Mechanistic Understanding of Thermochemical Conversion of Polymers and Lignocellulosic Biomass

Advances in Chemical Engineering

Volumn 49, Issue , 2016, Pages 95-198

  Zhou, X ^a   Broadbelt, L J ^a   Vinu, R ^b  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS   (India)

Author keywords

Catalyst; Catalytic fast pyrolysis; Cellulose; Lignocellulosic biomass; Mechanism; Mechanistic kinetic model; Polymer; Polyolefins; Pyrolysis; Zeolites

Indexed keywords

EID: 85020490655     PISSN: 00652377     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/bs.ache.2016.09.002     Document Type: Chapter

References (330)

1. Abbas-Abadi, M.S., Haghighi, M.N., Yeganeh, H., McDonald, A.G., Evaluation of pyrolysis process parameters on polypropylene degradation products. J Anal Appl Pyrol 109 (2014), 272–277.
2. Adam, J., Antonakou, E., Lappas, A., et al. In situ catalytic upgrading of biomass derived fast pyrolysis vapours in a fixed bed reactor using mesoporous materials. Micropor Mesopor Mat 96 (2006), 93–101.
3. Adjaye, J.D., Bakhshi, N.N., Production of hydrocarbons by catalytic upgrading of a fast pyrolysis bio-oil. Part I: conversion over various catalysts. Fuel Process Technol 45 (1995), 161–183.
4. Adjaye, J.D., Bakhshi, N.N., Production of hydrocarbons by catalytic upgrading of a fast pyrolysis bio-oil. Part II: comparative catalyst performance and reaction pathways. Fuel Process Technol 45 (1995), 185–202.
5. Adler, E., Structural elements of lignin. Ind Eng Chem 49 (1957), 1377–1383.
6. Agarwal, V., Dauenhauer, P.J., Huber, G.W., Auerbach, S.M., Ab initio dynamics of cellulose pyrolysis: nascent decomposition pathways at 327 and 600°C. J Am Chem Soc 134 (2012), 14958–14972.
7. Alén, R., Structure and chemical composition of wood. Stenius, P., (eds.) Forest products chemistry, 2000, Fapet Oy, Helsinki.
8. Alonso, D.M., Wettstein, S.G., Dumesic, J.A., Bimetallic catalysts for upgrading of biomass to fuels and chemicals. Chem Soc Rev 41 (2012), 8075–8098.
9. Al-Salem, S.M., Lettieri, P., Baeyens, J., Recycling and recovery routes of plastic solid waste (PSW): a review. Waste Manage 29 (2009), 2625–2643.
10. Alwahabi, S.M., Froment, G.F., Single event kinetic modeling of the methanol-to-olefins process on SAPO-34. Ind Eng Chem Res 43 (2004), 5098–5111.
11. Anand, V., Sunjeev, V., Vinu, R., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of Arthrospira platensis (spirulina) algae using zeolites. J Anal Appl Pyrol 118 (2016), 298–307.
12. Anca-Couce, A., Reaction mechanisms and multi-scale modelling of lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis. Progr Energy Combust Sci 53 (2016), 41–79.
13. Anca-Couce, A., Obernberger, I., Application of a detailed biomass pyrolysis kinetic scheme to hardwood and softwood torrefaction. Fuel 167 (2016), 158–167.
14. Anca-Couce, A., Mehrabian, R., Scharler, R., Obernberger, I., Kinetic scheme of biomass pyrolysis considering secondary charring reactions. Energ Convers Manage 87 (2014), 687–696.
15. Antal, M.J., Varhegyi, G., Cellulose pyrolysis kinetics: the current state of knowledge. Ind Eng Chem Res 34 (1995), 703–717.
16. Association of Plastics Manufacturers: Plastics—the Facts 2014/2015. An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data (website). http://www.plasticseurope.org/documents/document/20150227150049-final_plastics_the_facts_2014_2015_260215.pdf.Accessed June, 2016.
17. Babu, B.V., Biomass pyrolysis: a state-of-the-art review. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 2 (2008), 393–414.
18. Baker, E.G., Elliott, D.C., Catalytic upgrading of biomass pyrolysis oils. Bridgwater, A.V., Kuester, J.L., (eds.) Research in thermochemical biomass conversion, 1988, Springer, Netherlands.
19. Barta, K., Matson, T.D., Fettig, M.L., Scott, S.L., Iretskii, A.V., Ford, P.C., Catalytic disassembly of an organosolv lignin via hydrogen transfer from supercritical methanol. Green Chem 12 (2010), 1640–1647.
20. Bauer, S., Sorek, H., Mitchell, V.D., Ibáñez, A.B., Wemmer, D.E., Characterization of Miscanthus giganteus lignin isolated by ethanol organosolv process under reflux condition. J Agr Food Chem 60 (2012), 8203–8212.
21. Benson, S.W., Thermochemical kinetics: methods for the estimation of thermochemical data and rate parameters. ed 2, 1976, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
22. Bhattacharya, P., Steele, P.H., Hassan, E.B.M., Mitchell, B., Ingram, L., Pittman, C.U. Jr., Wood/plastic copyrolysis in an auger reactor: chemical and physical analysis of the products. Fuel 88 (2009), 1251–1260.
23. Bocci, E., Sisinni, M., Moneti, M., Vecchione, L., Di Carlo, A., Villarini, M., State of art of small scale biomass gasification power systems: a review of the different typologies. Energy Procedia 45 (2014), 247–256.
24. Bockhorn, H., Hornung, A., Hornung, U., Jakobströer, P., Modeling of isothermal and dynamic pyrolysis of plastics considering non-homogeneous temperature distribution and detailed degradation mechanism. J Anal Appl Pyrol 49 (1999), 53–74.
25. Bond, J.Q., Upadhye, A.A., Olcay, H., et al. Production of renewable jet fuel range alkanes and commodity chemicals from integrated catalytic processing of biomass. Energy Environ Sci 7 (2014), 1500–1523.
26. Bouster, C., Vermande, P., Veron, J., Evolution of the product yield with temperature and molecular weight in the pyrolysis of polystyrene. J Anal Appl Pyrol 15 (1989), 249–259.
27. Bozi, J., Blazsó, M., Catalytic modification of pyrolysis products of nitrogen-containing polymers over Y zeolites. Greenchem 11 (2009), 1638–1645.
28. Bradbury, A.G.W., Sakai, Y., Shafizadeh, F., A kinetic model for pyrolysis of cellulose. J Appl Polym Sci 23 (1979), 3271–3280.
29. Bridgwater, A.V., Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading. Biomass Bioenergy 38 (2012), 68–94.
30. Bridgwater, A.V., Peacocke, G.V.C., Fast pyrolysis processes for biomass. Renew Sust Energy Rev 4 (2000), 1–73.
31. Britt, P.F., Buchanan, A.C., Cooney, M.J., Martineau, D.R., Flash vacuum pyrolysis of methoxy-substituted lignin model compounds. J Org Chem 65 (2000), 1376–1389.
32. Broadbelt, L.J., Pfaendtner, J., Lexicography of kinetic modeling of complex reaction networks. AIChE J 51 (2005), 2112–2121.
33. Broido, A., Nelson, M.A., Char yield on pyrolysis of cellulose. Combust Flame 24 (1975), 263–268.
34. Brosse, N., Dufour, A., Meng, X.Z., Sun, Q.N., Ragauskas, A., Miscanthus: a fast-growing crop for biofuels and chemicals production. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 6 (2012), 580–598.
35. Budhi, S., Mukarakate, C., Iisa, K., et al. Molybdenum incorporated mesoporous silica catalyst for production of biofuels and value-added chemicals via catalytic fast pyrolysis. Green Chem 17 (2015), 3035–3046.
36. Buragohain, B., Mahanta, P., Moholkar, V.S., Biomass gasification for decentralized power generation: the Indian perspective. Renew Sustain Energ Rev 14 (2010), 73–92.
37. Burnham, A.K., Zhou, X., Broadbelt, L.J., Critical review of the global chemical kinetics of cellulose thermal decomposition. Energy Fuels 29 (2015), 2906–2918.
38. Butler, E., Devlin, G., Meier, D., McDonnell, K., A review of recent laboratory research and commercial developments in fast pyrolysis and upgrading. Renew Sust Energy Rev 15 (2011), 4171–4186.
39. Carlson, T.R., Cheng, Y.T., Jae, J., Huber, G.W., Production of green aromatics and olefins by catalytic fast pyrolysis of wood sawdust. Energy Environ Sci 4 (2011), 145–161.
40. Carpenter, D., Westover, T.L., Czernik, S., Jablonski, W., Biomass feedstocks for renewable fuel production: a review of the impacts of feedstock and pretreatment on the yield and product distribution of fast pyrolysis bio-oils and vapors. Green Chem 16 (2014), 384–406.
41. Carpita, N.C., Stucture and biogenesis of the cell walls of grasses. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 47 (1996), 445–476.
42. Carstensen, H.-H., Dean, A.M., Rate constant rules for the automated generation of gas-phase reaction mechanisms. J Phys Chem A 113 (2009), 367–380.
43. Carstensen, H.-H., Dean, A.M., Development of detailed kinetic models for the thermal conversion of biomass via first principle methods and rate estimation rules. Nimlos, M.R., Crowley, M.F., (eds.) Computational modeling in lignocellulosic biofuel production, 2010, 201–243 ACS Symp. Series, Vol. 1052.
44. Carvalheiro, F., Silva-Fernandes, T., Duarte, L., Gírio, F., Wheat straw autohydrolysis: process optimization and products characterization. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 153 (2009), 84–93.
45. Chan, R., Krieger, B.B., Modeling of physical and chemical processes during pyrolysis of a large biomass pellet with experimental-verification. Abstr Pap Am Chem Soc, 186, 1983 84-Fuel.
46. Chen, J., Liu, C., Wu, S.B., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of alcell lignin with nano-NiO. Bioresources 11 (2016), 663–673.
47. Chien, J.C.W., Kiang, J.K.Y., Polymer reactions—X. Thermal pyrolysis of poly(isoprene). Eur Polym J 15 (1979), 1059–1065.
48. Choi, Y.S., Lee, K.H., Zhang, J., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., Manipulation of chemical species in bio-oil using in situ catalytic fast pyrolysis in both a bench-scale fluidized bed pyrolyzer and micropyrolyzer. Biomass Bioenerg 81 (2015), 256–264.
49. Chu, S., Subrahmanyam, A.V., Huber, G.W., The pyrolysis chemistry of a beta-O-4 type oligomeric lignin model compound. Green Chem 15 (2013), 125–136.
50. Chundawat, S.P.S., Beckham, G.T., Himmel, M.E., Dale, B.E., Deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass to fuels and chemicals. Annu Rev Chem Biomol Eng 2 (2011), 121–145.
51. Clarke, J., Deswarte, F., The biorefinery concept—an integrated approach. Clarke, J., Deswarte, F., (eds.) Introduction to chemicals from biomass, 2008, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, UK.
52. Cole, D.P., Lee, Y.J., Effective evaluation of catalytic deoxygenation for in situ catalytic fast pyrolysis using gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. J Anal Appl Pyrol 112 (2015), 129–134.
53. Collard, F.-X., Blin, J., A review on pyrolysis of biomass constituents: mechanisms and composition of the products obtained from the conversion of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Renew Sustainable Energy Rev 38 (2014), 594–608.
54. Cooney, J.D., Day, M., Wiles, D.M., Thermal degradation of poly(ethylene terephthalate): a kinetic analysis of thermogravimetric data. J Appl Polym Sci 28 (1983), 2887–2902.
55. Cozzani, V., Nicolella, C., Rovatti, M., Tognotti, L., Influence of gas-phase reactions on the product yields obtained in the pyrolysis of polyethylene. Ind Eng Chem Res 36 (1997), 342–348.
56. Crestini, C., Melone, F., Sette, M., Saladino, R., Milled wood lignin: a linear oligomer. Biomacromolecules 12 (2011), 3928–3935.
57. Curran, H.J., Gaffuri, P., Pitz, W.J., Westbrook, C.K., A comprehensive modeling study of iso-octane oxidation. Combust Flame 129 (2002), 253–280.
58. Czernik, S., Elam, C.C., Evans, R.J., Meglen, R.R., Moens, L., Tatsumoto, K., Catalytic pyrolysis of nylon-6 to recover caprolactam. J Anal Appl Pyrol 46 (1998), 51–64.
59. Dasari, A., Yu, Z.-Z., Cai, G.-P., Mai, Y.-M., Recent developments in the fire retardance of polymeric materials. Prog Polym Sci 38 (2013), 1357–1387.
60. Debiagi, P.E.A., Pecchi, C., Gentile, G., et al. Extractives extend the applicability of multistep kinetic scheme of biomass pyrolysis. Energy Fuels 29 (2015), 6544–6555.
61. 13C-labeled cellobioses: gaining insights into the mechanisms of fast pyrolysis of carbohydrates. J Org Chem 80 (2015), 1909–1914.
62. Desharnais, L., Du, F., Brosse, N., Optimization of galactoglucomannans and acidic arabinans recovery in softwood. Ind Eng Chem Res 50 (2011), 14217–14220.
63. Di Blasi, C., Modeling chemical and physical processes of wood and biomass pyrolysis. Progr Energy Combust Sci 34 (2008), 47–90.
64. Di Blasi, C., Branca, C., Galgano, A., Biomass screening for the production of furfural via thermal decomposition. Ind Eng Chem Res 49 (2010), 2658–2671.
65. Dickerson, T., Soria, J., Catalytic fast pyrolysis: a review. Energies 6 (2013), 514–538.
66. Dimitrov, N., Krehula, L.K., Siročić, A.P., Murgić, Z.H., Analysis of recycled PET bottles products by pyrolysis-gas chromatography. Polym Degrad Stabil 98 (2013), 972–979.
67. Donaj, P.J., Kaminsky, W., Buzeto, F., Yang, W., Pyrolysis of polyolefins for increasing the yield of monomers’ recovery. Waste Manage 32 (2012), 840–846.
68. Donaldson, L.A., Knox, J.P., Localization of cell wall polysaccharides in normal and compression wood of radiata pine: relationships with lignification and microfibril orientation. Plant Physiol 158 (2012), 642–653.
69. Dorado, C., Mullen, C.A., Boateng, A.A., H-ZSM5 catalyzed co-pyrolysis of biomass and plastics. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 2 (2014), 301–311.
70. Dorado, C., Mullen, C.A., Boateng, A.A., Origin of carbon in aromatic and olefin products derived from HZSM-5 catalyzed co-pyrolysis of cellulose and plastics via isotopic labeling. Appl Catal B: Environ 162 (2015), 338–345.
71. Dorez, G., Ferry, L., Sonnier, R., Taguet, A., Lopez-Cuesta, J.M., Effect of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents on pyrolysis and combustion of natural fibers. J Anal Appl Pyrol 107 (2014), 323–331.
72. Dorrestijn, E., Laarhoven, L.J.J., Arends, I.W.C.E., Mulder, P., The occurrence and reactivity of phenoxyl linkages in lignin and low rank coal. J Anal Appl Pyrol 54 (2000), 153–192.
73. Du, S.C., Valla, J.A., Bollas, G.M., Characteristics and origin of char and coke from fast and slow, catalytic and thermal pyrolysis of biomass and relevant model compounds. Green Chem 15 (2013), 3214–3229.
74. Dumitriu, S., Polysaccharides: structural diversity and functional versatility. ed 4, 2008, Marcel Dekker, New York.
75. Dutta, A., Sahir, A., Tan, E., et al. Process design and economics for the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to hydrocarbon fuels thermochemical research pathways with in situ and ex situ upgrading of fast pyrolysis vapors. Technical Report NREL/TP-5100-62455, PNNL-23823, 2015.
76. Dutta, A., Schaidle, J.A., Humbird, D., Baddour, F.G., Sahir, A., Conceptual process design and techno-economic assessment of ex situ catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass: a fixed bed reactor implementation scenario for future feasibility. Top Catal 59 (2016), 2–18.
77. Ebringerová, A., Hromádková, Z., Heinze, T., Hemicellulose. Heinze, T., (eds.) Polysaccharides i, 2005, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
78. Eckardt, N.A., Role of xyloglucan in primary cell walls. Plant Cell 20 (2008), 1421–1422.
79. Elliott, D.C., Biofuel from fast pyrolysis and catalytic hydrodeoxygenation. Curr Opin Chem Eng 9 (2015), 59–65.
80. Elliott, D.C., Wang, H.M., Hydrocarbon liquid production via catalytic hydroprocessing of phenolic oils fractionated from fast pyrolysis of red oak and corn stover. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 3 (2015), 892–902.
81. Faravelli, T., Bozzano, G., Scassa, C., et al. Gas product distribution from polyethylene pyrolysis. J Anal Appl Pyrol 52 (1999), 87–103.
82. Faravelli, T., Bozzano, G., Colombo, M., Ranzi, E., Dente, M., Kinetic modeling of the thermal degradation of polyethylene and polystyrene mixtures. J Anal Appl Pyrol 70 (2003), 761–777.
83. Fleischer, G., Appel, M., Chain length dependence of the self-diffusion of polyisoprene and polybutadiene in the melt. Macromolecules 28 (1995), 7281–7283.
84. Freudenberg, K., Lignin: its constitution and formation from p-hydroxycinnamyl alcohols. Science 148 (1965), 595–600.
85. Gao, H.L., Liu, H.T., Pang, B., et al. Production of furfural from waste aqueous hemicellulose solution of hardwood over ZSM-5 zeolite. Bioresour Technol 172 (2014), 453–456.
86. Gillespie, D.T., Stochastic simulation of chemical kinetics. Annu Rev Phys Chem 58 (2007), 35–55.
87. Glasser, W.G., Glasser, H.R., Morohoshi, N., Simulation of reactions with lignin by computer (SIMREL). 6. Interpretation of primary experimental analysis data (“analysis program”). Macromolecules 14 (1981), 253–262.
88. Graham, R.G., Bergougnou, M.A., Overend, R.P., Fast pyrolysis of biomass. J Anal Appl Pyrol 6 (1984), 95–135.
89. Griffin, M.B., Baddour, F.G., Habas, S.E., Ruddy, D.A., Schaidle, J.A., Evaluation of silica-supported metal and metal phosphide nanoparticle catalysts for the hydrodeoxygenation of guaiacol under ex situ catalytic fast pyrolysis conditions. Top Catal 59 (2016), 124–137.
90. Hallac, B.B., Ragauskas, A.J., Analyzing cellulose degree of polymerization and its relevancy to cellulosic ethanol. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 5 (2011), 215–225.
91. Hamad, K., Kaseem, M., Deri, F., Recycling of waste from polymeric materials: an overview of the recent works. Polym Degrad Stabil 98 (2013), 2801–2812.
92. Hassan, E., Elsayed, I., Eseyin, A., Production high yields of aromatic hydrocarbons through catalytic fast pyrolysis of torrefied wood and polystyrene. Fuel 174 (2016), 317–324.
93. Hilbers, T.J., Wang, Z.H., Pecha, B., et al. Cellulose-lignin interactions during slow and fast pyrolysis. J Anal Appl Pyrol 114 (2015), 197–207.
94. Hildebrandt, D., Glasser, D., Hausberger, B., Patel, B., Glasser, B.J., Producing transportation fuels with less work. Science 323 (2009), 1680–1681.
95. Hoff, T.C., Gardner, D.W., Thilakaratne, R., et al. Tailoring ZSM-5 zeolites for the fast pyrolysis of biomass to aromatic hydrocarbons. ChemSusChem 9 (2016), 1473–1482.
96. Horne, P.A., Williams, P.T., The effect of zeolite ZSM-5 catalyst deactivation during the upgrading of biomass-derived pyrolysis vapours. J Anal Appl Pyrol 34 (1995), 65–85.
97. Horton, S.R., Mohr, R.J., Zhang, Y., Petrocelli, F.P., Klein, M.T., Molecular-level kinetic modeling of biomass gasification. Energy Fuels 30 (2016), 1647–1661.
98. Hosoya, T., Sakaki, S., Levoglucosan formation from crystalline cellulose: importance of a hydrogen bonding network in the reaction. ChemSusChem 6 (2013), 2356–2368.
99. Hough, B., Pfaendtner, J., Schwartz, D.T., Application of a semi-detailed kinetic model for lignin fast pyrolysis, 2015. American Institute of Chemical Engineers Annual Meeting, 2015, Salt Lake City, Utah.
100. Huber, G.W., Corma, A., Synergies between bio- and oil refineries for the production of fuels from biomass. Angew Chem Int Ed 46 (2007), 7184–7201.
101. Huber, G.W., Iborra, S., Corma, A., Synthesis of transportation fuels from biomass: chemistry, catalysts, and engineering. Chem Rev 106 (2006), 4044–4098.
102. Imran, A., Bramer, E.A., Seshan, K., Brem, G., High quality bio-oil from catalytic flash pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass over alumina-supported sodium carbonate. Fuel Proc Technol 127 (2014), 72–79.
103. Jackson, M.A., Ketonization of model pyrolysis bio-oil solutions in a plug-flow reactor over a mixed oxide of Fe, Ce, and Al. Energy Fuels 27 (2013), 3936–3943.
104. Jae, J., Tompsett, G.A., Foster, A.J., et al. Investigation into the shape selectivity of zeolite catalysts for biomass conversion. J Catal 279 (2011), 257–268.
105. Jae, J., Coolman, R., Mountziaris, T.J., Huber, G.W., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass in a process development unit with continual catalyst addition and removal. Chem Eng Sci 108 (2014), 33–46.
106. Jakab, E., Blazsó, M., Faix, O., Thermal decomposition of mixtures of vinyl polymers and lignocellulosic materials. J Anal Appl Pyrol 58–59 (2001), 49–62.
107. Jarvis, M.W., Daily, J.W., Carstensen, H.H., et al. Direct detection of products from the pyrolysis of 2-phenethyl phenyl ether. J Phys Chem A 115 (2011), 428–438.
108. Jin, S.H., Lee, H.W., Ryu, C., Jeon, J.K., Park, Y.K., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of Geodae-Uksae 1 over zeolites. Energy 81 (2015), 41–46.
109. Kannan, P., Shoaibi, A.A., Srinivasakannan, C., Temperature effects of the yield of gaseous olefins from waste polyethylene via flash pyrolysis. Energy Fuels 28 (2014), 3363–3366.
110. Kastner, J.R., Hilten, R., Weber, J., McFarlane, A.R., Hargreaves, J.S.J., Batra, V.S., Continuous catalytic upgrading of fast pyrolysis oil using iron oxides in red mud. RSC Adv 5 (2015), 29375–29385.
111. Kawamoto, H., Ryoritani, M., Saka, S., Different pyrolytic cleavage mechanisms of β-ether bond depending on the side-chain structure of lignin dimers. J Anal Appl Pyrol 81 (2008), 88–94.
112. Kersten, S., Garcia-Perez, M., Recent developments in fast pyrolysis of ligno-cellulosic materials. Curr Opin Biotechnol 24 (2013), 414–420.
113. Kiang, J.K.Y., Uden, P.C., Chien, J.C.W., Polymer reactions—Part VII: thermal pyrolysis of polypropylene. Polym Degrad Stabil 2 (1990), 113–127.
114. Kibet, J., Khachatryan, L., Dellinger, B., Molecular products and radicals from pyrolysis of lignin. Environ Sci Technol 46 (2012), 12994–13001.
115. Kiefer, J.H., Wei, H.C., Kern, R.D., Wu, C.H., The high temperature pyrolysis of 1,3-butadiene: heat of formation and rate of dissociation of vinyl radical. Int J Chem Kinetics 17 (1985), 225–253.
116. Kilzer, F.J., Broido, A., Speculation on the nature of cellulose pyrolysis. Pyrodynamics 2 (1965), 151–163.
117. Kim, K.H., Bai, X., Brown, R.C., Pyrolysis mechanisms of methoxy substituted α-O-4 lignin dimeric model compounds and detection of free radicals using electron paramagnetic resonance analysis. J Anal Appl Pyrol 110 (2014), 254–263.
118. Klein, R., Kelly, R.D., Combination and disproportionation of allylic radicals at low temperatures. J Phys Chem 79 (1975), 1780–1784.
119. Kodera, Y., McCoy, B.J., Distribution kinetics of radical mechanisms: reversible polymer decomposition. AICHE J 43 (1997), 3205–3214.
120. Konar, R.S., The disproportionation and combination of alkyl radicals. Int J Chem Kinet 2 (1970), 419–422.
121. Koufopanos, C.A., Maschio, G., Lucchesi, A., Kinetic modeling of the pyrolysis of biomass and biomass components. Can J Chem Eng 67 (1989), 75–84.
122. Koufopanos, C.A., Papayannakos, N., Maschio, G., Lucchesi, A., Modeling of the pyrolysis of biomass particles—studies on kinetics, thermal and heat-transfer effects. Can J Chem Eng 69 (1991), 907–915.
123. Krumm, C., Pfaendtner, J., Dauenhauer, P.J., Millisecond pulsed films unify the mechanisms of cellulose fragmentation. Chem Mater 28 (2016), 3108–3114.
124. Kruse, T.M., Woo, O.S., Broadbelt, L.J., Detailed mechanistic modeling of polymer degradation: application to polystyrene. Chem Eng Sci 56 (2001), 971–979.
125. Kruse, T.M., Woo, O.S., Wong, H.-W., Khan, S.S., Broadbelt, L.J., Mechanistic modeling of polymer degradation: a comprehensive study of polystyrene. Macromolecules 35 (2002), 7830–7844.
126. Kruse, T.M., Wong, H.W., Broadbelt, L.J., Mechanistic modeling of polymer pyrolysis: polypropylene. Macromolecules 36 (2003), 9594–9607.
127. Kruse, T.M., Levine, S.E., Wong, H.-W., et al. Binary mixture pyrolysis of polypropylene and polystyrene: a modeling and experimental study. J Anal Appl Pyrol 73 (2005), 342–354.
128. Kumar, S., Panda, A.K., Singh, R.K., A review on tertiary recycling of high-density polyethylene to fuel. Resour Conserv Recy 55 (2011), 893–910.
129. Kunkes, E.L., Simonetti, D.A., West, R.M., Serrano-Ruiz, J.C., Gärtner, C.A., Dumesic, J.A., Catalytic conversion of biomass to monofunctional hydrocarbons and targeted liquid-fuel classes. Science 322 (2008), 417–421.
130. Kusema, B.T., Tonnov, T., Maki-Arvela, P., et al. Acid hydrolysis of O-acetyl-galactoglucomannan. Catal Sci Technol 3 (2013), 116–122.
131. Lebo, S.E., Gargulak, J.D., McNally, T.J., Lignin. Kirk-Othmer, (eds.) Kirk–Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology, 2000, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2474–2481.
132. Lede, J., Cellulose pyrolysis kinetics: an historical review on the existence and role of intermediate active cellulose. J Anal Appl Pyrol 94 (2012), 17–32.
133. Lede, J., Biomass fast pyrolysis reactors: a review of a few scientific challenges and of related recommended research topics. Oil Gas Sci Technol: Rev IFP 68 (2013), 801–814.
134. Lehrle, R.S., Dadvand, N., Parsons, I.W., Rollinson, M., Horn, I.M., Skinner, A.R., Pyrolysis-GC-MS used to study the thermal degradation of polymers containing chlorine. III. Kinetics and mechanisms of polychloroprene pyrolysis. Selected ion current plots used to evaluate rate constants for the evolution of HCl and other degradation products. Polym Degrad Stabil 70 (2000), 395–407.
135. Leijenhorst, E.J., Wolters, W., van de Beld, B., Prins, W., Autothermal catalytic reforming of pine-wood-derived fast pyrolysis oil in a 1.5 kg/h pilot installation: performance of monolithic catalysts. Energy Fuels 28 (2014), 5212–5221.
136. Levine, S.E., Broadbelt, L.J., Reaction pathways to dimer in polystyrene pyrolysis: a mechanistic modeling study. Polym Degrad Stabil 93 (2008), 941–951.
137. Levine, S.E., Broadbelt, L.J., Detailed mechanistic modeling of high-density polyethylene pyrolysis: low molecular weight product distribution. Polym Degrad Stabil 94 (2009), 810–822.
138. Li, J., Li, X.Y., Zhou, G.Q., et al. Catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass with mesoporous ZSM-5 zeolites prepared by desilication with NaOH solutions. Appl Catal A: Gen 470 (2014), 115–122.
139. Li, X., Gunawan, R., Wang, Y., et al. Upgrading of bio-oil into advanced biofuels and chemicals part iii Changes in aromatic structure and coke forming propensity during the catalytic hydrotreatment of a fast pyrolysis bio-oil with Pd/C catalyst. Fuel 116 (2014), 642–649.
140. Li, X.Y., Li, J., Zhou, G.Q., et al. Enhancing the production of renewable petrochemicals by co-feeding of biomass with plastics in catalytic fast pyrolysis with ZSM-5 zeolites. Appl Catal A: Gen 481 (2014), 173–182.
141. Li, X.Y., Li, G.Y., Li, J., et al. Producing petrochemicals from catalytic fast pyrolysis of corn fermentation residual by-products generated from citric acid production. Renew Energ 89 (2016), 331–338.
142. Lin, R., White, R.L., Acid-catalyzed cracking of polystyrene. J Appl Polym Sci 63 (1997), 1287–1298.
143. Liu, D., Yu, Y., Wu, H., Evolution of water-soluble and water-insoluble portions in the solid products from fast pyrolysis of amorphous cellulose. Ind Eng Chem Res 52 (2013), 12785–12793.
144. Liu, D.W., Yu, Y., Wu, H.W., Differences in water-soluble intermediates from slow pyrolysis of amorphous and crystalline cellulose. Energy Fuels 27 (2013), 1371–1380.
145. Liu, C., Wang, H., Karim, A.M., Sun, J., Wang, Y., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Chem Soc Rev 43 (2014), 7594–7623.
146. Liu, D., Yu, Y., Hayashi, J., Moghtaderi, B., Wu, H., Contribution of dehydration and depolymerization reactions during the fast pyrolysis of various salt-loaded celluloses at low temperatures. Fuel 136 (2014), 62–68.
147. Liu, G.Y., Wright, M.M., Zhao, Q.L., Brown, R.C., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of duckweed: effects of pyrolysis parameters and optimization of aromatic production. J Anal Appl Pyrol 112 (2015), 29–36.
148. Liu, S.Y., Xie, Q.L., Zhang, B., et al. Fast microwave-assisted catalytic co-pyrolysis of corn stover and scum for bio-oil production with CaO and HZSM-5 as the catalyst. Bioresource Technol 204 (2016), 164–170.
149. Lyu, G., Wu, S., Zhang, H., Estimation and comparison of bio-oil components from different pyrolysis conditions. Front Energy Res, 3, 2015, 28.
150. Ma, S., Lu, J., Gao, J., Study of the low temperature pyrolysis of PVC. Energy Fuels 16 (2002), 338–342.
151. Madras, G., McCoy, B.J., Distribution kinetics for polymer mixture degradation. Ind Eng Chem Res 38 (1999), 352–357.
152. Madras, G., Smith, J.M., McCoy, B.J., Degradation of poly(methyl methacrylate) in solution. Ind Eng Chem Res 35 (1996), 1795–1800.
153. Manos, G., Garforth, A., Dwyer, J., Catalytic degradation of high-density polyethylene over different zeolitic structures. Ind Eng Chem Res 39 (2000), 1198–1202.
154. Marczewski, M., Kaminska, E., Marczewska, H., Godek, M., Rokicki, G., Sokołowski, J., Catalytic decomposition of polystyrene. The role of acid and basic active centers. Appl Catal B: Environ 129 (2013), 236–246.
155. Marin, N., Collura, S., Sharypov, V., et al. Copyrolysis of wood biomass and synthetic polymer mixtures. Part II: characterisation of the liquid phases. J Anal Appl Pyrol 65 (2002), 41–55.
156. Marongiu, A., Faravelli, T., Bozzano, G., Dente, M., Ranzi, E., Thermal degradation of poly(vinyl chloride). J Anal Appl Pyrol 70 (2003), 519–553.
157. Marongiu, A., Faravelli, T., Ranzi, E., Detailed kinetic modeling of the thermal degradation of vinyl polymers. J Anal Appl Pyrol 78 (2007), 343–362.
158. Martínez, J.D., Veses, A., Mastral, A.M., et al. Co-pyrolysis of biomass with waste tyres: upgrading of liquid bio-fuel. Fuel Proc Technol 119 (2014), 263–271.
159. Matheu, D.M., Dean, A.M., Grenda, J.M., Green, W.H. Jr., Mechanism generation with integrated pressure dependence: a new model for methane pyrolysis. J Phys Chem A 107 (2003), 8552–8565.
160. Mayes, H.B., Broadbelt, L.J., Unraveling the reactions that unravel cellulose. J Phys Chem A 116 (2012), 7098–7106.
161. Mayes, H.B., Nolte, M.W., Beckham, G.T., Shanks, B.H., Broadbelt, L.J., The alpha-bet(a) of glucose pyrolysis: computational and experimental investigations of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and levoglucosan formation reveal implications for cellulose pyrolysis. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 2 (2014), 1461–1473.
162. Mayes, H.B., Tian, J., Nolte, M.W., et al. Sodium ion interactions with aqueous glucose: insights from quantum mechanics, molecular dynamics, and experiment. J Phys Chem B 118 (2014), 1990–2000.
163. Mayes, H.B., Nolte, M.W., Beckham, G.T., Shanks, B.H., Broadbelt, L.J., The alpha-bet(a) of salty glucose pyrolysis: computational investigations of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and levoglucosan formation reveal cellulose pyrolysis catalytic action by sodium ions. ACS Catal 5 (2015), 192–202.
164. McCoy, B.J., Wang, M., Continuous-mixture fragmentation kinetics: particle size reduction and molecular cracking. Chem Eng Sci 49 (1994), 3773–3785.
165. Mettler, M.S., Mushrif, S.H., Paulsen, A.D., Javadekar, A.D., Vlachos, D.G., Dauenhauer, P.J., Revealing pyrolysis chemistry for biofuels production: conversion of cellulose to furans and small oxygenates. Energy Environ Sci 5 (2012), 5414–5424.
166. Mettler, M.S., Paulsen, A.D., Vlachos, D.G., Dauenhauer, P.J., The chain length effect in pyrolysis: bridging the gap between glucose and cellulose. Green Chem 14 (2012), 1284–1288.
167. Mettler, M.S., Vlachos, D.G., Dauenhauer, P.J., Top ten fundamental challenges of biomass pyrolysis for biofuels. Energy Environ Sci 5 (2012), 7797–7809.
168. Miller, R.S., Bellan, J., A generalized biomass pyrolysis model based on superimposed cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin kinetics. Combust Sci Technol 126 (1997), 97–137.
169. Mochizuki, T., Chen, S.-Y., Toba, M., Yoshimura, Y., Pyrolyzer–GC/MS system-based analysis of the effects of zeolite catalysts on the fast pyrolysis of Jatropha husk. Appl Catal A: Gen 456 (2013), 174–181.
170. Mohan, D., Pittman, C.U., Steele, P.H., Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil: a critical review. Energy Fuels 20 (2006), 848–889.
171. Mukarakate, C., McBrayer, J.D., Evans, T.J., et al. Catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass: the reactions of water and aromatic intermediates produces phenols. Green Chem 17 (2015), 4217–4227.
172. Mullen, C.A., Boateng, A.A., Mihalcik, D.J., Goldberg, N.M., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of white oak wood in a bubbling fluidized bed. Energy Fuels 25 (2011), 5444–5451.
173. Naik, D.V., Kumar, V., Prasad, B., et al. Catalytic cracking of jatropha-derived fast pyrolysis oils with VGO and their NMR characterization. RSC Adv 5 (2015), 398–409.
174. Nair, V., Vinu, R., Peroxide-assisted microwave activation of pyrolysis char for adsorption of dyes from waste water. Bioresour Technol 216 (2016), 511–519.
175. Nair, V., Vinu, R., Production of guaiacols via catalytic fast pyrolysis of alkali lignin using titania, zirconia and ceria. J Anal Appl Pyrol 119 (2016), 31–39.
176. Naqvi, S.R., Uemura, Y., Yusup, S., Sugiura, Y., Nishiyama, N., In situ catalytic fast pyrolysis of paddy husk pyrolysis vapors over MCM-22 and ITQ-2 zeolites. J Anal Appl Pyrol 114 (2015), 32–39.
177. Nguyen, T.S., Zabeti, M., Lefferts, L., Brem, G., Seshan, K., Catalytic upgrading of biomass pyrolysis vapours using faujasite zeolite catalysts. Biomass Bioenergy 48 (2013), 100–110.
178. Nieva, M.L., Volpe, M.A., Moyano, E.L., Catalytic and catalytic free process for cellulose conversion: fast pyrolysis and microwave induced pyrolysis studies. Cellul 22 (2015), 215–228.
179. Nimlos, M.R., Blanksby, S.J., Ellison, G.B., Evans, R.J., Enhancement of 1,2-dehydration of alcohols by alkali cations and protons: a model for dehydration of carbohydrates. J Anal Appl Pyrol 66 (2003), 3–27.
180. Nolte, M.W., Zhang, J., Shanks, B.H., Ex situ hydrodeoxygenation in biomass pyrolysis using molybdenum oxide and low pressure hydrogen. Green Chem 18 (2016), 134–138.
181. Norinaga, K., Shoji, T., Kudo, S., Hayashi, J., Detailed chemical kinetic modelling of vapour-phase cracking of multi-component molecular mixtures derived from the fast pyrolysis of cellulose. Fuel 103 (2013), 141–150.
182. Norinaga, K., Yang, H., Tanaka, R., et al. A mechanistic study on the reaction pathways leading to benzene and naphthalene in cellulose vapor phase cracking. Biomass Bioenergy 69 (2014), 144–154.
183. Nowakowski, D.J., Bridgwater, A.V., Elliott, D.C., Meier, D., de Wild, P., Lignin fast pyrolysis: results from an international collaboration. J Anal Appl Pyrol 88 (2010), 53–72.
184. Obel, N., Neumetzler, L., Pauly, M., Hemicelluloses and cell expansion. Verbelen, J.P., Vissenberg, K., (eds.) The expanding cell, 2007, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
185. Ochoa-Villarreal, M., Aispuro-Hernández, E., Martínez-Téllez, M.A., Vargas-Arispuro, I., Plant cell wall polymers: Function, structure and biological activity of their derivatives. Gomes, A.D.S., (eds.) Polymerization, 2012, InTech, Rijeka, Croatia.
186. Ojha, D.K., Vinu, R., Fast co-pyrolysis of cellulose and polypropylene using Py-GC/MS and Py-FT-IR. RSC Adv 5 (2015), 66861–66870.
187. Ojha, D.K., Vinu, R., Resource recovery via catalytic fast pyrolysis of polystyrene using zeolites. J Anal Appl Pyrol 113 (2015), 349–359.
188. Ojha, D.K., Shukla, S., Sachin, R.S., Vinu, R., Understanding the interactions between cellulose and polypropylene during fast co-pyrolysis via experiments and DFT calculations. Chem Eng Transact 50 (2016), 67–72.
189. Olazar, M., Arabiourrutia, M., López, G., Aguado, R., Bilbao, J., Effect of acid catalysts on scrap tyre pyrolysis under fast heating conditions. J Anal Appl Pyrol 82 (2008), 199–204.
190. Paine, J.B. III, Pithawalla, Y.B., Naworal, J.D., Thomas, C.E., Carbohydrate pyrolysis mechanisms from isotopic labeling. Part 1: the pyrolysis of glycerin: discovery of competing fragmentation mechanisms affording acetaldehyde and formaldehyde and the implications for carbohydrate pyrolysis. J Anal Appl Pyrol 80 (2007), 297–311.
191. 2 carbonyl compounds by electrocyclic fragmentation mechanisms. J Anal Appl Pyrol 82 (2008), 10–41.
192. 4 carbonyl compounds and a cyclopentenedione isomer by electrocyclic fragmentation mechanisms. J Anal Appl Pyrol 82 (2008), 42–69.
193. Paine, J.B. III, Pithawalla, Y.B., Naworal, J.D., Carbohydrate pyrolysis mechanisms from isotopic labeling: part 4. The pyrolysis of D-glucose: the formation of furans. J Anal Appl Pyrol 83 (2008), 37–63.
194. Pandey, M.P., Kim, C.S., Lignin depolymerization and conversion: a review of thermochemical methods. Chem Eng Technol 34 (2011), 29–41.
195. Park, Y.K., Yoo, M.L., Jin, S.H., Park, S.H., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of waste pepper stems over HZSM-5. Renew Energ 79 (2015), 20–27.
196. Patwardhan, P.R., Satrio, J.A., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., Product distribution from fast pyrolysis of glucose-based carbohydrates. J Anal Appl Pyrol 86 (2009), 323–330.
197. Patwardhan, P.R., Satrio, J.A., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., Influence of inorganic salts on the primary pyrolysis products of cellulose. Bioresour Technol 101 (2010), 4646–4655.
198. Patwardhan, P.R., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., Product distribution from the fast pyrolysis of hemicellulose. ChemSusChem 4 (2011), 636–643.
199. Patwardhan, P.R., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., Understanding the fast pyrolysis of lignin. ChemSusChem 4 (2011), 1629–1636.
200. Patwardhan, P.R., Dalluge, D.L., Shanks, B.H., Brown, R.C., Distinguishing primary and secondary reactions of cellulose pyrolysis. Bioresour Technol 102 (2011), 5265–5269.
201. Paulsen, A.D., Mettler, M.S., Dauenhauer, P.J., The role of sample dimension and temperature in cellulose pyrolysis. Energy Fuels 27 (2013), 2126–2134.
202. Paulsen, A.D., Hough, B.R., Williams, C.L., et al. Fast pyrolysis of wood for biofuels: spatiotemporally resolved diffuse reflectance in situ spectroscopy of particles. ChemSusChem, 7, 2014, 652.
203. Pecha, B., Garcia-Perez, M., Chapter 26—Pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass: oil, char, and gas. Dahiya, A., (eds.) Bioenergy, 2015, Academic Press, Boston.
204. Pelzer, A.W., Sturgeon, M.R., Yanez, A.J., et al. Acidolysis of α-O-4 aryl-ether bonds in lignin model compounds: a modeling and experimental study. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 3 (2015), 1339–1347.
205. Peng, Y., Wu, S., The structural and thermal characteristics of wheat straw hemicellulose. J Anal Appl Pyrol 88 (2010), 134–139.
206. Pettersen, R.C., The chemical composition of wood. The chemistry of solid wood, 1984, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1–56.
207. Pfaendtner, J., Broadbelt, L.J., Mechanistic modeling of lubricant degradation. 1. Structure–reactivity relationships for free-radical oxidation. Ind Eng Chem Res 47 (2008), 2886–2896.
208. 13C-labeled glucans: a mechanistic study. Carbohydr Res 244 (1993), 27–47.
209. Ponder, G.R., Richards, G.N., Stevenson, T.T., Influence of linkage position and orientation in pyrolysis of polysaccharides: a study of several glucans. J Anal Appl Pyrol 22 (1992), 217–229.
210. Popper, Z.A., Fry, S.C., Primary cell wall composition of pteridophytes and spermatophytes. New Phytol 164 (2004), 165–174.
211. Poutsma, M.L., Fundamental reactions of free radicals relevant to pyrolysis reactions. J Anal Appl Pyrol 54 (2000), 5–35.
212. Poutsma, M.L., Reexamination of the pyrolysis of polyethylene: data needs, free-radical mechanistic considerations, and thermochemical kinetic simulation of initial product-forming pathways. Macromolecules 36 (2003), 8931–8957.
213. Poutsma, M.L., Comparison of literature models for volatile product formation from the pyrolysis of poluisobutylene at mild conditions: data analysis, free-radical mechanistic considerations, and simulation of initial product-forming pathways. J Anal Appl Pyrol 73 (2005), 159–203.
214. Poutsma, M.L., Further considerations of the sources of the volatiles from pyrolysis of polystyrene. Polym Degrad Stabil 94 (2009), 2055–2064.
215. Pütün, E., Uzun, B.B., Pütün, A.E., Rapid pyrolysis of olive residue. 2. Effect of catalytic upgrading of pyrolysis vapors in a two-stage fixed-bed reactor. Energy Fuels 23 (2009), 2248–2258.
216. Qu, T.T., Guo, W.J., Shen, L.H., Xiao, J., Zhao, K., Experimental study of biomass pyrolysis based on three major components: hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Ind Eng Chem Res 50 (2011), 10424–10433.
217. Radlein, D., Piskorz, J., Scott, D.S., Proceedings of the 9th international conference on fundamentals aspects, analytical techniques, processes and applications of pyrolysisfast pyrolysis of natural polysaccharides as a potential industrial process. J Anal Appl Pyrol 19 (1991), 41–63.
218. Ranzi, E., Cuoci, A., Faravelli, T., et al. Chemical kinetics of biomass pyrolysis. Energy Fuels 22 (2008), 4292–4300.
219. Regalbuto, J.R., Cellulosic biofuels—got gasoline?. Science 325 (2009), 822–824.
220. Rezaei, P.S., Shafaghat, H., Daud, W.M.A.W., Suppression of coke formation and enhancement of aromatic hydrocarbon production in catalytic fast pyrolysis of cellulose over different zeolites: effects of pore structure and acidity. RSC Adv 5 (2015), 65408–65414.
221. Richards, G.N., Glycolaldehyde from pyrolysis of cellulose. J Anal Appl Pyrol 10 (1987), 251–255.
222. Rossi, M., King, K.D., Golden, D.M., The equilibrium constant and rate constant for allyl radical recombination in the gas phase. J Am Chem Soc 101 (1978), 1223–1230.
223. Ruddy, D.A., Schaidle, J.A., Ferrell, J.R. III, Wang, J., Moens, L., Hensley, J.E., Recent advances in heterogeneous catalysts for bio-oil upgrading via “ex situ catalytic fast pyrolysis”: catalyst development through the study of model compounds. Green Chem 16 (2014), 454–490.
224. Sabbe, M.K., Vandeputte, A.G., Reyniers, M.-F., Waroquier, M., Marin, G.B., Modeling the influence of resonance stabilization on the kinetics of hydrogen abstractions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 12 (2010), 1278–1298.
225. Sakakibara, A., A structural model of softwood lignin. Wood Sci Technol 14 (1980), 89–100.
226. Santella, C., Cafiero, L., Angelis, D.D., Marca, F.L., Tuffi, R., Ciprioti, S.V., Thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of a mixture of plastics from small waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Waste Manage 54 (2016), 143–152.
227. Scheller, H.V., Ulvskov, P., Hemicelluloses. Annu Rev Plant Biol 61 (2010), 263–289.
228. Schlosberg, R.H., Szajowski, P.F., Dupre, G.D., et al. Pyrolysis studies of organic oxygenates. Fuel 62 (1983), 690–694.
229. Schreck, V.A., Serelis, A.K., Solomon, D.H., Self-reactions of 1,3-diphenylpropyl and 1,3,5-triphenylpentyl radicals: models for termination in styrene polymerization. Aust J Chem 42 (1989), 375–393.
230. Scott, D.S., Czernik, S.R., Piskorz, J., Radlein, D.S.A.G., Fast pyrolysis of plastic wastes. Energy Fuels 4 (1990), 407–411.
231. Şerbănescu, C., Kinetic analysis of cellulose pyrolysis: a short review. Chem Pap 68 (2014), 1–14.
232. Serrano, D.P., Aguado, J., Rodríguez, J.M., Peral, A., Catalytic cracking of polyethylene over nanocrystalline HZSM-5: catalyst deactivation and regeneration study. J Anal Appl Pyrol 79 (2007), 456–464.
233. Seshadri, V., Westmoreland, P.R., Concerted reactions and mechanism of glucose pyrolysis and implications for cellulose kinetics. J Phys Chem A 116 (2012), 11997–12013.
234. Sharma, R.K., Bakhshi, N.N., Catalytic conversion of fast pyrolysis oil to hydrocarbon fuels over HZSM-5 in a dual reactor system. Biomass Bioenerg 5 (1993), 445–455.
235. Sharma, R.K., Bakhshi, N.N., Catalytic upgrading of fast pyrolysis oil over HZSM-5. Can J Chem Eng 71 (1993), 383–391.
236. Sharma, R.K., Bakhshi, N.N., Catalytic upgrading of pyrolysis oil. Energy Fuels 7 (1993), 306–314.
237. Sharypov, V.I., Marin, N., Beregovtsova, N.G., et al. Co-pyrolysis of wood biomass and synthetic polymer mixtures. Part I: influence of experimental conditions on the evolution of solids, liquids and gases. J Anal Appl Pyrol 64 (2002), 15–28.
238. Sharypov, V.I., Beregovtsova, N.G., Kuznetsov, B.N., Co-pyrolysis of wood biomass and synthetic polymers mixtures. Part III: characterisation of heavy products. J Anal Appl Pyrol 67 (2003), 325–340.
239. Shen, D.K., Gu, S., Bridgwater, A.V., Study on the pyrolytic behaviour of xylan-based hemicellulose using TG-FTIR and Py-GC-FTIR. J Anal Appl Pyrol 87 (2010), 199–206.
240. Shen, C., Zhang, I.Y., Fu, G., Xu, X., Pyrolysis of D-glucose to acrolein. Chin J Chem Phys 24 (2011), 249–252.
241. Shie, J.L., Chen, Y.H., Chang, C.Y., Lin, J.P., Lee, D.J., Wu, C.H., Thermal pyrolysis of poly(vinyl alcohol) and its major products. Energy Fuels 16 (2002), 109–118.
242. Simon, C.M., Kaminsky, W., Chemical recycling of polytetrafluoroethylene by pyrolysis. Polym Degrad Stabil 62 (1998), 1–7.
243. Sluiter, A., Ruiz, R., Scarlata, C., Sluiter, J., Templeton, D., Determination of extractives in biomass, laboratory analytical procedure (LAP). Technical Report NREL/TP-510-42619, 2008.
244. Smolders, K., Baeyens, J., Thermal degradation of PMMA in fluidized beds. Waste Manage 24 (2004), 49–857.
245. Sterling, W.J., McCoy, B.J., Distribution kinetics of thermolytic macromolecular reactions. AIChE J 47 (2001), 2289–2303.
246. Stewart, J.J., Akiyama, T., Chapple, C., Ralph, J., Mansfield, S.D., The effects on lignin structure of overexpression of ferulate 5-hydroxylase in hybrid poplar. Plant Physiol 150 (2009), 621–635.
247. Sugimura, Y., Nagaya, T., Tsuge, T., Pyrolysis–gas chromatographic studies on head-to-head polystyrene. Macromolecules 14 (1981), 520–523.
248. Sun, X.-F., Sun, R., Fowler, P., Baird, M.S., Extraction and characterization of original lignin and hemicelluloses from wheat straw. J Agr Food Chem 53 (2005), 860–870.
249. Suriapparao, D.V., Ojha, D.K., Ray, T., Vinu, R., Kinetic analysis of co-pyrolysis of cellulose and polypropylene. J Therm Anal Calorim 117 (2014), 1441–1451.
250. Taarning, E., Osmundsen, C.M., Yang, X.B., Voss, B., Andersen, S.I., Christensen, C.H., Zeolite-catalyzed biomass conversion to fuels and chemicals. Energy Environ Sci 4 (2011), 793–804.
251. Taherzadeh, M.J., Eklund, R., Gustafsson, L., Niklasson, C., Liden, G., Characterization and fermentation of dilute-acid hydrolyzates from wood. Ind Eng Chem Res 36 (1997), 4659–4665.
252. Teixeira, A.R., Mooney, K.G., Kruger, J.S., et al. Aerosol generation by reactive boiling ejection of molten cellulose. Energy Environ Sci 4 (2011), 4306–4321.
253. The Statistics Portal (website). http://www.statista.com/statistics/282732/global-production-of-plastics-since-1950/. Accessed November, 2015.
254. Theander, O., Cellulose, hemicellulose and extractives. Overend, R.P., Milne, T.A., Mudge, L.K., (eds.) Fundamentals of thermochemical biomass conversion, 1985, Springer, Netherlands, 35–60.
255. Train, P.M., Klein, M.T., Chemical modeling of lignin. Pyrolysis oils from biomass, 1988, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 241–263.
256. Tsuge, S., Ohtani, H., Structural charcaterization of polymeric materials by pyrolysis-GC/MS. Polym Degrad Stabil 58 (1997), 109–130.
257. Tsuge, S., Ohtani, H., Watanabe, C., Pyrolysis-GC/MS handbook of synthetic polymers. 2011, Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
258. Uemura, K., Appari, S., Kudo, S., Hayashi, J., Einaga, H., Norinaga, K., In-situ reforming of the volatiles from fast pyrolysis of ligno-cellulosic biomass over zeolite catalysts for aromatic compound production. Fuel Process Technol 136 (2015), 73–78.
259. van Parijs, F.R.D., Morreel, K., Ralph, J., Boerjan, W., Merks, R.M.H., Modeling lignin polymerization. I. Simulation model of dehydrogenation polymers. Plant Physiol 153 (2010), 1332–1344.
260. Vanholme, R., Demedts, B., Morreel, K., Ralph, J., Boerjan, W., Lignin biosynthesis and structure. Plant Physiol 153 (2010), 895–905.
261. Várhegyi, G., Antal, M.J. Jr., Jakab, E., Szabó, P., Kinetic modeling of biomass pyrolysis. J Anal Appl Pyrol 42 (1997), 73–87.
262. Vassilev, S.V., Baxter, D., Andersen, L.K., Vassileva, C.G., An overview of the chemical composition of biomass. Fuel 89 (2010), 913–933.
263. Venderbosch, R.H., Prins, W., Fast pyrolysis technology development. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 4 (2010), 178–208.
264. Vichaphund, S., Aht-Ong, D., Sricharoenchaikul, V., Atong, D., Catalytic upgrading of Jatropha waste fast pyrolysis vapors over synthesized HZSM-5 using analytical Py-GC/MS. J Biobased Mater Bio 7 (2013), 252–258.
265. Vichaphund, S., Aht-Ong, D., Sricharoenchaikul, V., Atong, D., Characteristic of fly ash derived-zeolite and its catalytic performance for fast pyrolysis of Jatropha waste. Environ Technol 35 (2014), 2254–2261.
266. Vichaphund, S., Aht-Ong, D., Sricharoenchaikul, V., Atong, D., Effect of synthesis time on physical properties and catalytic activities of synthesized HZSM-5 on the fast pyrolysis of Jatropha waste. Res Chem Intermediat 40 (2014), 2395–2406.
267. Vichaphund, S., Aht-ong, D., Sricharoenchaikul, V., Atong, D., Production of aromatic compounds from catalytic fast pyrolysis of Jatropha residues using metal/HZSM-5 prepared by ion-exchange and impregnation methods. Renew Energ 79 (2015), 28–37.
268. Vinu, R., Broadbelt, L.J., A mechanistic model of fast pyrolysis of glucose-based carbohydrates to predict bio-oil composition. Energy Environ Sci 5 (2012), 9808–9826.
269. Vinu, R., Broadbelt, L.J., Unraveling reaction pathways and specifying reaction kinetics for complex systems. Annu Rev Chem Biomol Eng 3 (2012), 29–54.
270. Vinu, R., Levine, S.E., Wang, L., Broadbelt, L.J., Detailed mechanistic modeling of poly(styrene peroxide) pyrolysis using kinetic Monte Carlo simulation. Chem Eng Sci 69 (2012), 456–471.
271. Vinu, R., Ojha, D.K., Nair, V., Polymer pyrolysis for resource recovery. Reedijk, J., (eds.) Elsevier Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering, 2016, Elsevier, Waltham, MA, 10.1016/B978-0-12-409547-2.11641-5.
272. Vispute, T.P., Zhang, H., Sanna, A., Xiao, R., Huber, G.W., Renewable chemical commodity feedstocks from integrated catalytic processing of pyrolysis oils. Science 330 (2010), 1222–1227.
273. Vitolo, S., Seggiani, M., Frediani, P., Ambrosini, G., Politi, L., Catalytic upgrading of pyrolytic oils to fuel over different zeolites. Fuel 78 (1999), 1147–1159.
274. Vitolo, S., Bresci, B., Seggiani, M., Gallo, M.G., Catalytic upgrading of pyrolytic oils over HZSM-5 zeolite: behaviour of the catalyst when used in repeated upgrading–regenerating cycles. Fuel 80 (2001), 17–26.
275. Vuori, A.I., Bredenberg, J.B., Thermal chemistry pathways of substituted anisoles. Ind Eng Chem Res 26 (1987), 359–365.
276. Vyazovkin, S., Burnham, A.K., Criado, J.M., Pérez-Maqueda, L.A., Popescu, C., Sbirrazzuoli, N., ICTAC Kinetics Committee recommendations for performing kinetic computations on thermal analysis data. Thermochim Acta 520 (2011), 1–19.
277. Wan, S.L., Wang, Y., A review on ex situ catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass. Front Chem Sci Eng 8 (2014), 280–294.
278. Wang, D., Czernik, S., Montane, D., Mann, M., Chornet, E., Biomass to hydrogen via fast pyrolysis and catalytic steam reforming of the pyrolysis oil or its fractions. Ind Eng Chem Res 36 (1997), 1507–1518.
279. Wang, D.N., Czernik, S., Chornet, E., Production of hydrogen from biomass by catalytic steam reforming of fast pyrolysis oils. Energy Fuels 12 (1998), 19–24.
280. Wang, S., Liang, T., Ru, B., Guo, X., Mechanism of xylan pyrolysis by Py-GC/MS. Chem Res Chin Univ 29 (2013), 782–787.
281. Wang, Z.H., McDonald, A.G., Westerhof, R.J.M., et al. Effect of cellulose crystallinity on the formation of a liquid intermediate and on product distribution during pyrolysis. J Anal Appl Pyrol 100 (2013), 56–66.
282. Wang, Z., Pecha, B., Westerhof, R.J.M., et al. Effect of cellulose crystallinity on solid/liquid phase reactions responsible for the formation of carbonaceous residues during pyrolysis. Ind Eng Chem Res 53 (2014), 2940–2955.
283. Wang, Z.H., Zhou, S., Pecha, B., Westerhof, R.J.M., Garcia-Perez, M., Effect of pyrolysis temperature and sulfuric acid during the fast pyrolysis of cellulose and Douglas fir in an atmospheric pressure wire mesh reactor. Energy Fuels 28 (2014), 5167–5177.
284. Wang, J.C., Bi, P.Y., Zhang, Y.J., et al. Preparation of jet fuel range hydrocarbons by catalytic transformation of bio-oil derived from fast pyrolysis of straw stalk. Energy 86 (2015), 488–499.
285. Wang, K., Zhang, J., Brent, S.H., Brown, R.C., Catalytic conversion of carbohydrate-derived oxygenates over HZSM-5 in a tandem micro-reactor system. Green Chem 17 (2015), 557–564.
286. Wang, S.R., Ru, B., Dai, G.X., Sun, W.X., Qiu, K.Z., Zhou, J.S., Pyrolysis mechanism study of minimally damaged hemicellulose polymers isolated from agricultural waste straw samples. Bioresour Technol 190 (2015), 211–218.
287. Westerhout, R.W.J., Waanders, J., Kuipers, J.A.M., van Swaaij, W.M.P., Kinetics of the low-temperature pyrolysis of polyethene, polypropene, and polystyrene modeling, experimental determination, and comparison with literature models and data. Ind Eng Chem Res 36 (1997), 1955–1964.
288. Westerhout, R.W.J., Balk, R.H.P., Meijer, R., Kuipers, J.A.M., van Swaaij, W.M.P., Examination and evaluation of the use of screen heaters for the measurement of the high temperature pyrolysis kinetics of polyethene and polypropene. Ind Eng Chem Res 36 (1997), 3360–3368.
289. Westerhout, R.W.J., Kuipers, J.A.M., van Swaaij, W.M.P., Experimental determination of the yield of pyrolysis products of polyethene and polypropene. Influence of reaction conditions. Ind Eng Chem Res 37 (1998), 841–847.
290. White, J.E., Catallo, W.J., Legendre, B.L., Biomass pyrolysis kinetics: a comparative critical review with relevant agricultural residue case studies. J Anal Appl Pyrol 91 (2011), 1–33.
291. Willfor, S., Sundberg, A., Hemming, J., Holmbom, B., Polysaccharides in some industrially important softwood species. Wood Sci Technol 39 (2005), 245–258.
292. Williams, P.T., Nugranad, N., Comparison of products from the pyrolysis and catalytic pyrolysis of rice husks. Energy 25 (2000), 493–513.
293. Wong, H.-W., Broadbelt, L.J., Tertiary resource recovery from waste polymers via pyrolysis: neat and binary mixture reactions of polypropylene and polystyrene. Ind Eng Chem Res 40 (2001), 4716–4723.
294. Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC: Global plastic production rises, recycling lags (website). http://www.worldwatch.org/global-plastic-production-rises-recycling-lags-0. Accessed June, 2016.
295. Xu, M.Z., Mukarakate, C., Robichaud, D.J., Nimlos, M.R., Richards, R.M., Trewyn, B.G., Elucidating zeolite deactivation mechanisms during biomass catalytic fast pyrolysis from model reactions and zeolite syntheses. Top Catal 59 (2016), 73–85.
296. Xue, X., Fry, S.C., Evolution of mixed-linkage (1 → 3, 1 → 4)-β-D-glucan (MLG) and xyloglucan in equisetum (horsetails) and other monilophytes. Ann Bot 109 (2012), 873–886.
297. Yanez, A.J., Broadbelt, L.J., Exploring diverse lignin populations: complex structural representations and fast pyrolysis modeling, 2015. American Institute of Chemical Engineers Annual Meeting, 2015, Salt Lake City, Utah.
298. Yanez, A.J., Broadbelt, L.J., Toward mechanistic modeling of lignin deconstruction: a stochastic method to produce libraries of structural representations of lignin (gce180). 19th Annual Green Chemistry & Engineering Conference, 2015, MA, Boston.
299. Yanez, A.J., Li, W., Mabon, R., Broadbelt, L.J., A stochastic method to generate libraries of structural representations of lignin. Energy Fuels 30 (2016), 5835–5845.
300. Yang, H., Appari, S., Kudo, S., Hayashi, J., Kumagai, S., Norinaga, K., Chemical structures and primary pyrolysis characteristics of lignins obtained from different preparation methods. J Jpn Inst Energy 93 (2014), 986–994.
301. Yang, H., Appari, S., Kudo, S., Hayashi, J., Norinaga, K., Detailed chemical kinetic modeling of vapor-phase reactions of volatiles derived from fast pyrolysis of lignin. Ind Eng Chem Res 54 (2015), 6855–6864.
302. Yang, H., Coolman, R.J., Karanjkar, P., et al. The effect of steam on the catalytic fast pyrolysis of cellulose. Green Chem 17 (2015), 2912–2923.
303. Ye, X.N., Lu, Q., Li, W.T., et al. Selective production of nicotyrine from catalytic fast pyrolysis of tobacco biomass with Pd/C catalyst. J Anal Appl Pyrol 117 (2016), 88–93.
304. Yildiz, G., Pronk, M., Djokic, M., et al. Validation of a new set-up for continuous catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass coupled with vapour phase upgrading. J Anal Appl Pyrol 103 (2013), 343–351.
305. Yildiz, G., Lathouwers, T., Toraman, H.E., et al. Catalytic fast pyrolysis of pine wood: effect of successive catalyst regeneration. Energy Fuels 28 (2014), 4560–4572.
306. Yildiz, G., Ronsse, F., Venderbosch, R., van Duren, R., Kersten, S.R.A., Prins, W., Effect of biomass ash in catalytic fast pyrolysis of pine wood. Appl Catal B: Environ 168 (2015), 203–211.
307. Yu, Y., Liu, D.W., Wu, H.W., Characterization of water-soluble intermediates from slow pyrolysis of cellulose at low temperatures. Energy Fuels 26 (2012), 7331–7339.
308. 2-loaded celluloses. Energy Fuels 28 (2013), 245–253.
309. Yu, J., Sun, L., Ma, C., Qiao, Y., Yao, H., Thermal degradation of PVC: a review. Waste Manage 48 (2016), 300–314.
310. Zaror, C.A., Hutchings, I.S., Pyle, D.L., Stiles, H.N., Kandiyoti, R., Secondary char formation in the catalytic pyrolysis of biomass. Fuel 64 (1985), 990–994.
311. Zeng, J., Helms, G.L., Gao, X., Chen, S., Quantification of wheat straw lignin structure by comprehensive NMR analysis. J Agr Food Chem 61 (2013), 10848–10857.
312. Zhang, H., Xiao, R., Huang, H., Xiao, G., Comparison of non-catalytic and catalytic fast pyrolysis of corncob in a fluidized bed reactor. Bioresour Technol 100 (2009), 1428–1434.
313. Zhang, H.Y., Carlson, T.R., Xiao, R., Huber, G.W., Catalytic fast pyrolysis of wood and alcohol mixtures in a fluidized bed reactor. Green Chem 14 (2012), 98–110.
314. Zhang, B., Zhong, Z.P., Chen, P., Ruan, R., Microwave-assisted catalytic fast pyrolysis of biomass for bio-oil production using chemical vapor deposition modified HZSM-5 catalyst. Bioresour Technol 197 (2015), 79–84.
315. Zhang, B., Zhong, Z.P., Song, Z.W., Ding, K., Chen, P., Ruan, R., Optimizing anti-coking abilities of zeolites by ethylene diamine tetraacetie acid modification on catalytic fast pyrolysis of corn stalk. J Power Sources 300 (2015), 87–94.
316. Zhang, B., Zhong, Z.P., Wang, X.B., Ding, K., Song, Z.W., Catalytic upgrading of fast pyrolysis biomass vapors over fresh, spent and regenerated ZSM-5 zeolites. Fuel Process Technol 138 (2015), 430–434.
317. Zhang, B., Zhong, Z.P., Xie, Q.L., Chen, P., Ruan, R., Reducing coke formation in the catalytic fast pyrolysis of bio-derived furan with surface modified HZSM-5 catalysts. RSC Adv 5 (2015), 56286–56292.
318. Zhang, J., Choi, Y.S., Yoo, C.G., Kim, T.H., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., Cellulose-hemicellulose and cellulose-lignin interactions during fast pyrolysis. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 3 (2015), 293–301.
319. Zhang, B., Zhong, Z., Ding, K., Song, Z., Production of aromatic hydrocarbons from catalytic co-pyrolysis of biomass and high density polyethylene: analytical Py-GC/MS study. Fuel 139 (2015), 622–628.
320. Zhang, J., Wang, K.G., Nolte, M.W., Choi, Y.S., Brown, R.C., Shanks, B.H., Catalytic deoxygenation of bio-oil model compounds over acid–base bifunctional catalysts. ACS Catal 6 (2016), 2608–2621.
321. Zheng, A.Q., Jiang, L.Q., Zhao, Z.L., et al. Impact of torrefaction on the chemical structure and catalytic fast pyrolysis behavior of hemicellulose, lignin, and cellulose. Energy Fuels 29 (2015), 8027–8034.
322. Zhou, S., Pecha, B., van Kuppevelt, M., McDonald, A.G., Garcia-Perez, M., Slow and fast pyrolysis of Douglas-fir lignin: importance of liquid-intermediate formation on the distribution of products. Biomass Bioenergy 66 (2014), 398–409.
323. Zhou, X., Nolte, M.W., Mayes, H.B., Shanks, B.H., Broadbelt, L.J., Experimental and mechanistic modeling of fast pyrolysis of neat glucose-based carbohydrates. 1. Experiments and development of an advanced mechanistic model. Ind Eng Chem Res 53 (2014), 13274–13289.
324. Zhou, X., Nolte, M.W., Shanks, B.H., Broadbelt, L.J., Experimental and mechanistic modeling of fast pyrolysis of neat glucose-based carbohydrates. 2. Validation and evaluation of the mechanistic model. Ind Eng Chem Res 53 (2014), 13290–13301.
325. Zhou, H., Wu, C., Onwudili, J.A., Meng, A., Zhang, Y., Williams, P.T., Effect of interactions of PVC and biomass components on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) during fast co-pyrolysis. RSC Adv 5 (2015), 11371–11377.
326. Zhou, X., Li, W., Mabon, R., Broadbelt, L.J., A critical review on hemicellulose pyrolysis. Energy Technol, 2016, 10.1002/ente.201600327.
327. Zhou, X., Nolte, M.W., Mayes, H.B., Shanks, B.H., Broadbelt, L.J., Fast pyrolysis of glucose-based carbohydrates with added NaCl, part 1: experiments and development of a mechanistic model. AIChE J 62 (2016), 766–777.
328. Zhou, X., Nolte, M.W., Shanks, B.H., Broadbelt, L.J., Fast pyrolysis of glucose-based carbohydrates with added NaCl, part 2: validation and evaluation of the mechanistic model. AIChE J 62 (2016), 778–791.
329. Zhou X, Li W, Mabon R, Broadbelt LJ: A mechanistic model of fast pyrolysis of hemicellulose extracted from cornstover, 2016b.
330. Ziff, R.M., McGrady, E.D., Kinetics of polymer degradation. Macromolecules 19 (1986), 2513–2519.