The Bias of Crowds: How Implicit Bias Bridges Personal and Systemic Prejudice

Psychological Inquiry

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 2017, Pages 233-248

  Payne, B Keith ^a   Vuletich, Heidi A ^a   Lundberg, Kristjen B ^b  

^a University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF RICHMOND   (United States)

Author keywords

Implicit bias; implicit prejudice; prejudice; racism; systemic bias

Indexed keywords

EID: 85036539539     PISSN: 1047840X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/1047840X.2017.1335568     Document Type: Article

References (169)

1. Allport, G. W., (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2. Arkes, H. R., & Tetlock, P. E., (2004). Attributions of implicit prejudice, or “Would Jesse Jackson ‘fail’ the Implicit Association Test.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(4), 257–278. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1504_01
3. Banaji, M. R., (2001). Implicit attitudes can be measured. In H. L., Roediger III, J. S., Nairne, I. E., Neath, & A. M., Surprenant (Eds.), The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (pp. 117–150). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
4. Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G., (1995). Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 181–198. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.68.2.181
5. Banaji, M. R., Hardin, C., & Rothman, A. J., (1993). Implicit stereotyping in person judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 272–281. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.272
6. Banaji, M. R., Nosek, B. A., & Greenwald, A. G., (2004). No place for nostalgia in science: A response to Arkes and Tetlock. Psychological Inquiry, 15(4), 279–310. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1504_02
7. Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L., (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 230–244. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230
8. Baron, A. S., (2015). Constraints on the development of implicit intergroup attitudes. Child Development Perspectives, 9, 50–54. doi:10.1111/cdep.12105
9. Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R., (2006). The development of implicit attitudes: Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 53–58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01664.x
10. Bennett, M. W., (2010). Unraveling the Gordian knot of implicit bias in jury selection: The problems of judge-dominated voir dire, the failed promise of Batson, and proposed solutions. Harvard Law & Policy Review, 4, 149–171. Retrieved from http://harvardlpr.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/4.1_8_Bennett.pdf
11. Berard, T. J., (2008). The neglected social psychology of institutional racism. Sociology Compass, 2, 734–764. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2007.00089.x
12. Blair, I. V., (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, 242–261. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0603_8
13. Blair, I. V., & Brondolo, E., (2017). Moving beyond the individual: Community-level prejudice and health. Social Science & Medicine. Advance online publication. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.04.041
14. Bless, H., Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N., Golisano, V., Rabe, C., & Wolk, M., (1996). Mood and the use of scripts: Does a happy mood really lead to mindlessness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(4), 665–679.
15. Bless, H., Schwarz, N., Bodenhausen, G. V, & Thiel, L., (2001). Personalized versus generalized benefits of stereotype disconfirmation: Trade-offs in the evaluation of atypical exemplars and their social groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 386–397. doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1459
16. Bodenhausen, G. V., (1988). Stereotypic biases in social decision making and memory: Testing process models of stereotype use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 726–737.
17. Bonilla-Silva, E., (2003). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield.
18. Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B., Jr, & Pennebaker, J. W., (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 631–643. doi:10.1037///0022-3514.79.4.631
19. Cameron, C. D., Brown-Iannuzzi, J. L., & Payne, B. K., (2012). Sequential priming measures of implicit social cognition: A meta-analysis of associations with behavior and explicit attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16, 330–350. doi:10.1177/1088868312440047
20. Carlston, D., (2010). Models of implicit and explicit mental representation. In B., Gawronski & B. K., Payne (Eds.), Handbook of implicit social cognition (pp. 38–61). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
21. Chapman, M. V, Hall, W. J., Lee, K., Colby, R., Coyne-Beasley, T., Day, S., & Thomas, T., (in press). Making a difference in medical trainees' attitudes toward Latino patients: A pilot study of an intervention to modify implicit and explicit attitudes. Social Science & Medicine. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.05.013
22. Clemen, R.T., (1989). Combining forecasts: A review and annotated bibliography. International Journal of Forecasting, 5, 559–583. doi:10.1016/0169-2070(89)90012-5
23. Cole, L. W., & Farrell, C., (2006). Structural racism, structural pollution and the need for a new paradigm. Washington University Journal of Law & Policy, 20, 265–282. Retrieved from http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1247&context=law_journal_law_policy
24. Collins, A. M., & Loftus, E. F., (1975). A spreading-activation theory of semantic processing. Psychological Review, 82, 407–428. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.82.6.407
25. Cooley, E., & Payne, B. K., (2017). Using groups to measure intergroup prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43, 46–59. doi:10.1177/0146167216675331
26. Cooley, E., Payne, B. K., Loersch, C., & Lei, R., (2015). Who owns implicit attitudes? Testing a metacognitive perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 103–115. doi:10.1177/0146167214559712
27. Cooley, E., Payne, B. K., & Phillips, K. J., (2014). Implicit bias and the illusion of conscious ill will. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(4), 500–507. doi:10.1177/1948550613506123
28. Cunningham, W. A., Nezlek, J. B., & Banaji, M. R., (2004). Implicit and explicit ethnocentrism: Revisiting the ideologies of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1332–1346.
29. Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R., (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12, 163–170. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00328
30. Dasgupta, N., DeSteno, D., Williams, L. A., & Hunsinger, M., (2009). Fanning the flames of prejudice: The influence of specific incidental emotions on implicit prejudice. Emotion, 9, 585–591. doi:10.1037/a0015961
31. Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G., (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 800–814. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.800
32. De Houwer, J., (2014). A propositional model of implicit evaluation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8, 342–353. doi:10.1111/spc3.12111
33. Devine, P. G., (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
34. Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. L., (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 1267–1278. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003
35. Devos, T., (2008). Implicit attitudes 101: Theoretical and empirical insights. In W. D., Crano & R., Prislin (Eds.), Attitudes and attitude change (pp. 61–84). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
36. Dunham, Y., Baron, A., & Banaji, M., (2006). From American city to Japanese village: A cross-cultural investigation of implicit race attitudes. Child Development, 77, 1268–1281. doi:10.1111/j.14678624.2006.00933.x
37. Dunham, Y., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R., (2008). The development of implicit intergroup cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 248–253. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.04.006
38. Dunham, Y., Chen, E. E., & Banaji, M. R., (2013). Two signatures of implicit intergroup attitudes: Developmental invariance and early enculturation. Psychological Science, 24, 860–868. doi:10.1177/0956797612463081
39. Farkas, I., Helbing, D., & Vicsek, T., (2002). Mexican waves in an excitable medium. Nature, 419(6103), 131. doi:10.1038/419131a
40. Fazio, R. H., (1995). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations: Determinants, consequences, and correlates of attitude accessibility. In R. E., Petty & J. A., Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 247–282). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
41. Fazio, R. H., (2009). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations of varying strength. Social Cognition, 25, 603–637. doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.603
42. Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A., (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297–327. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225
43. Fazio, R. H., Chen, J., McDonel, E. C., & Sherman, S. J., (1982). Attitude accessibility, attitude-behavior consistency and the strength of the object-evaluation association. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 18, 339–357. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(82)90058-0
44. Fazio, R. H., & Williams, C. J., (1986). Attitude accessibility as a moderator of the attitude-perception and attitude-behavior relations: An investigation of the 1984 presidential election. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 505–514. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.505
45. Feagin, J. R., (2006). Systemic racism: A theory of oppression. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.
46. Feagin, J. R., & Feagin, C., (1986). Discrimination American style: Institutional racism and sexism (2nd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger.
47. Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A., (2003). The constructive nature of automatic evalution. In J., Musch & K. C., Klauer (Eds.), The psychology of evaluation: Affective processes in cognition and emotion (pp. 169–188). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
48. Freeman, A. D., (1978). Legitimizing racial discrimination through antidiscrimination law: A critical review of supreme court doctrine. Minnesota Law Review, 62, 1049–1119. Retrieved from http://www.dariaroithmayr.com/pdfs/assignments/Freeman,LegitimizingRacialDiscrimination.pdf
49. Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Oyserman, D., & Stone, J. M., (2008). Of warrior chiefs and Indian princesses: The psychological consequences of American Indian mascots. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30, 208–218. doi:10.1080/01973530802375003
50. Galton, F., (1907). Vox populi. Nature, 75(1949), 7. doi:10.1038/075450a0
51. Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V., (2006). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692–731. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692
52. Gawronski, B., Deutsch, R., Mbirkou, S., Seibt, B., & Strack, F., (2008). When “just say no” is not enough: Affirmation versus negation training and the reduction of automatic stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 370–377. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.004
53. Gawronski, B., Hofmann, W., & Wilbur, C. J., (2006). Are “implicit” attitudes unconscious?. Consciousness and Cognition, 15, 485–499.
54. Gawronski, B., Morrison, M., Phills, C. E., & Galdi, S., (2017). Temporal stability of implicit and explicit measures: A longitudinal analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43, 300–312. doi:10.1177/0146167216684131
55. Gawronski, B., & Payne, B. K., (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of implicit social cognition: Measurement, theory, and applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
56. Gee, G. C., & Ford, C. L., (2011). Structural racism and health inequities: Old issues, new directions. Du Bois Review, 8, 115–132. doi:10.1017/S1742058×11000130
57. Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G., (1991). The trouble of thinking activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 509–517. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509
58. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R., (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4
59. Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., & Nosek, B. A., (2015). Statistically small effects of the Implicit Association Test can have societally large effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108, 553–561. doi:10.1037/pspa0000016
60. Greenwald, A. G., & Krieger, L. H., (2006). Implicit bias: Scientific foundations. California Law Review, 94(4), 945–968. doi:10.15779/Z38GH7F
61. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K., (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
62. Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R., (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 17–41. doi:10.1037/a0015575
63. Hahn, A., & Gawronski, B., (2014). Do implicit evaluations reflect unconscious attitudes? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 37(1), 28–29.
64. Hahn, A., Judd, C. M., Hirsh, H. K., & Blair, I. V., (2014). Awareness of implicit attitudes. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 143, 1369–1392. doi:10.1037/a0035028
65. Han, H. A., Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H., (2006). The influence of experimentally created extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 259–272. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.006
66. Hawkins, C. B., & Nosek, B. A., (2012). Motivated independence?: Implicit party identity predicts political judgments among self-proclaimed independents. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1437–1452. doi:10.1177/0146167212452313
67. Hehman, E., Flake, J.K., & Calanchini, J., (in press). Disproportionate use of lethal force in policing is associated with regional racial biases of residents. Social Psychological and Personality Science.
68. Heiphetz, L., Spelke, E. S., & Banaji, M. R., (2013). Patterns of implicit and explicit attitudes in children and adults: Tests in the domain of religion. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 864–879. doi:10.1037/a0029714
69. Higgins, E. T., (1996). Knowledge activation: Accessibility, applicability, and salience. In E. T., Higgins & A. W., Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
70. Higgins, E. T., King, G. A., & Marvin, G. H., (1982). Individual construct accessibility and subjective impressions and recall. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 35–47.
71. Higgins, E. T., Rholes, W. S., & Jones, C. R., (1977). Category accessibility and impression formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 141–154. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(77)80007-3
72. Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M., (2005). A meta-analysis on the correlation between the Implicit Association Test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1369–1385. doi:10.1177/0146167205275613
73. Huntsinger, J. R., & Sinclair, S., (2010). When it feels right, go with it: Affective regulation of affiliative social tuning. Social Cognition, 28, 290–305. doi:10.1521/soco.2010.28.3.290
74. Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R., (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1–27. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.x
75. Jost, J. T., Pelham, B. W., & Carvallo, M. R., (2002). Non-conscious forms of system justification: Implicit and behavioral preferences for higher status groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 586–602.
76. Jost, J. T., Rudman, L. A., Blair, I. V., Carney, D. R., Dasgupta, N., Glaser, J., & Hardin, C. D., (2009). The existence of implicit bias is beyond reasonable doubt: A refutation of ideological and methodological objections and executive summary of ten studies that no manager should ignore. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29, 39–69. doi:10.1016/j.riob.2009.10.001
77. Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L., (2001). Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 774–788. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.774
78. Karpinski, A., & Steinman, R. B., (2006). The single category implicit association test as a measure of implicit social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 16–32. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.16
79. Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R., (2011). Social psychology (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
80. Katz, D., & Braly, K., (1933). Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 280–290. doi:10.1037/h0074049
81. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., & Russin, A., (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871–888. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.5.871
82. Kihlstrom, J. F. (2004). Implicit methods in social psychology. In C., Sansone, C. C., Morf, & A. T., Panter (Eds.), The Sage handbook of methods in social psychology (pp. 195–212). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
83. Lai, C. K., Hoffman, K. M., & Nosek, B. A. (2013). Reducing implicit prejudice. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 315–330. doi:10.1111/spc3.12023
84. Lai, C. K., Marini, M., Lehr, S. A., Cerruti, C., Shin, J. L., Joy-Gaba, J. A., & Nosek, B. A., (2014). Reducing implicit racial preferences: I. A comparative investigation of 17 interventions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 1765–1785. doi:10.1037/a0036260
85. Lai, C. K., Skinner, A. L., Cooley, E., Murrar, S., Brauer, M., Devos, T., & Nosek, B. A., (2016). Reducing implicit racial preferences: II. Intervention effectiveness across time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 1001–1016. doi:10.1037/xge0000179
86. LaVeist, T., (1989). Linking residential segregation to the infant mortality disparity in U.S. cities. Sociology and Social Research, 73(2), 90–94.
87. Lee, K. M., Lindquist, K. A., & Payne, B. K., (in press). Constructing bias: Conceptualization breaks the link between implicit bias and fear of Black Americans. Emotion.
88. Leitner, J.B., Hehman, E., Ayduk, O., & Mendoza-Denton, R., (2016). Racial bias is associated with ingroup death rate for Blacks and Whites: Insights from Project Implicit. Social Science & Medicine, 170, 220–227. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.10.007
89. Lepore, L., & Brown, R., (2002). The role of awareness: Divergent automatic stereotype activation and implicit judgment correction. Social Cognition, 20(4), 321–351. doi:10.1521/soco.20.4.321.19907
90. Loersch, C., & Payne, B. K., (2012). On mental contamination: The role of (mis)attribution in behavior priming. Social Cognition, 30(2), 241–252. doi:10.1521/soco.2012.30.2.241
91. Lorge, I., Fox, D., Davitz, J., & Brenner, M., (1958). A survey of studies contrasting the quality of group performance and individual performance, 1920-1957. Psychological Bulletin, 55, 337–372. doi:10.1037/h0042344
92. Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., & Sinclair, S., (2001). Social influence effects on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 842–855. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.81.5.842
93. Lukachko, A., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Keyes, K. M., (2014). Structural racism and myocardial infarction in the United States. Social Science & Medicine, 103, 42–50. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.07.021
94. Lundberg, K. B., & Payne, B. K., (2014). Decisions among the undecided: Implicit attitudes predict future voting behavior of undecided voters. PLoS ONE, 9(1), e85680. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085680
95. Mandel, H., & Semyonov, M., (2005). Family policies, wage structures, and gender gaps: Sources of earnings inequality in 20 countries. American Sociological Review, 70, 949–967. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4145401
96. Marini, M., Sriram, N., Schnabel, K., Maliszewski, N., Devos, T., Ekehammar, B., & Nosek, B. A., (2013). Overweight people have low levels of implicit weight bias, but overweight nations have high levels of implicit weight bias. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e83543. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083543
97. McClelland, J. L., (2000). Connectionist models of memory. In E. Tulving, & F. I. M., Craik (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of memory (pp. 583–596). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
98. McConnell, A. R., Dunn, E. W., Austin, S. N., & Rawn, C. D., (2011). Blind spots in the search for happiness: Implicit attitudes and nonverbal leakage predict affective forecasting errors. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 628–634. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.018
99. McKoon, G., & Ratcliff, R., (1992). Spreading activation versus compound cue accounts of priming: Mediated priming revisited. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning. Memory, and Cognition, 18(6), 1155–1172. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.18.6.1155
100. Medin, D. L., (1989). Concepts and conceptual structure. American Psychologist1, 44(12), 1469.
101. Mellers, B., Ungar, L., Baron, J., Ramos, J., Gurcay, B., Fincher, K., & Tetlock, P. E., (2014). Psychological strategies for winning a geopolitical forecasting tournament. Psychological Science, 25, 1106–1115. doi:10.1177/0956797614524255
102. Mendoza, S. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Amodio, D. M., (2010). Reducing the expression of implicit stereotypes: Reflexive control through implementation intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 512–523. doi:10.1177/0146167210362789
103. Miller, C. T., Varni, S. E., Solomon, S. E., DeSarno, M. J., & Bunn, J. Y., (2016). Macro-level implicit HIV prejudice and the health of community residents with HIV. Health Psychology, 35, 807–815. doi:10.1037/hea0000314
104. Monteith, M. J., Voils, C. I., & Ashburn-Nardo, L., (2001). Taking a look underground: Detecting, interpreting, and reacting to implicit racial biases. Social Cognition, 19(4), 395–417. doi:10.1521/soco.19.4.395.20759
105. Norton, M. I., Vandello, J. A., & Darley, J. M., (2004). Casuistry and social category bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 817–831. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.817
106. Nosek, B. A., (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 134(4), 565–584. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.4.565
107. Nosek, B. A., (2007). Implicit–explicit relationships. Psychological Sciences, 16, 65–69.
108. Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R., (2007). The Implicit Association Test at age 7: A methodological and conceptual review. In J. A., Bargh (Ed.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes (pp. 265–292). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
109. Nosek, B. A., & Hansen, J. J., (2008). The associations in our heads belong to us: Searching for attitudes and knowledge in implicit evaluation. Cognition and Emotion, 22(4), 552–594. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.134.4.565
110. Nosek, B. A., & Smyth, F. L., (2007). A multitrait-multimethod validation of the Implicit Association Test. Experimental Psychology, 54, 14–29. doi:10.1027/1618-3169.54.1.14
111. Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L, Hansen, J. J., Devos, T., Lindner, N. M., Ranganath, K. A., & Banaji, M. R., (2007). Pervasiveness and correlates of implicit attitudes and stereotypes. European Review of Social Psychology, 18, 36–88. doi:10.1080/10463280701489053
112. Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Sriram, N., Linder, N. M., Devos, T., Ayala, A., & Greenwald, A. G., (2009). National differences in gender-science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 10593–10597. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809921106
113. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H., (2004). Reducing the influence of extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 653–667. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.5.653
114. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H., (2006). Reducing automatically-activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 421–433. doi:10.1177/0146167205284004
115. Orchard, J., & Price, J., (2017). County-level racial prejudice and the black-white gap in infant health outcomes. Social Science & Medicine, 181, 191–198. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.03.036
116. Oswald, F. L., Mitchell, G., Blanton, H., Jaccard, J., & Tetlock, P. E., (2013). Predicting ethnic and racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of IAT criterion studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 171–192. doi:10.1037/a0032734
117. Oswald, F. L., Mitchell, G., Blanton, H., Jaccard, J., & Tetlock, P. E., (2015). Using the IAT to predict ethnic and racial discrimination: Small effect sizes of unknown societal significance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108, 562–571. doi:10.1037/pspa0000023
118. Page, S., (2007). The difference: How the power of diversity creates better groups, firms, schools, and societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
119. Payne, B. K., (2001). Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 181–192. doi:10.1037///0022-3514.81.2.181
120. Payne, B. K., (2005). Conceptualizing control in social cognition: How executive functioning modulates the expression of automatic stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 488–503. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.488
121. Payne, B. K., (2006). Weapon bias: Split-second decisions and unintended stereotyping. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 287–291. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00454.x
122. Payne, B. K., Burkley, M. A., & Stokes, M. B., (2008). Why do implicit and explicit attitude tests diverge? The role of structural fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 16–31. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.16
123. Payne, B. K., & Cameron, C. D., (2013). Implicit social cognition and mental representation. In D. E., Carlston (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of social cognition (pp. 220–238). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
124. Payne, B. K., Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Stewart, B. D., (2005). An inkblot for attitudes: Affect misattribution as implicit measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 277–293. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277
125. Payne, B. K., Krosnick, J. A., Pasek, J., Lelkes, Y., Akhtar, O., & Tompson, T., (2010). Implicit and explicit prejudice in the 2008 American presidential election. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 367–374. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.11.001
126. Payne, B. K., & Lundberg, K. B., (2014). The affect misattribution procedure: Ten years of evidence on reliability, validity, and mechanisms. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8, 672–686. doi:10.1111/spc3.12148
127. Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K. G., (2007). The meta-cognitive model (MCM) of attitudes: Implications for attitude measurement, change, and strength. Social Cognition, 25, 609–642. doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.657
128. Petty, R. E., Tormala, Z. L., Briñol, P., & Jarvis, W. B. G., (2006). Implicit ambivalence from attitude change: An exploration of the PAST model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 21–41. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.21
129. Phelps, E. A., O'Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R., (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(5), 729–738. doi:10.1162/089892900562552
130. Powell, J. A., (2008). Structural racism: Building upon the insights of John Calmore. North Carolina Law Review, 86, 791–816. doi:10.1525/sp.2007.54.1.23
131. Quillian, L., (2008). Does unconscious racism exist? Social Psychology Quarterly, 71, 6–11.
132. Rae, J. R., Newheiser, A., & Olson, K. R., (2015). Exposure to racial out-groups and implicit race bias in the United States. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 535–543. doi:10.1177/1948550614567357
133. Ranganath, K. A., Smith, C. T., & Nosek, B. A., (2008). Distinguishing automatic and controlled components of attitudes from direct and indirect measurement methods. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 386–396. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.008
134. Ratcliff, R., & McKoon, G., (1988). A retrieval theory of priming in memory. Psychological Review, 95, 385. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.95.3.385
135. Rholes, W. S., & Pryor, J. B., (1982). Cognitive accessibility and cognitive attributions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 719–729. doi:10.1177/0146167282084019
136. Richeson, J. A., & Sommers, S. R., (2016). Toward a social psychology of race and race relations for the twenty-first century. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 439–463. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115115
137. Roediger, H. L., III, & McDermott, K. B., (1995). Creating false memories: Remembering words not presented in lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 803–814. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803
138. Rosch, E., Mervis, C. B., Gray, W. D., Johnson, D. M., & Boyes-Braem, P., (1976). Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 382–439. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(76)90013-X
139. Rudman, L. A., (2004a). Social justice in our minds, homes, and society: The nature, causes, and consequences of implicit bias. Social Justice Research, 17, 129–142. doi:10.1023/B:SORE.0000027406.32604.f6
140. Rudman, L. A., (2004b). Sources of implicit attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 80–83. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00279.x
141. Rudman, L. A., Greenwald, A. G., Mellott, D. S., & Schwartz, J. L. K., (1999). Measuring the automatic components of prejudice: Flexibility and generality of the Implicit Association Test. Social Cognition, 17(4), 437–465. doi:10.1521/soco.1999.17.4.437
142. Rudman, L. A., & Lee, M. R., (2002). Implicit and explicit consequences of exposure to violent and misogynous rap music. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 5, 133–150. doi:10.1177/1368430202005002541
143. Rudman, L. A., Phelan, J. E., & Heppen, J., (2007). Developmental sources of implicit attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1700–1713. doi:10.1177/0146167207307487
144. Rydell, R.J., & McConnell, A.R., (2006). Understanding implicit and explicit attitude change: A systems of reasoning analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 995–1008. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.6.995
145. Schnabel, K., Asendorpf, J. B., & Greenwald, A. G., (2008). Assessment of individual differences in implicit cognition. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 24(4), 210–217. doi:10.1027/1015-5759.24.4.210
146. Schwarz, N., (2006). Attitude research: Between Ockam's razor and the fundamental attribution error. Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 19–21. doi:10.1086/504124
147. Schwarz, N., (2007). Attitude construction: Evaluation in context. Social Cognition, 25, 638–656. doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.5.638
148. Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L., (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513–523.
149. Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., Gonsalkorale, K., Hugenberg, K., Allen, T. J., & Groom, C. J., (2008). The self-regulation of automatic associations and behavioral impulses. Psychological Review, 115, 314–335.
150. Shook, N. J., & Fazio, R. H., (2008). Interracial roommate relationships: An experimental field test of the contact hypothesis. Psychological Science, 19, 717–723. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02147.x
151. Smith, C. D., (2009). Deconstructing the pipeline: Evaluating school-to-prison pipeline equal protection cases through a structural racism framework. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 36, 1009–1049.
152. Smith, E. R., (1996). What do connectionism and social psychology offer each other? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 893.
153. Spalding, L. R., & Hardin, C. D., (1999). Unconscious unease and self-handicapping: Behavioral consequences of individual differences in implicit and explicit self-esteem. Psychological Science, 10(6), 535–539. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00202
154. Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S., (1979). The role of category accessibility in the interpretation of information about persons: Some determinants and implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1660–1672. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1660
155. Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S., (1980). Category accessibility and social perception: Some implications for the study of person memory and interpersonal judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 841–856. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.6.841
156. Stewart, B. D., & Payne, B. K., (2008). Bringing automatic stereotyping under control: Implementation intentions as efficient means of thought control. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1332–1345. doi:10.1177/0146167208321269
157. Stewart, B. D., von Hippel, W., & Radvansky, G. A., (2009). Age, race, and implicit prejudice: Using process dissociation to separate the underlying components. Psychological Science, 20, 164–168. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02274.x
158. Surowiecki, J., (2004). The wisdom of crowds: Why the many are smarter than the few and how collective wisdom shapes business, economies, societies, and nations. New York, NY: Doubleday Books.
159. Tetlock, P. E., & Gardner, D., (2015). Superforecasting: The art and science of prediction. New York, NY: Crown.
160. Todd, A. R., Bodenhausen, G. V., Richeson, J. A., & Galinsky, A. D., (2011). Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 1027–1042. doi:10.1037/a0022308
161. Turner, R. N., & Crisp, R. J., (2010). Imagining intergroup contact reduces implicit prejudice. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 129–142. doi:10.1348/014466609×419901
162. Uhlmann, E. L., & Cohen, G. L., (2005). Constructed criteria: Redefining merit to justify discrimination. Psychological Science, 16, 474–480. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40064251
163. van Dijk, T. A., (1989). Mediating racism: The role of the media in the reproduction of racism. In R., Wodak (Ed.), Language, power, and ideology: Studies in political discourse (pp. 199–226). Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
164. Webb, T. L., Sheeran, P., & Pepper, J., (2012). Gaining control over responses to implicit attitude tests: Implementation intentions engender fast responses on attitude-incongruent trials. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51, 13–32. doi:10.1348/014466610×532192
165. Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E., (1997). The flexible correction model: The role of naive theories of bias correction. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 29, 141–208. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60017-9
166. Wellman, D., (2007). Unconscious racism, social cognition theory, and the legal intent doctrine: The neuron fires next time. In H., Vera & J. R., Feagin (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of racial and ethnic relations (pp. 39–65). New York, NY: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-70845-4_4
167. Williams, D. R., & Collins, C., (2001). Racial residential segregation: A fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Reports, 116, 404–416.
168. Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y., (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101–126. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.107.1.101
169. Zerhouni, O., Rougier, M., & Muller, D., (2016). “Who (really) is Charlie?”: French cities with lower implicit prejudice toward Arabs demonstrated larger participation rates in Charlie Hebdo rallies. International Review of Social Psychology, 29, 69–76, doi:10.5334/irsp.50