Pathophysiology and Prevention of Heart Disease in Diabetes Mellitus

Current Problems in Cardiology

Volumn 43, Issue 3, 2018, Pages 68-110

  Oktay, Ahmet Afşin ^a   Akturk, Halis Kaan ^a   Esenboğa, Kerim ^a   Javed, Fahad ^a   Polin, Nichole M ^a   Jahangir, Eiman ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ADIPOCYTOKINE; ALIROCUMAB; ALPHA GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITOR; AMYLIN DERIVATIVE; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 12; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 7; DIPEPTIDYL PEPTIDASE IV INHIBITOR; EVOLOCUMAB; EZETIMIBE; EZETIMIBE PLUS SIMVASTATIN; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; FIBRINOGEN; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1 RECEPTOR AGONIST; GLUCOSE; HAPTOGLOBIN; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; INSULIN; LOSARTAN; METFORMIN; NICOTINIC ACID; PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR INHIBITOR 1; SODIUM GLUCOSE COTRANSPORTER 2 INHIBITOR; VASOPRESSIN;

ALBUMINURIA; APOPTOSIS; ARTICLE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BARIATRIC SURGERY; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; BODY WEIGHT LOSS; CALORIC RESTRICTION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; COMORBIDITY; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DIABETIC CARDIOMYOPATHY; DIABETIC NEPHROPATHY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; EPIGENETICS; FIBROSIS; FRUIT; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENOTYPE; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEART FAILURE; HEREDITY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LONG TERM SURVIVAL; LOW FAT DIET; MICROANGIOPATHY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARACRINE SIGNALING; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERICARDIAL FAT; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; SODIUM RESTRICTION; THROMBOSIS; VEGETABLE; COMPLICATION; GLOBAL HEALTH; HEART DISEASE; HEMODYNAMICS; PHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTOR;

DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; GLOBAL HEALTH; HEART DISEASES; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMANS; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 85020101711     PISSN: 01462806     EISSN: 15356280     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2017.05.001     Document Type: Article

References (239)

1. NCD-Risk-Factor-Collaboration. Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: a pooled analysis of 751 population-based studies with 4.4 million participants. Lancet 387 (2016), 1513–1530.
2. Menke, A., Casagrande, S., Geiss, L., Cowie, C.C., Prevalence of and trends in diabetes among adults in the United States, 1988-2012. J Am Med Assoc 314 (2015), 1021–1029.
3. Guariguata, L., Whiting, D.R., Hambleton, I., Beagley, J., Linnenkamp, U., Shaw, J.E., Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2013 and projections for 2035. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 103 (2014), 137–149.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Diabetes Statistics Report: Estimates of Diabetes and its Burden in the United States, 2014. 2014, US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA.
5. Selvin, E., Parrinello, C.M., Sacks, D.B., Coresh, J., Trends in prevalence and control of diabetes in the United States, 1988-1994 and 1999-2010. Ann Intern Med 160 (2014), 517–525.
6. Mozaffarian, D., Benjamin, E.J., Go, A.S., et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics—2016 update a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 133 (2016), e38–e360.
7. Gregg, E.W., Cheng, Y.J., Saydah, S., et al. Trends in death rates among U.S. adults with and without diabetes between 1997 and 2006: findings from the National Health Interview Survey. Diabetes Care 35 (2012), 1252–1257.
8. Aronson, D., Edelman, E.R., Coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus. Cardiol Clin 32 (2014), 439–455.
9. Preis, S.R., Hwang, S.-J., Coady, S., et al. Trends in all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality among women and men with and without diabetes mellitus in the Framingham Heart Study, 1950 to 2005. Circulation 119 (2009), 1728–1735.
10. Schramm, T.K., Gislason, G.H., Køber, L., et al. Diabetes patients requiring glucose-lowering therapy and nondiabetics with a prior myocardial infarction carry the same cardiovascular risk: a population study of 3.3 million people. Circulation 117 (2008), 1945–1954.
11. The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet 375 (2010), 2215–2222.
12. Huxley, R.R., Filion, K.B., Konety, S., Alonso, A., Meta-analysis of cohort and case-control studies of type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 108 (2011), 56–62.
13. Kissela, B.M., Khoury, J., Kleindorfer, D., et al. Epidemiology of ischemic stroke in patients with diabetes: the greater Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky stroke study. Diabetes Care 28 (2005), 355–359.
14. Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Seshasai, S.R., Kaptoge, S., et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting glucose, and risk of cause-specific death. N Engl J Med 364 (2011), 829–841.
15. Fox, C.S., Golden, S.H., Anderson, C., et al. Update on prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus in light of recent evidence: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care 38 (2015), 1777–1803.
16. Rydén, L., Grant, P.J., Anker, S.D., et al. ESC guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD. Eur Heart J 34 (2013), 3035–3087.
17. de Ferranti SD, de Boer IH, Fonseca V, et al. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease. AHA/ADA scientific statement; 2014.
18. Marwick, T.H., Hordern, M.D., Miller, T., et al. Exercise training for type 2 diabetes mellitus: impact on cardiovascular risk: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 119 (2009), 3244–3262.
19. Pignone, M., Alberts, M.J., Colwell, J.A., et al. Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in people with diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association, a scientific statement of the American Heart Association, and an expert consensus document of the American College. Diabetes Care 33 (2010), 1395–1402.
20. Canivell, S., Gomis, R., Diagnosis and classification of autoimmune diabetes mellitus. Autoimmun Rev 13 (2014), 403–407.
21. American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes-2017. Diabetes Care 40:suppl 1 (2017), 1–135.
22. WHO Consultation. Definition, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus and its Complications. Part 1: Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus. 1999, World Health Organization, Geneva Report no. 99.2.
23. Riehle, C., Abel, E.D., Insulin signaling and heart failure. Circ Res 118 (2016), 1151–1169.
24. Dei Cas, A., Fonarow, G.C., Gheorghiade, M., Butler, J., Concomitant diabetes mellitus and heart failure. Curr Probl Cardiol 40 (2015), 7–43.
25. Lee, K.K., Fortmann, S.P., Fair, J.M., et al. Insulin resistance independently predicts the progression of coronary artery calcification. Am Heart J 157 (2009), 939–945.
26. Blaha, M.J., DeFilippis, A.P., Rivera, J.J., et al. The relationship between insulin resistance and incidence and progression of coronary artery calcification: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Diabetes Care 34 (2011), 749–751.
27. Doehner, W., Rauchhaus, M., Ponikowski, P., et al. Impaired insulin sensitivity as an independent risk factor for mortality in patients with stable chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 46 (2005), 1019–1026.
28. Chokshi, A., Drosatos, K., Cheema, F.H., et al. Ventricular assist device implantation corrects myocardial lipotoxicity, reverses insulin resistance, and normalizes cardiac metabolism in patients with advanced heart failure. Circulation 125 (2012), 2844–2853.
29. Moebus, S., Stang, A., Möhlenkamp, S., et al. Association of impaired fasting glucose and coronary artery calcification as a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis in a population-based cohort-results of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study. Diabetologia 52 (2009), 81–89.
30. Rutter, M.K., O'Donnell, C.J., Massaro, J.M., Fox, C.S., Hoffmann, U., Fasting glucose, obesity, and coronary artery calcification in community-based people without diabetes. Diabetes Care 35 (2012), 1944–1950.
31. Rhee, E.J., Kim, J.H., Park, H.J., et al. Increased risk for development of coronary artery calcification in insulin-resistant subjects who developed diabetes: 4-year longitudinal study. Atherosclerosis 245 (2016), 132–138.
32. Könner, A.C., Brüning, J.C., Selective insulin and leptin resistance in metabolic disorders. Cell Metab 16 (2012), 144–152.
33. Rask-Madsen, C., Li, Q., Freund, B., et al. Loss of insulin signaling in vascular endothelial cells accelerates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E null mice. Cell Metab 11 (2010), 379–389.
34. Favre, G.A., Esnault, V.L., Van, E., Modulation of glucose metabolism by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 308 (2015), E435–E449.
35. Te Riet, L., van Esch, J.H., Roks, A.J., van den Meiracker, A.H., Danser, A.H., Hypertension: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system alterations. Circ Res 116 (2015), 960–975.
36. Rodriguez, R., Viscarra, J.A., Minas, J.N., Nakano, D., Nishiyama, A., Ortiz, R.M., Angiotensin receptor blockade increases pancreatic insulin secretion and decreases glucose intolerance during glucose supplementation in a model of metabolic syndrome. Endocrinology 153 (2012), 1684–1695.
37. van der Zijl, N.J., Moors, C.C., Goossens, G.H., Hermans, M.M., Blaak, E.E., Diamant, M., Valsartan improves {beta}-cell function and insulin sensitivity in subjects with impaired glucose metabolism: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care 34 (2011), 845–851.
38. Abuissa, H., Jones, P.G., Marso, S.P., O'Keefe, J.H., Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers for prevention of type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 46 (2005), 821–826.
39. Strissel, K.J., Denis, G.V., Nikolajczyk, B.S., Immune regulators of inflammation in obesity-associated type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 21 (2014), 330–338.
40. Mentz, R.J., Kelly, J.P., von Lueder, T.G., et al. Noncardiac comorbidities in heart failure with reduced versus preserved ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol 64 (2014), 2281–2293.
41. Weisberg, S.P., McCann, D., Desai, M., Rosenbaum, M., Leibel, R.L., Ferrante, A.W., Obesity is associated with macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue. J Clin Invest 112 (2003), 1796–1808.
42. DeFuria, J., Belkina, A.C., Jagannathan-Bogdan, M., et al. B cells promote inflammation in obesity and type 2 diabetes through regulation of T-cell function and an inflammatory cytokine profile. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110 (2013), 5133–5138.
43. Aroor, A.R., McKarns, S., Demarco, V.G., Jia, G., Sowers, J.R., Maladaptive immune and inflammatory pathways lead to cardiovascular insulin resistance. Metabolism 62 (2013), 1543–1552.
44. Cheng, K.H., Chu, C.S., Lee, K.T., et al. Adipocytokines and proinflammatory mediators from abdominal and epicardial adipose tissue in patients with coronary artery disease. Int J Obes 32 (2008), 268–274.
45. Hansson, G.K., Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 352 (2005), 1685–1695.
46. Enhörning, S., Hedblad, B., Nilsson, P.M., Engström, G., Melander, O., Copeptin is an independent predictor of diabetic heart disease and death. Am Heart J 169 (2015), 549–556 e1.
47. Morgenthaler, N.G., Struck, J., Alonso, C., Bergmann, A., Assay for the measurement of copeptin, a stable peptide derived from the precursor of vasopressin. Clin Chem 52 (2006), 112–119.
48. Enhörning, S., Wang, T.J., Nilsson, P.M., et al. Plasma copeptin and the risk of diabetes mellitus. Circulation 121 (2010), 2102–2108.
49. Enhörning, S., Bankir, L., Bouby, N., et al. Copeptin, a marker of vasopressin, in abdominal obesity, diabetes and microalbuminuria: the prospective Malmö Diet and Cancer Study cardiovascular cohort. Int J Obes 37 (2012), 598–603.
50. Morgenthaler, N.G., Copeptin: a biomarker of cardiovascular and renal function. Congest Hear Fail 16:suppl 1 (2010), S37–S44.
51. Mellbin, L.G., Morgenthaler, N.G., Ryden, L., Ohrvik, J., Brismar, K., Catrina, S.B., Copeptin, IGFBP-1, and cardiovascular prognosis in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute myocardial infarction. Diabetes Care 33 (2010), 1604–1606.
52. Abraham, T.M., Pedley, A., Massaro, J.M., Hoffmann, U., Fox, C.S., Association between visceral and subcutaneous adipose depots and incident cardiovascular disease risk factors. Circulation 132 (2015), 1639–1647.
53. Fox, C.S., Massaro, J.M., Hoffmann, U., et al. Abdominal visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue compartments: association with metabolic risk factors in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 116 (2007), 39–48.
54. Ding, J., Hsu, F.-C., Harris, T.B., et al. The association of pericardial fat with incident coronary heart disease: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) 1–3. Am J Clin Nutr 90 (2009), 499–504.
55. Mahabadi, A.A., Berg, M.H., Lehmann, N., et al. Association of epicardial fat with cardiovascular risk factors and incident myocardial infarction in the general population: the Heinz Nixdorf recall study. J Am Coll Cardiol 61 (2013), 1388–1395.
56. Fox, C.S., Gona, P., Hoffmann, U., et al. Pericardial fat, intrathoracic fat, and measures of left ventricular structure and function. Circulation 119 (2009), 1586–1591.
57. Thanassoulis, G., Massaro, J.M., O'Donnell, C.J., et al. Pericardial fat is associated with prevalent atrial fibrillation: the Framingham Heart Study. Circ Arrhythmia Electrophysiol 3 (2010), 345–350.
58. Shah, R.V., Anderson, A., Ding, J., et al. Pericardial, but not hepatic, fat by CT is associated with CV outcomes and structure. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging, 2017 [Epub ahead of print].
59. Talman, A.H., Psaltis, P.J., Cameron, J.D., Meredith, I.T., Seneviratne, S.K., Wong, D.T.L., Epicardial adipose tissue: far more than a fat depot. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 4 (2014), 416–429.
60. Wong, C.X., Ganesan, A.N., Selvanayagam, J.B., Epicardial fat and atrial fibrillation: current evidence, potential mechanisms, clinical implications, and future directions. Eur Heart J 38 (2017), 1294–1302.
61. Yang, F.-S., Yun, C.-H., Wu, T.-H., et al. High pericardial and peri-aortic adipose tissue burden in pre-diabetic and diabetic subjects. BMC Cardiovasc Disord, 13, 2013, 98.
62. Kim, H.M., Kim, K.J., Lee, H.-J., et al. Epicardial adipose tissue thickness is an indicator for coronary artery stenosis in asymptomatic type 2 diabetic patients: its assessment by cardiac magnetic resonance. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 11, 2012, 83.
63. Noyes, A.M., Dua, K., Devadoss, R., Chhabra, L., Cardiac adipose tissue and its relationship to diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. World J Diabetes 5 (2014), 868–876.
64. Oktay, A.A., Akturk, H.K., Jahangir, E., Diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a dual threat. Curr Opin Cardiol 31 (2016), 402–409.
65. Lastra, G., Syed, S., Kurukulasuriya, L.R., Manrique, C., Sowers, J.R., Type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: an update. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 43 (2014), 103–122.
66. Chen, G., McAlister, F.A., Walker, R.L., Hemmelgarn, B.R., Campbell, N.R.C., Cardiovascular outcomes in Framingham participants with diabetes: the importance of blood pressure. Hypertension 57 (2011), 891–897.
67. van Bilsen, M., Daniels, A., Brouwers, O., et al. Hypertension is a conditional factor for the development of cardiac hypertrophy in type 2 diabetic mice. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e85078.
68. Dake, A.W., Sora, N.D., Diabetic dyslipidemia review: an update on current concepts and management guidelines of diabetic dyslipidemia. Am J Med Sci 351 (2016), 361–365.
69. Jaiswal, M., Schinske, A., Pop-Busui, R., Lipids and lipid management in diabetes. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 28 (2014), 325–338.
70. Ng, A.C.T., Delgado, V., Djaberi, R., et al. Multimodality imaging in diabetic heart disease. Curr Probl Cardiol 36 (2011), 9–47.
71. Sorrentino, S.A., Besler, C., Rohrer, L., et al. Endothelial-vasoprotective effects of high-density lipoprotein are impaired in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus but are improved after extended-release niacin therapy. Circulation 121 (2010), 110–122.
72. Carmena, R., Duriez, P., Fruchart, J.-C., Atherogenic lipoprotein particles in atherosclerosis. Circulation 109:23 suppl 1 (2004), III2–III7.
73. Pop-Busui, R., Cleary, P.A., Braffett, B.H., et al. Association between cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and left ventricular dysfunction: DCCT/EDIC study (Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications). J Am Coll Cardiol 61 (2013), 447–454.
74. Pop-Busui, R., Kirkwood, I., Schmid, H., et al. Sympathetic dysfunction in type 1 diabetes: association with impaired myocardial blood flow reserve and diastolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol 44 (2004), 2368–2374.
75. Sacre, J.W., Franjic, B., Jellis, C.L., Jenkins, C., Coombes, J.S., Marwick, T.H., Association of cardiac autonomic neuropathy with subclinical myocardial dysfunction in type 2 diabetes. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 3 (2010), 1207–1215.
76. Young, L.H., Wackers, F.J., Chyun, D.A., et al. Cardiac outcomes after screening for asymptomatic coronary artery disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: the DIAD study: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 301 (2009), 1547–1555.
77. Ko, S.H., Song, K.H., Park, S.A., et al. Cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction predicts acute ischaemic stroke in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a 7-year follow-up study. Diabet Med 25 (2008), 1171–1177.
78. Cha, S.-A., Yun, J.-S., Lim, T.-S., et al. Diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy predicts recurrent cardiovascular diseases in patients with type 2 diabetes. PLoS One, 11, 2016, e0164807.
79. Soedamah-Muthu, S.S., Chaturvedi, N., Witte, D.R., et al. Relationship between risk factors and mortality in type 1 diabetic patients in Europe. Diabetes Care 31 (2008), 1360–1366.
80. Laederach, B., The effect of intensive diabetes therapy on measures of autonomic nervous system function in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT). Diabetologia 41 (1998), 416–423.
81. Spallone, V., Ziegler, D., Freeman, R., et al. Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in diabetes: Clinical impact, assessment, diagnosis, and management. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 27 (2011), 639–653.
82. Pop-Busui, R., Cardiac autonomic neuropathy in diabetes: a clinical perspective. Diabetes Care 33 (2010), 434–441.
83. Costacou, T., Ferrell, R.E., Orchard, T.J., Haptoglobin genotype a determinant of cardiovascular complication risk in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 57 (2008), 1702–1706.
84. Simpson, M., Snell-Bergeon, J.K., Kinney, G.L., et al. Haptoglobin genotype predicts development of coronary artery calcification in a prospective cohort of patients with type 1 diabetes. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 10, 2011, 99.
85. Cahill, L.E., Levy, A.P., Chiuve, S.E., et al. Haptoglobin genotype is a consistent marker of coronary heart disease risk among individuals with elevated glycosylated hemoglobin. J Am Coll Cardiol 61 (2013), 728–737.
86. Chaudhary, R., Likidlilid, A., Peerapatdit, T., et al. Apolipoprotein E gene polymorphism: effects on plasma lipids and risk of type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 11, 2012, 36.
87. Kilpeläinen, T.O., Zillikens, M.C., Stančákova, A., et al. Genetic variation near IRS1 associates with reduced adiposity and an impaired metabolic profile. Nat Genet 43 (2011), 753–760.
88. Rung, J., Cauchi, S., Albrechtsen, A., et al. Genetic variant near IRS1 is associated with type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. Nat Genet 41 (2009), 1110–1115.
89. Samani, N.J., Erdmann, J., Hall, A.S., et al. Genomewide association analysis of coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 357 (2007), 443–453.
90. Jansen, H., Loley, C., Lieb, W., et al. Genetic variants primarily associated with type 2 diabetes are related to coronary artery disease risk. Atherosclerosis 241 (2015), 419–426.
91. Yaghootkar, H., Scott, R.A., White, C.C., et al. Genetic evidence for a normal-weight metabolically obese phenotype linking insulin resistance, hypertension, coronary artery disease, and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 63 (2014), 4369–4377.
92. Egger, G., Liang, G., Aparicio, A., Jones, P.A., Epigenetics in human disease and prospects for epigenetic therapy. Nature 429 (2004), 457–463.
93. Pasquier, J., Hoarau-Véchot, J., Fakhro, K., Rafii, A., Abi Khalil, C., Epigenetics and cardiovascular disease in diabetes. Curr Diab Rep, 15, 2015, 108.
94. Volkmar, M., Dedeurwaerder, S., Cunha, D.A., et al. DNA methylation profiling identifies epigenetic dysregulation in pancreatic islets from type 2 diabetic patients. EMBO J 31 (2012), 1405–1426.
95. Bacos, K., Gillberg, L., Volkov, P., et al. Blood-based biomarkers of age-associated epigenetic changes in human islets associate with insulin secretion and diabetes. Nat Commun, 7, 2016, 11089.
96. Kulkarni, H., Kos, M.Z., Neary, J., et al. Novel epigenetic determinants of type 2 diabetes in Mexican-American families. Hum Mol Genet 24 (2015), 5330–5344.
97. Okabe, J., Orlowski, C., Balcerczyk, A., et al. Distinguishing hyperglycemic changes by set7 in vascular endothelial cells. Circ Res 110 (2012), 1067–1076.
98. Paneni, F., Costantino, S., Battista, R., et al. Adverse epigenetic signatures by histone methyltransferase set7 contribute to vascular dysfunction in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circ Cardiovasc Genet 8 (2015), 150–158.
99. Intine, R.V., Sarras, M.P., Metabolic memory and chronic diabetes complications: potential role for epigenetic mechanisms. Curr Diab Rep 12 (2012), 551–559.
100. Reddy, M. a, Sumanth, P., Lanting, L., et al. Losartan reverses permissive epigenetic changes in renal glomeruli of diabetic db/db mice. Kidney Int 85 (2014), 362–373.
101. Cai, L., Li, W., Wang, G., Guo, L., Jiang, Y., James Kang, Y., Hyperglycemia-induced apoptosis in mouse myocardium: mitochondrial cytochrome c-mediated caspase-3 activation pathway. Diabetes 51 (2002), 1938–1948.
102. Mandl, A., Pham, L.H., Toth, K., Zambetti, G., Erhardt, P., Puma deletion delays cardiac dysfunction in murine heart failure models through attenuation of apoptosis. Circulation 124 (2011), 31–39.
103. Ouyang, C., You, J., Xie, Z., The interplay between autophagy and apoptosis in the diabetic heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 71 (2014), 71–80.
104. Kuethe, F., Sigusch, H.H., Bornstein, S.R., Hilbig, K., Kamvissi, V., Figulla, H.R., Apoptosis in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and diabetes: a feature of diabetic cardiomyopathy?. Horm Metab Res 39 (2007), 672–676.
105. He, C., Zhu, H., Li, H., Zou, M.H., Xie, Z., Dissociation of Bcl-2-Beclin1 complex by activated AMPK enhances cardiac autophagy and protects against cardiomyocyte apoptosis in diabetes. Diabetes 62 (2013), 1270–1281.
106. Xie, Z., Lau, K., Eby, B., et al. Improvement of cardiac functions by chronic metformin treatment is associated with enhanced cardiac autophagy in diabetic OVE26 mice. Diabetes 60 (2011), 1770–1778.
107. Kanamori, H., Takemura, G., Goto, K., et al. Autophagic adaptations in diabetic cardiomyopathy differ between type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Autophagy 11 (2015), 1146–1160.
108. McVeigh, G.E., Brennan, G.M., Johnston, G.D., et al. Impaired endothelium-dependent and independent vasodilation in patients with type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 35 (1992), 771–776.
109. Prior, J.O., Quiñones, M.J., Hernandez-Pampaloni, M., et al. Coronary circulatory dysfunction in insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Circulation 111 (2005), 2291–2298.
110. Chigaev, A., Smagley, Y., Sklar, L.A., Nitric oxide/cGMP pathway signaling actively down-regulates α4β1-integrin affinity: an unexpected mechanism for inducing cell de-adhesion. BMC Immunol, 12, 2011, 28.
111. Sharma, A., Sellers, S., Stefanovic, N., et al. Direct endothelial nitric oxide synthase activation provides atheroprotection in diabetes-accelerated atherosclerosis. Diabetes 64 (2015), 3937–3950.
112. Cosentino, F., Hishikawa, K., Katusic, Z.S., Luscher, T.F., High glucose increases nitric oxide synthase expression and superoxide anion generation in human aortic endothelial cells. Circulation 96 (1997), 25–28.
113. Miki, T., Yuda, S., Kouzu, H., Miura, T., Diabetic cardiomyopathy: pathophysiology and clinical features. Heart Fail Rev 18 (2013), 149–166.
114. Yoon, Y.S., Uchida, S., Masuo, O., et al. Progressive attenuation of myocardial vascular endothelial growth factor expression is a seminal event in diabetic cardiomyopathy: restoration of microvascular homeostasis and recovery of cardiac function in diabetic cardiomyopathy after replenishment of local vascular endothelial growth factor. Circulation 111 (2005), 2073–2085.
115. Cortigiani, L., Rigo, F., Gherardi, S., Galderisi, M., Bovenzi, F., Sicari, R., Prognostic meaning of coronary microvascular disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a transthoracic doppler echocardiographic study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 27 (2014), 1–7.
116. Moreno, P.R., Murcia, A.M., Palacios, I.F., et al. Coronary composition and macrophage infiltration in atherectomy specimens from patients with diabetes mellitus. Circulation 102 (2000), 2180–2184.
117. Grant, P.J., Diabetes mellitus as a prothrombotic condition. J Intern Med 262 (2007), 157–172.
118. Silva, J.A., Escobar, A., Collins, T.J., Ramee, S.R., White, C.J., Unstable angina. A comparison of angioscopic findings between diabetic and nondiabetic patients. Circulation 92 (1995), 1731–1736.
119. Gilbert, R.E., Krum, H., Heart failure in diabetes: effects of anti-hyperglycaemic drug therapy. Lancet 385 (2015), 2107–2117.
120. Abaci, A., Oguzhan, A., Kahraman, S., et al. Effect of diabetes mellitus on formation of coronary collateral vessels. Circulation 99 (1999), 2239–2242.
121. Murcia, A.M., Hennekens, C.H., Lamas, G.A., et al. Impact of diabetes on mortality in patients with myocardial infarction and left ventricular dysfunction. Arch Intern Med 164 (2004), 2273–2279.
122. Alegria, J.R., Miller, T.D., Gibbons, R.J., Yi, Q.-L., Yusuf, S., Infarct size, ejection fraction, and mortality in diabetic patients with acute myocardial infarction treated with thrombolytic therapy. Am Heart J 154 (2007), 743–750.
123. Lee, T.-M., Chou, T.-F., Impairment of myocardial protection in type 2 diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 (2003), 531–537.
124. Tocci, G., Sciarretta, S., Volpe, M., Development of heart failure in recent hypertension trials. J Hypertens 26 (2008), 1477–1486.
125. Jia, G., Demarco, V.G., Sowers, J.R., Drive, O.H., Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinaemia in diabetic cardiomyopathy. Nat Rev Endocrinol 12 (2016), 144–153.
126. Rubler, S., Dlugash, J., Yuceoglu, Y.Z., Kumral, T., Branwood, A.W., Grishman, A., New type of cardiomyopathy associated with diabetic glomerulosclerosis. Am J Cardiol 30 (1972), 595–602.
127. Seferović, P.M., Paulus, W.J., Clinical diabetic cardiomyopathy: a two-faced disease with restrictive and dilated phenotypes. Eur Heart J 36 (2015), 1718–1727.
128. Rutter, M.K., Parise, H., Benjamin, E.J., et al. Impact of glucose intolerance and insulin resistance on cardiac structure and function: sex-related differences in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 107 (2003), 448–454.
129. Kishi, S., Gidding, S.S., Reis, J.P., et al. Association of insulin resistance and glycemic metabolic abnormalities with LV structure and function in middle age: the CARDIA study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 10 (2017), 105–114.
130. Velagaleti, R.S., Gona, P., Chuang, M.L., et al. Relations of insulin resistance and glycemic abnormalities to cardiovascular magnetic resonance measures of cardiac structure and function the Framingham Heart Study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 3 (2010), 257–263.
131. Heckbert, S.R., Post, W., Pearson, G.D.N., et al. Traditional cardiovascular risk factors in relation to left ventricular mass, volume, and systolic function by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. The multiethnic study of atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 48 (2006), 2285–2292.
132. Boyer, J.K., Thanigaraj, S., Schechtman, K.B., Pérez, J.E., Prevalence of ventricular diastolic dysfunction in asymptomatic, normotensive patients with diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 93 (2004), 870–875.
133. Ernande, L., Rietzschel, E.R., Bergerot, C., et al. Impaired myocardial radial function in asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a speckle-tracking imaging study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 23 (2010), 1266–1272.
134. Ng, A.C.T., Delgado, V., Bertini, M., et al. Findings from left ventricular strain and strain rate imaging in asymptomatic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 104 (2009), 1398–1401.
135. Bluemke, D.A., Kronmal, R.A., Lima, J.A.C., et al. The relationship of left ventricular mass and geometry to incident cardiovascular events: The MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis) Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 52 (2008), 2148–2155.
136. Kalam, K., Otahal, P., Marwick, T.H., Prognostic implications of global LV dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis of global longitudinal strain and ejection fraction. Heart 100 (2014), 1673–1680.
137. Sharma, S., Adrogue, J.V., Golfman, L., et al. Intramyocardial lipid accumulation in the failing human heart resembles the lipotoxic rat heart. FASEB J 18 (2004), 1692–1700.
138. Marcovina, S.M., Sirtori, C., Peracino, A., et al. Translating the basic knowledge of mitochondrial functions to metabolic therapy: role of L-carnitine. Transl Res 161 (2013), 73–84.
139. Peterson, L.R., Herreo, P., Schechtman, K.B., et al. Effect of obesity and insulin resistance on myocardial substrate metabolism and efficiency in young women. Circulation 109 (2004), 2191–2196.
140. Xu, J., Zhou, Q., Xu, W., Cai, L., Endoplasmic reticulum stress and diabetic cardiomyopathy. Exp Diabetes Res, 2012, 2012, 827971.
141. Hartog, J.W., Voors, A.A., Bakker, S.J., Smit, A.J., van Veldhuisen, D.J., Advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) and heart failure: pathophysiology and clinical implications. Eur J Heart Fail 9 (2007), 1146–1155.
142. Semba, R.D., Sun, K., Schwartz, A.V., et al. Serum carboxymethyl-lysine, an advanced glycation end product, is associated with arterial stiffness in older adults. J Hypertens 33 (2015), 797–803 [discussion 803].
143. Piperi, C., Adamopoulos, C., Dalagiorgou, G., Diamanti-Kandarakis, E., Papavassiliou, A.G., Crosstalk between advanced glycation and endoplasmic reticulum stress: emerging therapeutic targeting for metabolic diseases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (2012), 2231–2242.
144. Lazo, M., Halushka, M.K., Shen, L., et al. Soluble receptor for advanced glycation end products and the risk for incident heart failure: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Am Heart J 170 (2015), 961–967.
145. Adler, A.I., Stratton, I.M., Neil, H.A.W., et al. Association of systolic blood pressure with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 36): prospective observational study. Br Med J 321 (2000), 412–419.
146. Emdin, C.A., Rahimi, K., Neal, B., Callender, T., Perkovic, V., Patel, A., Blood pressure lowering in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Med Assoc 313 (2015), 603–615.
147. James, P.A., Oparil, S., Carter, B.L., et al. Evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults. J Am Med Assoc 311 (2014), 507–520.
148. Cushman, W.C., Evans, G.W., Byington, R.P., et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 362 (2010), 1575–1585.
149. Bangalore, S., Fakheri, R., Toklu, B., Messerli, F.H., Diabetes mellitus as a compelling indication for use of renin angiotensin system blockers: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Br Med J, 352, 2016, i438.
150. Lu, W., Resnick, H.E., Jablonski, K.A., et al. Non-HDL cholesterol as a predictor of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: the Strong Heart Study. Diabetes Care 26 (2003), 16–23.
151. Collins, R., Armitage, J., Parish, S., et al. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin in 5963 people with diabetes: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 361 (2003), 2005–2016.
152. Pyörälä, K., Pedersen, T.R., Kjekshus, J., Faergeman, O., Olsson, A.G., Thorgeirsson, G., Cholesterol lowering with simvastatin improves prognosis of diabetic patients with coronary heart disease: a subgroup analysis of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Diabetes Care 20 (1997), 614–620.
153. Goldberg, R.B., Mellies, M.J., Sacks, F.M., et al. Cardiovascular events and their reduction with pravastatin in diabetic and glucose-intolerant myocardial infarction survivors with average cholesterol levels: subgroup analyses in the Cholesterol And Recurrent Events (CARE) Trial. Circulation 98 (1998), 2513–2519.
154. Colhoun, H.M., Durrington, P.N., Hitman, G.A., et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 364 (2004), 685–696.
155. Knopp, R.H., d'Emden, M., Smilde, J.G., Pocock, S.J., Efficacy and safety of atorvastatin in the prevention of cardiovascular end points in subjects with type 2 diabetes The Atorvastatin Study for Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease Endpoints in Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (ASPEN). Diabetes Care 29 (2006), 1478–1485.
156. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists (CTT) Collaborators. Efficacy of cholesterol-lowering therapy in 18,686 people with diabetes in 14 randomised trials of statins: a meta-analysis. Lancet 371 (2008), 117–125.
157. Stone, N.J., Robinson, J.G., Lichtenstein, A.H., et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines. Circulation 129:25 suppl 1 (2014), 2889–2934.
158. Rajpathak, S.N., Kumbhani, D.J., Crandall, J., Barzilai, N., Alderman, M., Ridker, P.M., Statin therapy and risk of developing type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 32 (2009), 1924–1929.
159. Sattar, N., Preiss, D., Murray, H.M., et al. Statins and risk of incident diabetes: a collaborative meta-analysis of randomised statin trials. Lancet 375 (2010), 735–742.
160. Preiss, D., Seshasai, S.R.K., Welsh, P., et al. Risk of incident diabetes with intensive-dose compared with moderate-dose statin therapy. J Am Med Assoc 305 (2011), 2556–2564.
161. Cannon, C.P., Blazing, M.A., Giugliano, R.P., et al. Ezetimibe added to statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 372 (2015), 2387–2397.
162. Giugliano, R.P., Sabatine, M.S., Are PCSK9 inhibitors the next breakthrough in the cardiovascular field?. J Am Coll Cardiol 65 (2015), 2638–2651.
163. Sabatine, M.S., Giugliano, R.P., Wiviott, S.D., et al. Efficacy and safety of evolocumab in reducing lipids and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 372 (2015), 1500–1509.
164. Robinson, J.G., Farnier, M., Krempf, M., et al. Efficacy and safety of alirocumab in reducing lipids and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 372 (2015), 1489–1499.
165. Sattar, N., Preiss, D., Robinson, J.G., et al. Lipid-lowering efficacy of the PCSK9 inhibitor evolocumab (AMG 145) in patients with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 4 (2016), 403–410.
166. Lavie, C.J., De Schutter, A., Parto, P., et al. Obesity and prevalence of cardiovascular diseases and prognosis—the obesity paradox updated. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 58 (2016), 537–547.
167. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 346 (2002), 393–403.
168. Tuomilehto, J., Lindström, J., Eriksson, J.G., et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 344 (2001), 1343–1350.
169. U.K. Prospective Diabetes Study 7: response of fasting plasma glucose to diet therapy in newly presenting type II diabetic patients, UKPDS Group. Metabolism 39 (1990), 905–912.
170. Pastors, J.G., Warshaw, H., Daly, A., Franz, M., Kulkarni, K., The evidence for the effectiveness of medical nutrition therapy in diabetes management. Diabetes Care 25 (2002), 608–613.
171. Ades, P.A., Savage, P.D., Potential benefits of weight loss in coronary heart disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 56 (2014), 448–456.
172. Wing, R.R., Long-term effects of a lifestyle intervention on weight and cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus: four-year results of the Look AHEAD trial. Arch Intern Med 170 (2010), 1566–1575.
173. Sjostrom, C.D., Peltonen, M., Sjostrom, L., Blood pressure and pulse pressure during long-term weight loss in the obese: the Swedish Obese Subjects (SOS) Intervention Study. Obes Res 9 (2001), 188–195.
174. Dattilo, A.M., Kris-Etherton, P.M., Effects of weight reduction on blood lipids and lipoproteins: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 56 (1992), 320–328.
175. The Look AHEAD Research Group. Cardiovascular effects of intensive lifestyle intervention in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 369 (2013), 145–154.
176. Look AHEAD Research Group, Gregg, E., Jakicic, J., et al. Association of the magnitude of weight loss and changes in physical fitness with long-term cardiovascular disease outcomes in overweight or obese people with type 2 diabetes: a post-hoc analysis of the Look AHEAD randomised clinical trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 4 (2016), 913–921.
177. Flegal, K.M., Kruszon-Moran, D., Carroll, M.D., Fryar, C.D., Ogden, C.L., Trends in obesity among adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. J Am Med Assoc 315 (2016), 2284–2291.
178. Courcoulas, A.P., Yanovski, S.Z., Bonds, D., et al. Long-term outcomes of bariatric surgery: a National Institutes of Health symposium. JAMA Surg 149 (2014), 1323–1329.
179. Shin, S.-H., Lee, Y.J., Heo, Y.-S., et al. Beneficial effects of bariatric surgery on cardiac structure and function in obesity. Obes Surg 27 (2017), 620–625.
180. Sjöström, L., Peltonen, M., Jacobson, P., et al. Bariatric surgery and long-term cardiovascular events. J Am Med Assoc, 307, 2012, 56.
181. Kwok, C.S., Pradhan, A., Khan, M.A., et al. Bariatric surgery and its impact on cardiovascular disease and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 173 (2014), 20–28.
182. Sluik, D., Buijsse, B., Muckelbauer, R., et al. Physical activity and mortality in individuals with diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med 172 (2012), 1285–1295.
183. Snowling, N.J., Hopkins, W.G., Effects of different modes of exercise training on glucose control and risk factors for complications in type 2 diabetic patients: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 29 (2006), 2518–2527.
184. Lee, D.C., Pate, R.R., Lavie, C.J., Sui, X., Church, T.S., Blair, S.N., Leisure-time running reduces all-cause and cardiovascular mortality risk. J Am Coll Cardiol 64 (2014), 472–481.
185. Hu, G., Eriksson, J., Barengo, N.C., et al. Occupational, commuting, and leisure-time physical activity in relation to total and cardiovascular mortality among Finnish subjects with type 2 diabetes. Circulation 110 (2004), 666–673.
186. Gregg, E.W., Gerzoff, R.B., Caspersen, C.J., Williamson, D.F., Narayan, K.M., Relationship of walking to mortality among US adults with diabetes. Arch Intern Med, 163, 2003, 1440.
187. Sigal, R.J., Kenny, G.P., Boulé, N.G., et al. Effects of aerobic training, resistance training, or both on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 147 (2007), 357–369.
188. Colberg, S.R., Sigal, R.J., Fernhall, B., et al. Exercise and type 2 diabetes: The American College of Sports Medicine and the American Diabetes Association: joint position statement. Diabetes Care 33 (2010), 147–167.
189. Qin, R., Chen, T., Lou, Q., Yu, D., Excess risk of mortality and cardiovascular events associated with smoking among patients with diabetes: meta-analysis of observational prospective studies. Int J Cardiol 167 (2013), 342–350.
190. Gerber, P.A., Locher, R., Schmid, B., Spinas, G.A., Lehmann, R., Smoking is associated with impaired long-term glucose metabolism in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 23 (2013), 102–108.
191. Kar, D., Gillies, C., Zaccardi, F., et al. Relationship of cardiometabolic parameters in non-smokers, current smokers, and quitters in diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diabetol, 15, 2016, 158.
192. Pan, A., Wang, Y., Talaei, M., Hu, F.B., Wu, T., Relation of active, passive, and quitting smoking with incident type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 3 (2015), 958–967.
193. Blomster, J.I., Woodward, M., Zoungas, S., et al. The harms of smoking and benefits of smoking cessation in women compared with men with type 2 diabetes: an observational analysis of the ADVANCE (Action in Diabetes and Vascular Disease: Preterax and Diamicron modified release Controlled Evaluation) trial. BMJ Open, 6, 2016, e009668.
194. Yeh, H.-C., Duncan, B.B., Schmidt, M.I., Wang, N.-Y., Brancati, F.L., Smoking cessation, and risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 152 (2010), 10–17.
195. Stein, J.H., Asthana, A., Smith, S.S., et al. Smoking cessation and the risk of diabetes mellitus and impaired fasting glucose: three-year outcomes after a quit attempt. PLoS One, 9, 2014, e98278.
196. Capodanno, D., Angiolillo, D.J., Aspirin for primary cardiovascular risk prevention and beyond in diabetes mellitus. Circulation 134 (2016), 1579–1594.
197. Derosa, G., Mugellini, A., Pesce, R.M., D'angelo, A., Maffioli, P., A study about the relevance of adding acetylsalicylic acid in primary prevention in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus: effects on some new emerging biomarkers of cardiovascular risk. Cardiovasc Diabetol 14 (2015), 1–8.
198. Antithrombotic Trialists’ (ATT) Collaboration. Aspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease: collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised trials. Lancet 373 (2009), 1849–1860.
199. Kunutsor, S.K., Seidu, S., Khunti, K., Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality events in diabetes: updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Diabet Med 34 (2017), 316–327.
200. Ikeda, Y., Shimada, K., Teramoto, T., et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in Japanese patients 60 years or older with atherosclerotic risk factors. J Am Med Assoc 312 (2014), 2510–2520.
201. Saito, Y., Okada, S., Ogawa, H., et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in patients with Type 2 diabetes: 10-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. Circulation 135 (2017), 659–670.
202. Piepoli, M.F., Hoes, A.W., Agewall, S., et al. 2016 European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Eur Heart J 37 (2016), 2315–2381.
203. Coutinho, M., Gerstein, H.C., Wang, Y., Yusuf, S., The relationship between glucose and incident cardiovascular events. A metaregression analysis of published data from 20 studies of 95,783 individuals followed for 12.4 years. Diabetes Care 22 (1999), 233–240.
204. Qiao, Q., Pyörälä, K., Pyörälä, M., et al. Two-hour glucose is a better risk predictor for incident coronary heart disease and cardiovascular mortality than fasting glucose. Eur Heart J 23 (2002), 1267–1275.
205. Anand, S.S., Dagenais, G.R., Mohan, V., et al. Glucose levels are associated with cardiovascular disease and death in an international cohort of normal glycaemic and dysglycaemic men and women: the EpiDREAM cohort study. Eur J Prev Cardiol 19 (2012), 755–764.
206. Selvin, E., Marinopoulos, S., Berkenblit, G., et al. Meta-analysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 141 (2004), 421–431.
207. Gerstein, H.C., Islam, S., Anand, S., et al. Dysglycaemia and the risk of acute myocardial infarction in multiple ethnic groups: an analysis of 15,780 patients from the INTERHEART study. Diabetologia 53 (2010), 2509–2517.
208. Stratton, I.M., Adler, A.I., Neil, H.A., et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. Br Med J 321 (2000), 405–412.
209. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet 352 (1998), 837–853.
210. Holman, R.R., Paul, S.K., Bethel, M.A., Matthews, D.R., Neil, H.A.W., 10-Year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 359 (2008), 1577–1589.
211. Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group, Gerstein, H.C., Miller, M.E., et al. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 358 (2008), 2545–2559.
212. ADVANCE Collaborative Group, Patel, A., MacMahon, S., et al. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 358 (2008), 2560–2572.
213. Zoungas, S., Chalmers, J., Neal, B., et al. Follow-up of blood-pressure lowering and glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 371 (2014), 1392–1406.
214. Hayward, R.A., Reaven, P.D., Wiitala, W.L., et al. Follow-up of glycemic control and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 372 (2015), 2197–2206.
215. ORIGIN Trial Investigators, Gerstein, H.C., Bosch, J., et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med 367 (2012), 319–328.
216. ORIGIN Trial Investigators. Cardiovascular and Other Outcomes Postintervention With Insulin Glargine and Omega-3 Fatty Acids (ORIGINALE). Diabetes Care 39 (2016), 709–716.
217. Heerspink, H.J.L., Perkins, B.A., Fitchett, D.H., Husain, M., Cherney, D.Z.I., Sodium glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in the treatment of diabetes mellitus: cardiovascular and kidney effects, potential mechanisms, and clinical applications. Circulation 134 (2016), 752–772.
218. Zinman, B., Wanner, C., Lachin, J.M., et al. Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 373 (2015), 2117–2128.
219. Vilsbøll, T., Christensen, M., Junker, A.E., Knop, F.K., Gluud, L.L., Effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists on weight loss: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. Br Med J, 344, 2012, d7771.
220. Marso, S.P., Daniels, G.H., Brown-Frandsen, K., et al. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 375 (2016), 311–322.
221. Marso, S.P., Bain, S.C., Consoli, A., et al. Semaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 375 (2016), 1834–1844.
222. White, W.B., Cannon, C.P., Heller, S.R., et al. Alogliptin after acute coronary syndrome in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 369 (2013), 1327–1335.
223. Scirica, B.M., Bhatt, D.L., Braunwald, E., et al. Saxagliptin and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 369 (2013), 1317–1326.
224. Green, J.B., Bethel, M.A., Armstrong, P.W., et al. Effect of sitagliptin on cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 373 (2015), 232–242.
225. McGuire, D.K., Van de Werf, F., Armstrong, P.W., et al. Association between sitagliptin use and heart failure hospitalization and related outcomes in type 2 diabetes mellitus: secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol 1 (2016), 126–135.
226. Fullerton, B., Jeitler, K., Seitz, M., Horvath, K., Berghold, A., Siebenhofer, A., Intensive glucose control versus conventional glucose control for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2014 CD009122.
227. Nathan, D.M., Cleary, P.A., Backlund, J.-Y.C., et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 353 (2005), 2643–2653.
228. Lachin, J.M., Orchard, T.J., Nathan, D.M., Update on cardiovascular outcomes at 30 years of the diabetes control and complications trial/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study. Diabetes Care 37 (2014), 39–43.
229. Writing Group for the DERG, Orchard, T.J., Nathan, D.M., et al. Association between 7 years of intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes and long-term mortality. J Am Med Assoc 313 (2015), 45–53.
230. Eeg-Olofsson, K., Cederholm, J., PM, N., et al. Glycemic control and cardiovascular disease in 7454 patients with type 1 diabetes: an observational study from the Swedish National Diabetes Register (NDR). Diabetes Care 33 (2010), 1640–1646.
231. Marcus, L., Ann-Marie, S., Mikhail, K., et al. Glycemic control and excess mortality in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 21371 (2014), 1972–1982.
232. Plotnick, L.P., Clark, L.M., Brancati, F.L., Erlinger, T., Safety and effectiveness of insulin pump therapy in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 26 (2003), 1142–1146.
233. Steineck, I., Cederholm, J., Eliasson, B., et al. Insulin pump therapy, multiple daily injections, and cardiovascular mortality in 18,168 people with type 1 diabetes: observational study. Br Med J, 350, 2015, h3234.
234. Groop, P.-H., Thomas, M.C., Moran, J.L., et al. The presence and severity of chronic kidney disease predicts all-cause mortality in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes 58 (2009), 1651–1658.
235. Gerstein, H.C., Mann, J., Yi, Q., et al. Albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular events, death, and heart failure. J Am Med Assoc 286 (2001), 421–426.
236. Menne, J., Ritz, E., Ruilope, L.M., Chatzikyrkou, C., Viberti, G., Haller, H., The Randomized Olmesartan and Diabetes Microalbuminuria Prevention (ROADMAP) observational follow-up study: benefits of RAS blockade with olmesartan treatment are sustained after study discontinuation. J Am Heart Assoc, 3, 2014, e000810.
237. Wachtell, K., Ibsen, H., Olsen, M.H., et al. Albuminuria and cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy: the LIFE study. Ann Intern Med 139 (2003), 901–906.
238. de Zeeuw, D., Remuzzi, G., Parving, H.-H., et al. Albuminuria, a therapeutic target for cardiovascular protection in type 2 diabetic patients with nephropathy. Circulation 110 (2004), 921–927.
239. Estacio, R.O., Dale, R. a, Schrier, R., Krantz, M.J., Relation of reduction in urinary albumin excretion to ten-year cardiovascular mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes and systemic hypertension. Am J Cardiol 109 (2012), 1743–1748.