Gynecol 85: 285-289, 1995.
57. Walker AR, Richardson B, Walker F: The influence of numerous pregnancies and lactations on bone dimensions in South African Bantu and Caucasian mothers. Clin Sci 42: 189-196, 1972.
58. Frisancho AR, Garn SM, Ascoli W: Unaltered cortical area of pregnant and lactating women. Studies of the second metacarpal bone in North and Central American populations. Invest Radiol 6: 119-121, 1971.
59. Ryan AS, Rush D, Krieger FW, Lewandowski GE: Recent declines in breast-feeding in the United States, 1984 through 1989. Pediatrics 88: 719-727, 1991.
60. Ritchie LD, Fung EB, Halloran BP, Turnlund JR, Van Loan MD, Cann CE, King JC: A longitudinal study of calcium homeostasis during human pregnancy and lactation and after resumption of menses. Am J Clin Nutr 67: 693-701, 1998.
61. Chan GM, Ronald N, Slater P, Hollis J, Thomas MR: Decreased bone mineral status in lactating adolescent mothers. J Pediatr 101: 767-770, 1982.
62. Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Cronk CE, Schall JI: Maternal growth during pregnancy and lactation. Horm Res 39 Suppl 3: 59-67, 1993.
63. Riggs BL, Khosla S, Melton 3rd LJ: A unitary model for involutional osteoporosis: estrogen deficiency causes both type I and type II osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and contributes to bone loss in aging men. J Bone Miner Res 13: 763-773, 1998.
64. Cumming RG: Calcium intake and bone mass: a quantitative review of the evidence. Calcif Tissue Int 47: 194-201, 1990.
65. Dawson-Hughes B, Dallal GE, Krall EA, Sadowski L, Sahyoun N, Tannenbaum S: A controlled trial of the effect of calcium supplementation on bone density in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 323: 878-883, 1990.
66. Reid IR, Ames RW, Evans MC, Gamble GD, Sharpe SJ: Effect of calcium supplementation on bone loss in postmenopausal women [published erratum appears in N Engl J Med 1993 Oct 21; 329(17): 1281]. N Engl J Med 328: 460-464, 1993.
67. Aloia JF, Vaswani A, Yeh JK, Ross PL, Flaster E, Dilmanian FA: Calcium supplementation with and without hormone replacement therapy to prevent postmenopausal bone loss. Ann Intern Med 120: 97-103, 1994.
68. Elders PJ, Netelenbos JC, Lips P, van Ginkel FC, Khoe E, Leeuwenkamp OR, Hackeng WH, van der Stelt PF: Calcium supplementation reduces vertebral bone loss in perimenopausal women: a controlled trial in 248 women between 46 and 55 years of age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73: 533-540, 1991.
69. Devine A, Dick IM, Heal SJ, Criddle RA, Prince RL: A 4-year follow-up study of the effects of calcium supplementation on bone density in elderly postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 7: 23-28, 1997.
70. Prince R, Devine A, Dick I, Criddle A, Kerr D, Kent N, Price R, Randell A: The effects of calcium supplementation (milk powder or tablets) and exercise on bone density in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 10: 1068-1075, 1995.
71. Nelson ME, Fisher EC, Dilmanian FA, Dallal GE, Evans WJ: A 1-y walking program and increased dietary calcium in postmenopausal women: effects on bone. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1304-1311, 1991.
72. Chevalley T, Rizzoli R, Nydegger V, Slosman D, Rapin CH, Michel JP, Vasey H, Bonjour JP: Effects of calcium supplements on femoral bone mineral density and vertebral fracture rate in vitamin-D-replete elderly patients. Osteoporos Int 4: 245-252, 1994.
73. Prestwood KM, Thompson DL, Kenny AM, Seibel MJ, Pilbeam CC, Raisz LG: Low dose estrogen and calcium have an additive effect on bone resorption in older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84: 179-183, 1999.
74. Haines CJ, Chung TK, Leung PC, Hsu SY, Leung DH: Calcium supplementation and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women using estrogen replacement therapy. Bone 16: 529-531, 1995.
75. Heaney RP: Estrogen-calcium interactions in the postmenopause: a quantitative description. Bone Miner 11: 67-84, 1990.
76. Chapuy MC, Arlot ME, Duboeuf F, Brun J, Crouzet B, Arnaud S, Delmas PD, Meunier PJ: Vitamin D3 and calcium to prevent hip fractures in the elderly women. N Engl J Med 327: 1637-1642, 1992.
77. Recker RR, Hinders S, Davies KM, Heaney RP, Stegman MR, Lappe JM, Kimmel DB: Correcting calcium nutritional deficiency prevents spine fractures in elderly women. J Bone Miner Res 11: 1961-1966, 1996.
78. Reid IR, Ames RW, Evans MC, Gamble GD, Sharpe SJ: Longterm effects of calcium supplementation on bone loss and fractures in postmenopausal women: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Med 98: 331-335, 1995.
79. Cumming RG, Nevitt MC: Calcium for prevention of osteoporotic fractures in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 12: 1321-1329, 1997.
80. Heaney RP: Calcium, dairy products and osteoporosis. J Am Coll Nutr 19: 83S-99S, 2000.
81. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Healthy People 2000 Homepage. http://odphp.osophs.dhhs.gov/pubs/hp2000/ accessed 1999.
82. Bendich A, Leader S, Muhuri P: Supplemental calcium for the prevention of hip fracture: potential health-economic benefits. Clin Ther 21: 1058-1072, 1999.
83. Riggs BL, O'Fallon WM, Muhs J, O'Connor MK, Kumar R, Melton 3rd LJ: Long-term effects of calcium supplementation on serum parathyroid hormone level, bone turnover, and bone loss in elderly women. J Bone Miner Res 13: 168-174, 1998.
84. Ervin RB, Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J: Use of dietary supplements in the United States, 1988-94. Vital Health Stat 11 Jun(244): 1-14, 1999.
85. Crosby WH: Lead-contaminated health food. Association with lead poisoning and leukemia. JAMA 237: 2627-2629, 1977.
86. National Research Council: “Measuring Lead Exposure in Infants, Children and other Sensitive Populations.” Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1993.
87. Scelfo GM, Flegal AR: Lead in calcium supplements. Environ Health Perspect 1008: 309-313, 2000.
88. Calvo MS, Park YK: Changing phosphorus content of the U.S. diet: potential for adverse effects on bone. J Nutr 126: 1168S-1180S, 1996.
89. Calvo MS, Kumar R, Heath H: Elevated secretion and action of serum parathyroid hormone in young adults consuming high phosphorus, low calcium diets assembled from common foods. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66: 823-829, 1988.
90. Calvo MS, Kumar R, Heath H: Persistently elevated parathyroid hormone secretion and action in young women after four weeks of ingesting high phosphorus, low calcium diets. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70: 1334-1340, 1990.
91. Calvo MS: The effects of high phosphorus intake on calcium homeostasis. Adv Nutr Res 9: 183-207, 1994.
92. Raisz LG, Niemann I: Effect of phosphate, calcium and magnesium on bone resorption and hormonal responses in tissue culture. Endocrinology 85: 446-452, 1969.
93. Heaney RP, Recker RR: Calcium supplements: anion effects. Bone Miner 2: 433-439, 1987.
94. Bizik B, Ding W, Cerklewski F: Evidence that bone resorption of young men is not increased by high dietary phosphorus obtained from milk and cheese. Nutr Res 16: 1143-1146, 1996.
95. Silverberg SJ, Shane E, Clemens TL, Dempster DW, Segre GV, Lindsay R, Bilezikian JP: The effect of oral phosphate administration on major indices of skeletal metabolism in normal subjects. J Bone Miner Res 1: 383-388, 1986.
96. Petridou E, Karpathios T, Dessypris N, Simou E, Trichopoulos D: The role of dairy products and nonalcoholic beverages in bone fractures among schoolage children. Scand J Soc Med 25: 119-125, 1997.
97. Wyshak G, Frisch RE: Carbonated beverages, dietary calcium, the dietary calcium/phosphorus ratio, and bone fractures in girls and boys. J Adolesc Health 15: 210-215, 1994.
98. Wyshak G, Frisch RE, Albright TE, Albright NL, Schiff I, Witschi J: Nonalcoholic carbonated beverage consumption and bone fractures among women former college athletes. J Orthop Res 7: 91-99, 1989.
99. Kim SH, Morton DJ, Barrett-Connor EL: Carbonated beverage consumption and bone mineral density among older women: the Rancho Bernardo Study. Am J Public Health 87: 276-279, 1997.
100. Broadus A: Mineral balance and homeostasis. In Favus MJ, Christakos S (eds): “Primer on the Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism,” 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, pp 57-63, 1996.
101. Rude RK: Magnesium deficiency: a cause of heterogeneous disease in humans. J Bone Miner Res 13: 749-758, 1998.
102. Creedon A, Flynn A, Cashman K: The effect of moderately and severely restricted dietary magnesium intakes on bone composition and bone metabolism in the rat. Br J Nutr 82: 63-71, 1999.
103. Rude RK, Kirchen ME, Gruber HE, Stasky AA, Meyer MH: Magnesium deficiency induces bone loss in the rat. Miner Electrolyte Metab 24: 314-320, 1998.
104. Rude RK, Kirchen ME, Gruber HE, Meyer MH, Luck JS, Crawford DL: Magnesium deficiency-induced osteoporosis in the rat: uncoupling of bone formation and bone resorption. Magnes Res 12: 257-267, 1999.
105. Tranquilli AL, Lucino E, Garzetti GG, Romanini C: Calcium, phosphorus and magnesium intakes correlate with bone mineral content in postmenopausal women. Gynecol Endocrinol 8: 55-58, 1994.
106. Reginster JY, Strause L, Deroisy R, Lecart MP, Saltman P, Franchimont P: Preliminary report of decreased serum magnesium in postmenopausal osteoporosis. Magnesium 8: 106-109, 1989.
107. New SA, Bolton-Smith C, Grubb DA, Reid DM: Nutritional influences on bone mineral density: a cross-sectional study in premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 1831-1839, 1997.
108. Houtkooper LB, Ritenbaugh C, Aickin M, Lohman TG, Going SB, Weber JL, Greaves KA, Boyden TW, Pamenter RW, Hall MC: Nutrients, body composition and exercise are related to change in bone mineral density in premenopausal women. J Nutr 125: 1229-1237, 1995.
109. Tucker KL, Hannan MT, Chen H, Cupples LA, Wilson PW, Kiel DP: Potassium, magnesium, and fruit and vegetable intakes are associated with greater bone mineral density in elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 69: 727-736, 1999.
110. Angus RM, Sambrook PN, Pocock NA, Eisman JA: Dietary intake and bone mineral density. Bone Miner 4: 265-277, 1988.
111. Freudenheim JL, Johnson NE, Smith EL: Relationships between usual nutrient intake and bone-mineral content of women 35-65 years of age: longitudinal and cross-sectional analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 44: 863-876, 1986.
112. Stendig-Lindenberg G, Tepper R, Leichter I: Trabecular bone density in a two year controlled trial of personal magnesium in osteoporosis. Magnes Res 155-163, 1993.
113. Abraham GE, Grewal H: A total dietary program emphasizing magnesium instead of calcium. Effect on the mineral density of calcaneous bone in postmenopausal women on hormonal therapy. J Reprod Med 35: 503-507, 1990.
114. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology: Prepared for the Interagency Board for Nutrition Monitoring and Related Research. Vol. 1, Table A. T6-16 ed. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, p 21, 1995.
115. Bernstein DS, Sadowsky N, Hegsted DM, Guri CD, Stare FJ: Prevalence of osteoporosis in high-and low-fluoride areas in North Dakota. JAMA 198: 499-504, 1966.
116. Allolio B, Lehmann R: Drinking water fluoridation and bone. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 107: 12-20, 1999.
117. Hillier S, Cooper C, Kellingray S, Russell G, Hughes H, Coggon D: Fluoride in drinking water and risk of hip fracture in the UK: a case-control study. Lancet 355: 265-269, 2000.
118. Jones G, Riley M, Couper D, Dwyer T: Water fluoridation, bone mass and fracture: a quantitative overview of the literature. Aust N Z J Public Health 23: 34-40, 1999.
119. Posner AS: Significance of calcium phosphate crystallographic studies to orthopedics. Bull Hosp Joint Dis 31: 14-26, 1970.
120. Grynpas MD: Fluoride effects on bone crystals. J Bone Miner Res Supplement 1: S169-S175, 1990.
121. Resch H, Libanati C, Farley S, Bettica P, Schulz E, Baylink DJ: Evidence that fluoride therapy increases trabecular bone density in a peripheral skeletal site. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76: 1622-1624, 1993.
122. Lau KH, Farley JR, Freeman TK, Baylink DJ: A proposed mechanism of the mitogenic action of fluoride on bone cells: inhibition of the activity of an osteoblastic acid phosphatase. Metabolism 38: 858-868, 1989.
123. Caverzasio J, Imai T, Ammann P, Burgener D, Bonjour JP: Aluminum potentiates the effect of fluoride on tyrosine phosphorylation and osteoblast replication in vitro and bone mass in vivo. J Bone Miner Res 11: 46-55, 1996.
124. Riggs BL, Hodgson SF, O'Fallon WM, Chao EY, Wahner HW, Muhs JM, Cedel SL, Melton LJD: Effect of fluoride treatment on the fracture rate in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 322: 802-809, 1990.
125. Kleerekoper M, Peterson EL, Nelson DA, Phillips E, Schork MA, Tilley BC, Parfitt AM: A randomized trial of sodium fluoride asa treatment for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 1: 155-161, 1991.
126. Seeman E: Osteoporosis: trials and tribulations. Am J Med 103: 74S-87S, 1997.
127. Blank RD, Bockman RS: A review of clinical trials of therapies for osteoporosis using fracture as an end point. J Clin Densitom 2: 435-452, 1999.
128. Farrerons J, RodriguezdelaSerna A, Guanabens N, Armadans L, Lopez-Navidad A, Yoldi B, Renau A, Vaque J: Sodium fluoride treatment is a major protector against vertebral and nonvertebral fractures when compared with other common treatments of osteoporosis: a longitudinal, observational study. Calcif Tissue Int 60: 250-254, 1997.
129. Reginster JY, Meurmans L, Zegels B, Rovati LC, Minne HW, Giacovelli G, Taquet AN, Setnikar I, Collette J, Gosset C: The effect of sodium monofluorophosphate plus calcium on vertebral fracture rate in postmenopausal women with moderate osteoporosis. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 129: 1-8, 1998.
130. Meunier PJ, Sebert JL, Reginster JY, Briancon D, Appelboom T, Netter P, Loeb G, Rouillon A, Barry S, Evreux JC, Avouac B, Marchandise X: Fluoride salts are no better at preventing new vertebral fractures than calcium-vitamin D in postmenopausal osteoporosis: the FAVO Study. Osteoporos Int 8: 4-12, 1998.
131. Prockop DJ: Role of iron in the synthesis of collagen in connective tissue. Fed Proc 30: 984-990, 1971.
132. Medeiros D, Ilich J, Ireton J, Matkovic V, Shiry L, Wildman R: Femurs from rats fed diets deficient in copper or iron have decreased mechanical strength and altered mineral composition. J Trace Elem Exp Med 10: 197-203, 1997.
133. Ilich-Ernst JZ, McKenna AA, Badenhop NE, Clairmont AC, Andon MB, Nahhas RW, Goel P, Matkovic V: Iron status, menarche, and calcium supplementation in adolescent girls. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 880-887, 1998.
134. Gleerup A, Rossander-Hulthen L, Gramatkovski E, Hallberg L: Iron absorption from the whole diet: comparison of the effect of two different distributions of daily calcium intake. Am J Clin Nutr 61: 97-104, 1995.
135. Deehr MS, Dallal GE, Smith KT, Taulbee JD, Dawson-Hughes B: Effects of different calcium sources on iron absorption in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 51: 95-99, 1990.
136. Hallberg L, Brune M, Erlandsson M, Sandberg AS, Rossander-Hulten L: Calcium: effect of different amounts on nonheme-and heme-iron absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 112-119, 1991.
137. Cook JD, Dassenko SA, Whittaker P: Calcium supplementation: effect on iron absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 106-111, 1991.
138. Minihane AM, Fairweather-Tait SJ: Effect of calcium supplementation on daily nonheme-iron absorption and long-term iron status. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 96-102, 1998.
139. Turnlund JR, Smith RG, Kretsch MJ, Keyes WR, Shah AG: Milk's effect on the bioavailability of iron from cereal-based diets in young women by use of in vitro and in vivo methods. Am J Clin Nutr 52: 373-378, 1990.
140. Reddy MB, Cook JD: Effect of calcium intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 1820-1825, 1997.
141. Prather TA, Miller DD: Calcium carbonate depresses iron bioavailability in rats more than calcium sulfate or sodium carbonate. J Nutr 122: 327-332, 1992.
142. Hallberg L, Rossander-Hulten L, Brune M, Gleerup A: Calcium and iron absorption: mechanism of action and nutritional importance. Eur J Clin Nutr 46: 317-327, 1992.
143. Dalton MA, Sargent JD, O'Connor GT, Olmstead EM, Klein RZ: Calcium and phosphorus supplementation of iron-fortified infant formula: no effect on iron status of healthy full-term infants. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 921-926, 1997.
144. Schnitzler CM, Macphail AP, Shires R, Schnaid E, Mesquita JM, Robson HJ: Osteoporosis in African hemosiderosis: role of alcohol and iron. J Bone Miner Res 9: 1865-1873, 1994.
145. Conte D, Caraceni MP, Duriez J, Mandelli C, Corghi E, Cesana M, Ortolani S, Bianchi PA: Bone involvement in primary hemochromatosis and alcoholic cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 84: 1231-1234, 1989.
146. Van de Vyver FL, Visser WJ, D'Haese PC, De Broe ME: Iron overload and bone disease in chronic dialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 5: 781-787, 1990.
147. Ebina Y, Okada S, Hamazaki S, Toda Y, Midorikawa O: Impairment of bone formation with aluminum and ferric nitrilotriacetate complexes. Calcif Tissue Int 48: 28-36, 1991.
148. Beattie J, Avenell A: Trace element nutrition and bone metabolism. Nutr Res Rev 5: 167-188, 1992.
149. Yamaguchi M, Yamaguchi R: Action of zinc on bone metabolism in rats. Increases in alkaline phosphatase activity and DNA content. Biochem Pharmacol 35: 773-777, 1986.
150. Herzberg M, Foldes J, Steinberg R, Menczel J: Zinc excretion in osteoporotic women. J Bone Miner Res 5: 251-257, 1990.
151. Atik OS: Zinc and senile osteoporosis. J Am Geriatr Soc 31: 790-791, 1983.
152. Calhoun NR, Smith Jr JC, Becker KL: The role of zinc in bone metabolism. Clin Orthop 20: 212-234, 1974.
153. Seco C, Revilla M, Hernandez ER, Gervas J, Gonzalez-Riola J, Villa LF, Rico H: Effects of zinc supplementation on vertebral and femoral bone mass in rats on strenuous treadmill training exercise. J Bone Miner Res 13: 508-512, 1998.
154. Skinner JD, Carruth BR, Houck KS, Coletta F, Cotter R, Ott D, McLeod M: Longitudinal study of nutrient and food intakes of infants aged 2 to 24 months. J Am Diet Assoc 97: 496-504, 1997.
155. Donovan UM, Gibson RS: Iron and zinc status of young women aged 14 to 19 years consuming vegetarian and omnivorous diets. J Am Coll Nutr 14: 463-472, 1995.
156. Cousins RJ: Absorption, transport, and hepatic metabolism of copper and zinc: special reference to metallothionein and ceruloplasmin. Physiol Rev 65: 238-309, 1985.
157. Dursun N, Aydogan S: Comparative effects of calcium deficiency and supplements on the intestinal absorption of zinc in rats. Jpn J Physiol 44: 157-166, 1994.
158. Wood RJ, Hanssen DA: Effect of milk and lactose on zinc absorption in lactose-intolerant postmenopausal women. J Nutr 118: 982-986, 1988.
159. Argiratos V, Samman S: The effect of calcium carbonate and calcium citrate on the absorption of zinc in healthy female subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr 48: 198-204, 1994.
160. Dawson-Hughes B, Seligson FH, Hughes VA: Effects of calciumcarbonate and hydroxyapatite on zinc and iron retention in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 44: 83-88, 1986.
161. McKenna AA, Ilich JZ, Andon MB, Wang C, Matkovic V: Zinc balance in adolescent females consuming a low-or high-calcium diet. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 1460-1464, 1997.
162. Tuderman L, Myllyla R, Kivirikko KI: Mechanism of the prolyl hydroxylase reaction. 1. Role of co-substrates. Eur J Biochem 80: 341-348, 1977.
163. Jonas J, Burns J, Abel EW, Cresswell MJ, Strain JJ, Paterson CR: Impaired mechanical strength of bone in experimental copper deficiency. Ann Nutr Metab 37: 245-252, 1993.
164. Rucker RB, Riggins RS, Laughlin R, Chan MM, Chen M, Tom K: Effects of nutritional copper deficiency on the biomechanical properties of bone and arterial elastin metabolism in the chick. J Nutr 105: 1062-1070, 1975.
165. Wasler M: Calcium clearance as a function of sodium clearance in the dog. Am J Physiol 200: 1099-1104, 1961.
166. Hills AG, Parsons DW, Webster GDJ, Rosenthal O, Conover H: Influence of the renal excretion of sodium chloride upon the renal excretion of magnesium and other ions by human subjects. J Clin Endocrin Metab 19: 1192-1211, 1959.
167. Nordin BE, Need AG, Morris HA, Horowitz M: The nature and significance of the relationship between urinary sodium and urinary calcium in women. J Nutr 123: 1615-1622, 1993.
168. Zarkadas M, Gougeon-Reyburn R, Marliss EB, Block E, Alton-Mackey M: Sodium chloride supplementation and urinary calcium excretion in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 50: 1088-1094, 1989.
169. Goulding A, Campbell D: Dietary NaCl loads promote calciuria and bone loss in adult oophorectomized rats consuming a low calcium diet. J Nutr 113: 1409-1414, 1983.
170. Goulding A, Gold E: Effects of dietary sodium chloride loading on parathyroid function, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, calcium balance, and bone metabolism in female rats during chronic prednisolone administration. Endocrinology 119: 2148-2154, 1986.
171. Nordin BE, Polley KJ: Metabolic consequences of the menopause. A cross-sectional, longitudinal, and intervention study on 557 normal postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int 41 Suppl 1: S1-59, 1987.
172. Dawson-Hughes B, Fowler SE, Dalsky G, Gallagher C: Sodium excretion influences calcium homeostasis in elderly men and women. J Nutr 126: 2107-2112, 1996.
173. Devine A, Criddle RA, Dick IM, Kerr DA, Prince RL: A longitudinal study of the effect of sodium and calcium intakes on regional bone density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 62: 740-745, 1995.
174. Evans CE, Chughtai AY, Blumsohn A, Giles M, Eastell R: The effect of dietary sodium on calcium metabolism in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Eur J Clin Nutr 51: 394-399, 1997.
175. Itoh R, Suyama Y, Oguma Y, Yokota F: Dietary sodium, an independent determinant for urinary deoxypyridinoline in elderly women. A cross-sectional study on the effect of dietary factors on deoxypyridinoline excretion in 24-h urine specimens from 763 free-living healthy Japanese. Eur J Clin Nutr 53: 886-890, 1999.
176. Lietz G, Avenell A, Robins SP: Short-term effects of dietary sodium intake on bone metabolism in postmenopausal women measured using urinary deoxypyridinoline excretion. Br J Nutr 78: 73-82, 1997.
177. Ginty F, Flynn A, Cashman KD: The effect of dietary sodium intake on biochemical markers of bone metabolism in young women. Br J Nutr 79: 343-350, 1998.
178. Kolasa K: Summary of the sixth report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. J Nutr Edu 30: 114B-115B, 1998.
179. Engstrom A, Tobelmann RC, Albertson AM: Sodium intake trends and food choices. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 704S-707S, 1997.
180. Ilich JZ, Badenhop NE, Jelic T, Clairmont AC, Nagode LA, Matkovic V: Calcitriol and bone mass accumulation in females during puberty. Calcif Tissue Int 61: 104-109, 1997.
181. Thomas MK, Lloyd-Jones DM, Thadhani RI, Shaw AC, Deraska DJ, Kitch BT, Vamvakas EC, Dick IM, Prince RL, Finkelstein JS: Hypovitaminosis D in medical inpatients. N Engl J Med 338: 777-783, 1998.
182. Gloth 3rd FM, Gundberg CM, Hollis BW, Haddad Jr JG, Tobin JD: Vitamin D deficiency in homebound elderly persons. JAMA 274: 1683-1686, 1995.
183. Looker AC, Gunter EW: Hypovitaminosis D in medical inpatients. N Engl J Med 339: 344-345, 1998.
184. Harris SS, Dawson-Hughes B: Seasonal changes in plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations of young American black and white women. Am J Clin Nutr 67: 1232-1236, 1998.
185. Kleerekoper M, Nelson DA, Peterson EL, Flynn MJ, Pawluszka AS, Jacobsen G, Wilson P: Reference data for bone mass, calciotropic hormones, and biochemical markers of bone remodeling in older (55-75) postmenopausal white and black women. J Bone Miner Res 9: 1267-1276, 1994.
186. Cumming RG, Cummings SR, Nevitt MC, Scott J, Ensrud KE, Vogt TM, Fox K: Calcium intake and fracture risk: results from the study of osteoporotic fractures. Am J Epidemiol 145: 926-934, 1997.
187. Aaron JE, Gallagher JC, Anderson J, Stasiak L, Longton EB, Nordin BE, Nicholson M: Frequency of osteomalacia and osteoporosis in fractures of the proximal femur. Lancet 1: 229-233, 1974.
188. Mowe M, Haug E, Bohmer T: Low serum calcidiol concentration in older adults with reduced muscular function. J Am Geriatr Soc 47: 220-226, 1999.
189. Suarez FL, Savaiano DA: Diet, genetics and lactose intolerance. Food Technol 51: 74-76, 1997.
190. Lian JB, Stein GS, Canalis E, Robey PG, Boskey AL: Bone formation: Osteoblast lineage cells, growth factors, matrix proteins, and the mineralization process. In Favus MJ (ed): “Primer on the Metabolic Bone Disease and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism.” Philadelphia: Lippincott, pp 14-29, 1999.
191. Khosla S, Kleerkoper M: Biochemical markers of bone turnover. In Favus MJ (ed), “Primer on the metabolic bone disease and disorders of mineral metabolism.” Philadelphia: Lippincott, pp 128-134, 1999.
192. Kanai T, Takagi T, Masuhiro K, Nakamura M, Iwata M, Saji F: Serum vitamin K level and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 56: 25-30, 1997.
193. Feskanich D, Weber P, Willett WC, Rockett H, Booth SL, Colditz GA: Vitamin K intake and hip fractures in women: a prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr 69: 74-79, 1999.
194. Douglas AS, Robins SP, Hutchison JD, Porter RW, Stewart A, Reid DM: Carboxylation of osteocalcin in post-menopausal osteoporotic women following vitamin K and D supplementation. Bone 17: 15-20, 1995.
195. Knapen MH, Jie KS, Hamulyak K, Vermeer C: Vitamin Kinduced changes in markers for osteoblast activity and urinary calcium loss. Calcif Tissue Int 53: 81-85, 1993.
196. Craciun AM, Wolf J, Knapen MH, Brouns F, Vermeer C: Improved bone metabolism in female elite athletes after vitamin K supplementation. Int J Sports Med 19: 479-484, 1998.
197. Vermeer C, Gijsbers BL, Craciun AM, Groenen-van Dooren MM, Knapen MH: Effects of vitamin K on bone mass and bone metabolism. J Nutr 126: 1187S-1191S, 1996.
198. Szulc P, Chapuy MC, Meunier PJ, Delmas PD: Serum undercarboxylated osteocalcin is a marker of the risk of hip fracture: a three year follow-up study. Bone 18: 487-488, 1996.
199. Vergnaud P, Garnero P, Meunier PJ, Breart G, Kamihagi K, Delmas PD: Undercarboxylated osteocalcin measured with a specific immunoassay predicts hip fracture in elderly women: the EPIDOS Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82: 719-724, 1997.
200. Philip WJ, Martin JC, Richardson JM, Reid DM, Webster J, Douglas AS: Decreased axial and peripheral bone density in patients taking long-term warfarin. QJM 88: 635-640, 1995.
201. Jamal SA, Browner WS, Bauer DC, Cummings SR: Warfarin use and risk for osteoporosis in elderly women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. Ann Intern Med 128: 829-832, 1998.
202. Booth SL, Tucker KL, Chen H, Hannan MT, Gagnon DR, Cupples LA, Wilson PW, Ordovas J, Schaefer EJ, Dawson-Hughes B, Kiel DP: Dietary vitamin K intakes are associated with hip fracture but not with bone mineral density in elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 71: 1201-1208, 2000.
203. Kohlmeier M, Saupe J, Schaefer K, Asmus G: Bone fracture history and prospective bone fracture risk of hemodialysis patients are related to apolipoprotein E genotype. Calcif Tissue Int 62: 278-281, 1998.
204. Shiraki M, Shiraki Y, Aoki C, Hosoi T, Inoue S, Kaneki M, Ouchi Y: Association of bone mineral density with apolipoprotein E phenotype. J Bone Miner Res 12: 1438-1445, 1997.
205. Combs G: “The Vitamins,” 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press, 1998.
206. Melhus H, Michalsson K, Holmberg L, Wolk A, Ljunghall S: Smoking, antioxidant vitamins, and the risk of hip fracture. J Bone Miner Res 14: 129-135, 1999.
207. Kindmark A, Torma H, Johansson A, Ljunghall S, Melhus H: Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay demonstrates that the 9-cis retinoic acid receptor alpha is expressed in human osteoblasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 192: 1367-1372, 1993.
208. Saneshige S, Mano H, Tezuka K, Kakudo S, Mori Y, Honda Y, Itabashi A, Yamada T, Miyata K, Hakeda Y, et al.: Retinoic acid directly stimulates osteoclastic bone resorption and gene expression of cathepsin K/OC-2. Biochem J 309: 721-724, 1995.
209. Hathcock JN, Hattan DG, Jenkins MY, McDonald JT, Sundaresan PR, Wilkening VL: Evaluation of vitamin A toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 52: 183-202, 1990.
210. Armstrong R, Ashenfelter K, Eckoff C, Levin A, Shapiro S: General and reproductive toxicology of retinoids. In Sporn M, Roberts A, Goodman D (eds): “The Retinoids: Biology, Chemistry, and Medicine,” 2nd ed. New York: Raven Press, pp 545-527, 1994.
211. Melhus H, Michaelsson K, Kindmark A, Bergstrom R, Holmberg L, Mallmin H, Wolk A, Ljunghall S: Excessive dietary intake of vitamin A is associated with reduced bone mineral density and increased risk for hip fracture. Ann Intern Med 129: 770-778, 1998.
212. Arden N, Keen R, Arden E, Cooper C, Inskip H, Spector T: Dietary retinol intake and bone mineral density: a study of postmenopausal monozygous twins. J Bone Miner Res 12: S485, 1997.
213. Felson DT, Zhang Y, Hannan MT, Anderson JJ: Effects of weight and body mass index on bone mineral density in men and women: the Framingham study. J Bone Miner Res 8: 567-573, 1993.
214. Harris SS, Dawson-Hughes B: Weight, body composition, and bone density in postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int 59: 428-432, 1996.
215. Hyldstrup L, Andersen T, McNair P, Breum L, Transbol I: Bone metabolism in obesity: changes related to severe overweight and dietary weight reduction. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 129: 393-398, 1993.
216. Svendsen OL, Hassager C, Christiansen C: Effect of an energyrestrictive diet, with or without exercise, on lean tissue mass, resting metabolic rate, cardiovascular risk factors, and bone in overweight postmenopausal women. Am J Med 95: 131-140, 1993.
217. Compston JE, Laskey MA, Croucher PI, Coxon A, Kreitzman S: Effect of diet-induced weight loss on total body bone mass. Clin Sci (Colch) 82: 429-432, 1992.
218. Bonjour JP, Schurch MA, Rizzoli R: Nutritional aspects of hip fractures. Bone 18: 139S-144S, 1996.
219. Powers PS: Osteoporosis and eating disorders. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 12: 51-57, 1999.
220. Andersen AE, Watson T, Schlechte J: Osteoporosis and osteopenia in men with eating disorders (Letter). Lancet 355: 1967-1968, 2000.
221. Lennkh C, de Zwaan M, Bailer U, Strnad A, Nagy C, el-Giamal N, Wiesnagrotzki S, Vytiska E, Huber J, Kasper S: Osteopenia in anorexia nervosa: specific mechanisms of bone loss. J Psychiatr Res 33: 349-356, 1999.
222. Hobart JA, Smucker DR: The female athlete triad. Am Fam Physician 61: 3357-3364,3367, 2000.
223. Kerstetter JE, Allen LH: Protein intake and calcium homeostasis. Adv Nutr Res 9: 167-181, 1994.
224. Cooper C, Atkinson EJ, Hensrud DD, Wahner HW, O'Fallon WM, Riggs BL, Melton 3rd LJ: Dietary protein intake and bone mass in women. Calcif Tissue Int 58: 320-325, 1996.
225. Michaelsson K, Holmberg L, Mallmin H, Wolk A, Bergstrom R, Ljunghall S: Diet, bone mass, and osteocalcin: a cross-sectional study. Calcif Tissue Int 57: 86-93, 1995.
226. Geinoz G, Rapin CH, Rizzoli R, Kraemer R, Buchs B, Slosman D, Michel JP, Bonjour JP: Relationship between bone mineral density and dietary intakes in the elderly. Osteoporos Int 3: 242-248, 1993.
227. Metz JA, Anderson JJ, Gallagher Jr PN: Intakes of calcium, phosphorus, and protein, and physical-activity level are related toradial bone mass in young adult women. Am J Clin Nutr 58: 537-542, 1993.
228. Feskanich D, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA: Protein consumption and bone fractures in women. Am J Epidemiol 143: 472-479, 1996.
229. Meyer HE, Pedersen JI, Loken EB, Tverdal A: Dietary factors and the incidence of hip fracture in middle-aged Norwegians. A prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 145: 117-123, 1997.
230. Abelow B, Holford T, Insogna K: Cross-cultural association between dietary animal protein and hip fracture: a hypothesis. Calcif Tissue Int 50: 14-18, 1992.
231. Munger RG, Cerhan JR, Chiu BC: Prospective study of dietary protein intake and risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 69: 147-152, 1999.
232. Schuette SA, Hegsted M, Zemel MB, Linkswiler HM: Renal acid, urinary cyclic AMP, and hydroxyproline excretion as affected by level of protein, sulfur amino acid, and phosphorus intake. J Nutr 111: 2106-2116, 1981.
233. Chan EL, Swaminathan R: The effect of high protein and high salt intake for 4 months on calcium and hydroxyproline excretion in normal and oophorectomized rats. J Lab Clin Med 124: 37-41, 1994.
234. Kerstetter J, Caseria D, Mitnick N, Ellison A, Liskov T, Carpenter T, Gundberg C, Insogna K: Bone turnover in response to dietary protein intake. J Clin Endo Metab 84: 1052-1055, 1999.
235. Shapses SA, Robins SP, Schwartz EI, Chowdhury H: Short-term changes in calcium but not protein intake alter the rate of bone resorption in healthy subjects as assessed by urinary pyridinium cross-link excretion. J Nutr 125: 2814-2821, 1995.
236. Massey LK: Does excess dietary protein adversely affect bone? Symposium overview. J Nutr 128: 1048-1050, 1998.
237. Heaney RP: Excess dietary protein may not adversely affect bone. J Nutr 128: 1054-1057, 1998.
238. Barzel US, Massey LK: Excess dietary protein can adversely affect bone. J Nutr 128: 1051-1053, 1998.
239. Kerstetter JE, Caseria DD, Mitnick ME, Ellison AF, F GL, A.P. LT, Carpenter TO, Insogna KL: Increased circulating concentrations of parathyroid hormone in healthy, young women consuming a protein-restricted diet. Am J Clin Nutr 66: 1188-1196, 1997.
240. Kerstetter JE, O'Brien KO, Insogna KL: Dietary protein affects intestinal calcium absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 859-865, 1998.
241. Kerstetter J, Svastisalee C, Caseria D, Mitnick M, Insogna K: A threshold for low-protein-diet-induced elevations in parathyroid hormone. Am J Clin Nutr 72: 168-173, 2000.
242. Giannini S, Nobile M, Sartori L, Dalle Carbonare L, Ciuffreda M, Corro P, D'Angelo A, Calo L, Crepaldi G: Acute effects of moderate dietary protein restriction in patients with idiopathic hypercalciuria and calcium nephrolithiasis. Am J Clin Nutr 69: 267-271, 1999.
243. Kerstetter JE, Looker AC, Insogna KL: Low protein intake and low bone density. Calcif Tissue Int 66: 313, 2000.
244. Hannan M, Tucker K, Dawson-Hughes B, Felson D, Kiel D: Effect of dietary protein on bone loss in elderly men and women: the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. J Bone Min Res 12: S151, 1997.
245. Schurch MA, Rizzoli R, Slosman D, Vadas L, Vergnaud P, Bonjour JP: Protein supplements increase serum insulin-like growth factor-I levels and attenuate proximal femur bone loss in patients with recent hip fracture. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 128: 801-809, 1998.
246. Wachman A, Bernstein DS: Diet and osteoporosis. Lancet 1: 958-961, 1968.
247. Sebastian A, Harris ST, Ottaway JH, Todd KM, Morris Jr RC: Improved mineral balance and skeletal metabolism in postmenopausal women treated with potassium bicarbonate. N Engl J Med 330: 1776-1781, 1994.
248. Ellis F, S H, Saunders T: Osteoporosis in British vegetarians and omnivores. Am J Clin Nutr 27: 769-770, 1974.
249. Marsh AG, Sanchez TV, Chaffee FL, Mayor GH, Mickelsen O: Bone mineral mass in adult lacto-ovo-vegetarian and omnivorous males. Am J Clin Nutr 37: 453-456, 1983.
250. Tylavsky FA, Anderson JJ: Dietary factors in bone health of elderly lactoovovegetarian and omnivorous women. Am J Clin Nutr 48: 842-849, 1988.
251. Hunt IF, Murphy NJ, Henderson C, Clark VA, Jacobs RM, Johnston PK, Coulson AH: Bone mineral content in postmenopausal women: comparison of omnivores and vegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr 50: 517-523, 1989.
252. Tesar R, Notelovitz M, Shim E, Kauwell G, Brown J: Axial and peripheral bone density and nutrient intakes of postmenopausal vegetarian and omnivorous women. Am J Clin Nutr 56: 699-704, 1992.
253. Lloyd T, Schaeffer JM, Walker MA, Demers LM: Urinary hormonal concentrations and spinal bone densities of premenopausal vegetarian and nonvegetarian women [published erratum appears in Am J Clin Nutr 56: 954, 1992]. Am J Clin Nutr 54: 1005-1010, 1991.
254. Reed JA, Anderson JJ, Tylavsky FA, Gallagher Jr PN: Comparative changes in radial-bone density of elderly female lactoovovegetarians and omnivores [published erratum appears in Am J Clin Nutr 60: 981, 1994]. Am J Clin Nutr 59: 1197S-1202S, 1994.
255. Marsh AG, Sanchez TV, Michelsen O, Chaffee FL, Fagal SM: Vegetarian lifestyle and bone mineral density. Am J Clin Nutr 48: 837-841, 1988.
256. Marsh AG, Sanchez TV, Midkelsen O, Keiser J, Mayor G: Cortical bone density of adult lacto-ovo-vegetarian and omnivorous women. J Am Diet Assoc 76: 148-151, 1980.
257. Lau EM, Kwok T, Woo J, Ho SC: Bone mineral density in Chinese elderly female vegetarians, vegans, lacto-vegetarians and omnivores. Eur J Clin Nutr 52: 60-64, 1998.
258. Chiu JF, Lan SJ, Yang CY, Wang PW, Yao WJ, Su LH, Hsieh CC: Long-term vegetarian diet and bone mineral density in postmenopausal Taiwanese women. Calcif Tissue Int 60: 245-249, 1997.
259. Mazess RB, Mather W: Bone mineral content of North Alaskan Eskimos. Am J Clin Nutr 27: 916-925, 1974.
260. Mazess RB, Mather WE: Bone mineral content in Canadian Eskimos. Hum Biol 47: 44-63, 1975.
261. New SA, Robins SP, Campbell MK, Martin JC, Garton MJ, Bolton-Smith C, Grubb DA, Lee SJ, Reid DM: Dietary influences on bone mass and bone metabolism: further evidence of a positive link between fruit and vegetable consumption and bone health? Am J Clin Nutr 71: 142-151, 2000.
262. Setchell KD: Phytoestrogens: the biochemistry, physiology, andimplications for human health of soy isoflavones. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 1333S-1346S, 1998.
263. Potter SM, Baum JA, Teng H, Stillman RJ, Shay NF, Erdman Jr JW: Soy protein and isoflavones: their effects on blood lipids and bone density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 1375S-1379S, 1998.
264. Arjmandi BH, Birnbaum R, Goyal NV, Getlinger MJ, Juma S, Alekel L, Hasler CM, Drum ML, Hollis BW, Kukreja SC: Bonesparing effect of soy protein in ovarian hormone-deficient rats is related to its isoflavone content. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 1364S-1368S, 1998.
265. Arjmandi BH, Getlinger MJ, Goyal NV, Alekel L, Hasler CM, Juma S, Drum ML, Hollis BW, Kukreja SC: Role of soy protein with normal or reduced isoflavone content in reversing bone loss induced by ovarian hormone deficiency in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 1358S-1363S, 1998.
266. Anderson JJ, Ambrose WW, Garner SC: Biphasic effects of genistein on bone tissue in the ovariectomized, lactating rat model. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 217: 345-350, 1998.
267. Williams JP, Jordan SE, Barnes S, Blair HC: Tyrosine kinase inhibitor effects on avian osteoclastic acid transport. Am J Clin Nutr 68: 1369S-1374S, 1998.
268. Agnusdei D, Bufalino L: Efficacy of ipriflavone in established osteoporosis and long-term safety. Calcif Tissue Int 61 Suppl 1: S23-27, 1997.
269. Scheiber MD, Rebar RW: Isoflavones and postmenopausal bone health: a viable alternative to estrogen therapy? Menopause 6: 233-241, 1999.
270. Barger-Lux MJ, Heaney RP: Caffeine and the calcium economy revisited. Osteoporos Int 5: 97-102, 1995.
271. Barrett-Connor E, Chang JC, Edelstein SL: Coffee-associated osteoporosis offset by daily milk consumption. The Rancho Bernardo Study. JAMA 271: 280-283, 1994.
272. Cummings SR, Nevitt MC, Browner WS, Stone K, Fox KM, Ensrud KE, Cauley J, Black D, Vogt TM: Risk factors for hip fracture in white women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. N Engl J Med 332: 767-773, 1995.
273. Lloyd T, Rollings N, Eggli DF, Kieselhorst K, Chinchilli VM: Dietary caffeine intake and bone status of postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 65: 1826-1830, 1997.
274. Lloyd T, Rollings NJ, Kieselhorst K, Eggli DF, Mauger E: Dietary caffeine intake is not correlated with adolescent bone gain. J Am Coll Nutr 17: 454-457, 1998.
275. Lloyd T, Johnson-Rollings N, Eggli DF, Kieselhorst K, Mauger EA, Cusatis DC: Bone status among postmenopausal women with different habitual caffeine intakes: a longitudinal investigation. J Am Coll Nutr 19: 256-261, 2000.
276. Packard PT, Recker RR: Caffeine does not affect the rate of gain in spine bone in young women. Osteoporos Int 6: 149-152, 1996.
277. Massey LK, Whiting SJ: Caffeine, urinary calcium, calcium metabolism and bone. J Nutr 123: 1611-1614, 1993.
278. Harris SS, Dawson-Hughes B: Caffeine and bone loss in healthy postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 60: 573-578, 1994.
279. Hernandez-Avila M, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Speizer FE, Willett WC: Caffeine, moderate alcohol intake, and risk of fractures of the hip and forearm in middle-aged women. Am J Clin Nutr 54: 157-163, 1991.
280. Hoidrup S, Gronbaek M, Gottschau A, Lauritzen JB, Schroll M: Alcohol intake, beverage preference, and risk of hip fracture in men and women. Copenhagen Centre for Prospective Population Studies. Am J Epidemiol 149: 993-1001, 1999.
281. Holbrook TL, Barrett-Connor E: A prospective study of alcohol consumption and bone mineral density. BMJ 306: 1506-1509, 1993.
282. Felson DT, Zhang Y, Hannan MT, Kannel WB, Kiel DP: Alcohol intake and bone mineral density in elderly men and women. The Framingham Study. Am J Epidemiol 142: 485-492, 1995.
283. Hoidrup S, Gronbaek M, Pedersen AT, Lauritzen JB, Gottschau A, Schroll M: Hormone replacement therapy and hip fracture risk: effect modification by tobacco smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, and body mass index. Am J Epidemiol 150: 1085-1093, 1999.
284. Gavaler JS, Love K, Ortega CT: An international study of the relationship between alcohol consumption and postmenopausal estradiol. In Khalant JM, Khanna JM, Israel Y (eds): “Advances in biomedical alcohol research: Proceedings of the 5th ISBRA/ RSA Congress.” Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp 327-330, 1991.
285. Goldberg DM, Soleas GJ, Levesque M: Moderate alcohol consumption: the gentle face of Janus. Clin Biochem 32: 505-518, 1999.
286. Radimer KL, Subar AF, Thompson FE: Nonvitamin, nonmineral dietary supplements: issues and findings from NHANES III. J Am Diet Assoc 100: 447-454, 2000.
287. Hidaka S, Okamoto Y, Nakajima K, Suekawa M, Liu SY: Preventive effects of traditional Chinese (Kampo) medicines on experimental osteoporosis induced by ovariectomy in rats. Calcif Tissue Int 61: 239-246, 1997.
288. Li H, Miyahara T, Tezuka Y, Namba T, Nemoto N, Tonami S, Seto HT, Kadota S: The effect of Kampo formulae on bone resorption in vitro and in vivo. I. Active constituents of Tsu-kangan. Biol Pharm Bull 21: 1322-1326, 1998.
289. Hidaka S, Okamoto Y, Yamada Y, Kon Y, Kimura T: A Japanese herbal medicine, Chujo-to, has a beneficial effect on osteoporosis in rats. Phytother Res 13: 14-19, 1999.
290. Yu S, Chen K, Li S, Zhang K: In vitro and in vivo studies of the effect of a chinese herb medicine on osteoclastic bone resorption. Chin J Dent Res 2: 7-11, 1999.