Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Vascular Diseases

Comprehensive Physiology

Volumn 6, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 1519-1528

  Baltzis, Dimitrios ^a   Bakker, Jessie P ^a   Patel, Sanjay R ^a   Veves, Aristidis ^a  

^a HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPLICATION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; RISK FACTOR; SLEEP APNEA, OBSTRUCTIVE; VASCULAR DISEASES; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM;

CONTINUOUS POSITIVE AIRWAY PRESSURE; ENDOTHELIUM, VASCULAR; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; RISK FACTORS; SLEEP APNEA, OBSTRUCTIVE; VASCULAR DISEASES;

EID: 85012987113     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20404603     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/CPHY.C150029     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Aihara K, Oga T, Chihara Y, Harada Y, Tanizawa K, Handa T, Hit-omi T, Uno K, Mishima M, Chin K. Analysis of systemic and airway inflammation in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 17: 597-604, 2013.
2. Aihara K, Oga T, Harada Y, Chihara Y, Handa T, Tanizawa K, Watan-abe K, Hitomi T, Tsuboi T, Mishima M, Chin K. Analysis of anatomical and functional determinants of obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 16: 473-481, 2012.
3. Arnaud C, Dematteis M, Pepin JL, Baguet JP, Levy P. Obstructive sleep apnea, immuno-inflammation, and atherosclerosis. Semin Immunopathol 31: 113-125, 2009.
4. Atkeson A, Jelic S. Mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea. Vasc Health Risk Manag 4: 1327-1335, 2008.
5. Badran M, Ayas N, Laher I. Cardiovascular complications of sleep apnea: Role of oxidative stress. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2014: 985258, 2014.
6. Baessler A, Nadeem R, Harvey M, Madbouly E, Younus A, Sajid H, Naseem J, Asif A, Bawaadam H. Treatment for sleep apnea by continuous positive airway pressure improves levels of inflammatory markers-a meta-analysis. J Inflamm (Lond) 10: 13, 2013.
7. Bakker JP, Campana LM, Montesi SB, Balachandran J, Deyoung PN, Smales E, Patel SR, Malhotra A. A pilot study investigating the effects of continuous positive airway pressure treatment and weight-loss surgery on autonomic activity in obese obstructive sleep apnea patients. Journal of Electrocardiology 47: 364-373, 2014.
8. Bakker JP, Edwards BA, Gautam SP, Montesi SB, Duran-Cantolla J, Aizpuru F, Barbe F, Sanchez-de-la-Torre M, Malhotra A. Blood pressure improvement with continuous positive airway pressure is independent of obstructive sleep apnea severity. J Clin Sleep Med 10: 365-369, 2014.
9. Baltzis D, Bakker JP, Auster M, Tellechea A, Eleftheriadou I, Ostrovsky Y, Malhotra A, Patel SR, Veves A. Type 2 diabetes and obstructive sleep apnea synergistically affect endothelial function. Diabetes 63(1): A116, 2014.
10. Betteridge DJ. What is oxidative stress? Metabolism 49: 3-8, 2000.
11. Bonetti PO, Lerman LO, Lerman A. Endothelial dysfunction: A marker of atherosclerotic risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23: 168-175, 2003.
12. Bradley TD, Floras JS. Obstructive sleep apnoea and its cardiovascular consequences. Lancet 373: 82-93, 2009.
13. Buchner NJ, Quack I, Woznowski M, Stahle C, Wenzel U, Rump LC. Microvascular endothelial dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea is caused by oxidative stress and improved by continuous positive airway pressure therapy. Respiration 82: 409-417, 2011.
14. Budhiraja R, Parthasarathy S, Quan SF. Endothelial dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin Sleep Med 3: 409-415, 2007.
15. Camacho M, Teixeira J, Abdullatif J, Acevedo JL, Certal V, Capasso R, Powell NB. Maxillomandibular advancement and tracheostomy for morbidly obese obstructive sleep apnea: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 152: 619-630, 2015.
16. Campos-Rodriguez F, Martinez-Garcia MA, Reyes-Nunez N, Caballero-Martinez I, Catalan-Serra P, Almeida-Gonzalez CV. Role of sleep apnea and continuous positive airway pressure therapy in the incidence of stroke or coronary heart disease in women. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 189: 1544-1550, 2014.
17. Cappuccio FP, Cooper D, D’Elia L, Strazzullo P, Miller MA. Sleep duration predicts cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur Heart J 32: 1484-1492, 2011.
18. Carlson JT, Hedner J, Elam M, Ejnell H, Sellgren J, Wallin BG. Aug-mented resting sympathetic activity in awake patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 103: 1763-1768, 1993.
19. Casey KR. Heart failure, central sleep apnea, CPAP, and arousals: Another piece of the puzzle. Sleep 32: 13-14, 2009.
20. Celen YT, Peker Y. Cardiovascular consequences of sleep apnea: I-epidemiology. Anadolu Kardiyol Derg 10: 75-80, 2010.
21. Chiner E, Andreu AL, Sancho-Chust JN, Sanchez-de-la-Torre A, Barbe F. The use of ambulatory strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in adults. Expert Rev Respir Med 7: 259-273, 2013.
22. Christou K, Moulas AN, Pastaka C, Gourgoulianis KI. Antioxidant capacity in obstructive sleep apnea patients. Sleep Med 4: 225-228, 2003.
23. Ciccone MM, Scicchitano P, Zito A, Cortese F, Boninfante B, Falcone VA, Quaranta VN, Ventura VA, Zucano A, Di Serio F, Damiani MF, Resta O. Correlation between inflammatory markers of atherosclerosis and carotid intima-media thickness in Obstructive Sleep Apnea. Molecules 19: 1651-1662, 2014.
24. Conte MS, Belkin M, Upchurch GR, Mannick JA, Whittemore AD, Donaldson MC. Impact of increasing comorbidity on infrain-guinal reconstruction: A 20-year perspective. Ann Surg 233: 445-452, 2001.
25. de la Pena M, Barcelo A, Barbe F, Pierola J, Pons J, Rimbau E, Ayllon O, Agusti AG. Endothelial function and circulating endothelial progenitor cells in patients with sleep apnea syndrome. Respiration 76: 28-32, 2008.
26. Dempsey JA, Veasey SC, Morgan BJ, O’Donnell CP. Pathophysiology of sleep apnea. Physiol Rev 90: 47-112, 2010.
27. Dewan NA, Nieto FJ, Somers VK. Intermittent hypoxemia and OSA: Implications for comorbidities. Chest 147: 266-274, 2015.
28. Dong JY, Zhang YH, Qin LQ. Obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular risk: Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Atherosclerosis 229: 489-495, 2013.
29. Drager LF, Bortolotto LA, Figueiredo AC, Silva BC, Krieger EM, Lorenzi-Filho G. Obstructive sleep apnea, hypertension, and their inter-action on arterial stiffness and heart remodeling. Chest 131: 1379-1386, 2007.
30. Dronavalli S, Duka I, Bakris GL. The pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 4: 444-452, 2008.
31. Dziewas R, Ritter M, Usta N, Boentert M, Hor H, Dittrich R, Schabitz WR, Ringelstein EB, Young P. Atherosclerosis and obstructive sleep apnea in patients with ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 24: 122-126, 2007.
32. Eckert DJ, Malhotra A. Pathophysiology of adult obstructive sleep apnea. Proc Am Thorac Soc 5: 144-153, 2008.
33. Edwards KM, Tomfohr LM, Mills PJ, Bosch JA, Ancoli-Israel S, Loredo JS, Dimsdale J. Macrophage migratory inhibitory factor (MIF) may be a key factor in inflammation in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 34: 161-163, 2011.
34. Epstein LJ, Kristo D, Strollo PJ, Jr., Friedman N, Malhotra A, Patil SP, Ramar K, Rogers R, Schwab RJ, Weaver EM, Weinstein MD, Adult Obstructive Sleep Apnea Task Force of the American Academy of Sleep M. Clinical guideline for the evaluation, management and long-term care of obstructive sleep apnea in adults. J Clin Sleep Med 5: 263-276, 2009.
35. Feng J, Zhang D, Chen B. Endothelial mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 16: 283-294, 2012.
36. Fletcher EC. Effect of episodic hypoxia on sympathetic activity and blood pressure. Respir Physiol 119: 189-197, 2000.
37. Floras JS. Clinical aspects of sympathetic activation and parasympa-thetic withdrawal in heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 22: 72A-84A, 1993.
38. Foster GE, Poulin MJ, Hanly PJ. Intermittent hypoxia and vascular function: Implications for obstructive sleep apnoea. Exp Physiol 92: 51-65, 2007.
39. Franklin SS. Arterial stiffness and hypertension: A two-way street? Hypertension 45: 349-351, 2005.
40. Gilat H, Vinker S, Buda I, Soudry E, Shani M, Bachar G. Obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular comorbidities: A large epidemiologic study. Medicine (Baltimore) 93: e45, 2014.
41. Gonchar O, Mankovska I. Moderate hypoxia/hyperoxia attenuates acute hypoxia-induced oxidative damage and improves antioxidant defense in lung mitochondria. Acta Physiol Hung 99: 436-446, 2012.
42. Gottlieb DJ, Yenokyan G, Newman AB, O’Connor GT, Punjabi NM, Quan SF, Redline S, Resnick HE, Tong EK, Diener-West M, Shahar E. Prospective study of obstructive sleep apnea and incident coronary heart disease and heart failure: The sleep heart health study. Circulation 122: 352-360, 2010.
43. Greenberg HE, Sica A, Batson D, Scharf SM. Chronic intermittent hypoxia increases sympathetic responsiveness to hypoxia and hyper-capnia. J Appl Physiol 86: 298-305, 1999.
44. Guilleminault C, Quo SD. Sleep-disordered breathing. A view at the beginning of the new Millennium. Dent Clin North Am 45: 643-656, 2001.
45. Guo Y, Pan L, Ren D, Xie X. Impact of continuous positive airway pressure on C-reactive protein in patients with obstructive sleep apnea: A meta-analysis. Sleep Breath 17: 495-503, 2013.
46. Guven SF, Turkkani MH, Ciftci B, Ciftci TU, Erdogan Y. The relation-ship between high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels and the severity of obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 16: 217-221, 2012.
47. Haentjens P, Van Meerhaeghe A, Moscariello A, De Weerdt S, Poppe K, Dupont A, Velkeniers B. The impact of continuous positive airway pressure on blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: Evidence from a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials. Arch Intern Med 167: 757-764, 2007.
48. Hoyos CM, Melehan KL, Liu PY, Grunstein RR, Phillips CL. Does obstructive sleep apnea cause endothelial dysfunction? A critical review of the literature. Sleep Med Rev 20: 15-26, 2014.
49. Huang Z, Liu Z, Luo Q, Zhao Q, Zhao Z, Ma X, Liu W, Yang D. Long-term effects of continuous positive airway pressure on blood pressure and prognosis in hypertensive patients with coronary heart disease and obstructive sleep apnea: A randomized controlled trial. Am J Hypertens 28: 300-306, 2015.
50. Hussain SF, Irfan M, Waheed Z, Alam N, Mansoor S, Islam M. Com-pliance with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy for obstructive sleep apnea among privately paying patients-a cross sectional study. BMC Pulm Med 14: 188, 2014.
51. Imadojemu VA, Mawji Z, Kunselman A, Gray KS, Hogeman CS, Leuenberger UA. Sympathetic chemoreflex responses in obstructive sleep apnea and effects of continuous positive airway pressure therapy. Chest 131: 1406-1413, 2007.
52. Irwin MR, Olmstead R, Carroll JE. Sleep disturbance, sleep duration, and inflammation: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies and experimental sleep deprivation. Biol Psychiatry 2015 [Epub ahead of print].
53. Iturriaga R, Andrade DC, Del Rio R. Enhanced carotid body chemosen-sory activity and the cardiovascular alterations induced by intermittent hypoxia. Front Physiol 5: 468, 2014.
54. Jelic S, Le Jemtel TH. Inflammation, oxidative stress, and the vascular endothelium in obstructive sleep apnea. Trends Cardiovasc Med 18: 253-260, 2008.
55. Jurado-Gamez B, Bujalance Cabrera C, Caballero Ballesteros L, Marin Hinojosa C, Munoz Cabrera L, Perez-Jimenez F, Lopez-Miranda J. Association of cellular adhesion molecules and oxidative stress with endothelial function in obstructive sleep apnea. Intern Med 51: 363-368, 2012.
56. Jurado-Gamez B, Fernandez-Marin MC, Gomez-Chaparro JL, Munoz-Cabrera L, Lopez-Barea J, Perez-Jimenez F, Lopez-Miranda J. Rela-tionship of oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction in sleep apnoea. EurRespirJ37: 873-879, 2011.
57. Kasai T, Inoue K, Kumagai T, Kato M, Kawana F, Sagara M, Ishiwata S, Ohno M, Yamaguchi T, Momomura S, Narui K. Plasma pentraxin3 and arterial stiffness in men with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Hypertens 24: 401-407, 2011.
58. Katsoulis K, Kontakiotis T, Spanogiannis D, Vlachogiannis E, Kou-gioulis M, Gerou S, Daskalopoulou E. Total antioxidant status in patients with obstructive sleep apnea without comorbidities: The role of the severity of the disease. Sleep & Breathing = Schlaf & Atmung 15: 861-866, 2011.
59. Kohler M, Craig S, Nicoll D, Leeson P, Davies RJ, Stradling JR. Endothelial function and arterial stiffness in minimally symptomatic obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 178: 984-988, 2008.
60. Kohler M, Stradling JR. Mechanisms of vascular damage in obstructive sleep apnea. Nat Rev Cardiol 7: 677-685, 2010.
61. Kohli P, Balachandran JS, Malhotra A. Obstructive sleep apnea and the risk for cardiovascular disease. Curr Atheroscler Rep 13: 138-146, 2011.
62. Kushida CA, Littner MR, Hirshkowitz M, Morgenthaler TI, Alessi CA, Bailey D, Boehlecke B, Brown TM, Coleman J, Jr., Friedman L, Kapen S, Kapur VK, Kramer M, Lee-Chiong T, Owens J, Pancer JP, Swick TJ, Wise MS, American Academy of Sleep M. Practice parameters for the use of continuous and bilevel positive airway pressure devices to treat adult patients with sleep-related breathing disorders. Sleep 29: 375-380, 2006.
63. Kwon Y, Duprez DA, Jacobs DR, Nagayoshi M, McClelland RL, Sha-har E, Budoff M, Redline S, Shea S, Carr JJ, Lutsey PL. Obstructive sleep apnea and progression of coronary artery calcium: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis study. J Am Heart Assoc 3: e001241, 2014.
64. Kylintireas I, Craig S, Nethononda R, Kohler M, Francis J, Choudhury R, Stradling J, Neubauer S. Atherosclerosis and arterial stiffness in obstructive sleep apnea—a cardiovascular magnetic resonance study. Atherosclerosis 222: 483-489, 2012.
65. Landesberg G, Shatz V, Akopnik I, Wolf YG, Mayer M, Berlatzky Y, Weissman C, Mosseri M. Association of cardiac troponin, CK-MB, and postoperative myocardial ischemia with long-term survival after major vascular surgery. J Am Coll Cardiol 42: 1547-1554, 2003.
66. Lavie L. Oxidative stress—a unifying paradigm in obstructive sleep apnea and comorbidities. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 51: 303-312, 2009.
67. Lavie L. Oxidative stress in obstructive sleep apnea and intermittent hypoxia—revisited—the bad ugly and good: Implications to the heart and brain. Sleep Med Rev 20C: 27-45, 2015.
68. Lavie L. Oxidative stress inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 4: 1391-1403, 2012.
69. Lin QC, Chen LD, Yu YH, Liu KX, Gao SY. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome is associated with metabolic syndrome and inflammation. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 271: 825-831, 2014.
70. Loke YK, Brown JW, Kwok CS, Niruban A, Myint PK. Association of obstructive sleep apnea with risk of serious cardiovascular events: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 5: 720-728, 2012.
71. Lui MM, Lam DC, Ip MS. Significance of endothelial dysfunction in sleep-related breathing disorder. Respirology 18: 39-46, 2013.
72. Lurie A. Endothelial dysfunction in adults with obstructive sleep apnea. Adv Cardiol 46: 139-170, 2011.
73. Makarenko VV, Usatyuk PV, Yuan G, Lee MM, Nanduri J, Natarajan V, Kumar GK, Prabhakar NR. Intermittent hypoxia-induced endothelial barrier dysfunction requires ROS-dependent MAP kinase activation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 306: C745-752, 2014.
74. Marin JM, Agusti A, Villar I, Forner M, Nieto D, Carrizo SJ, Barbe F, Vicente E, Wei Y, Nieto FJ, Jelic S. Association between treated and untreated obstructive sleep apnea and risk of hypertension. JAMA 307: 2169-2176, 2012.
75. Marin JM, Carrizo SJ, Vicente E, Agusti AG. Long-term cardiovascular outcomes in men with obstructive sleep apnoea-hypopnoea with or without treatment with continuous positive airway pressure: An observational study. Lancet 365: 1046-1053, 2005.
76. Martin K, Stanchina M, Kouttab N, Harrington EO, Rounds S. Circulating endothelial cells and endothelial progenitor cells in obstructive sleep apnea. Lung 186: 145-150, 2008.
77. Martinez-Garcia MA, Campos-Rodriguez F, Catalan-Serra P, Soler-Cataluna JJ, Almeida-Gonzalez C, De la Cruz Moron I, Duran-Cantolla J, Montserrat JM. Cardiovascular mortality in obstructive sleep apnea in the elderly: Role of long-term continuous positive airway pressure treatment: A prospective observational study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 186: 909-916, 2012.
78. Martinez-Garcia MA, Campos-Rodriguez F, Soler-Cataluna JJ, Catalan-Serra P, Roman-Sanchez P, Montserrat JM. Increased incidence of nonfatal cardiovascular events in stroke patients with sleep apnoea: Effect of CPAP treatment. EurRespirJ39: 906-912, 2012.
79. Martinez-Garcia MA, Capote F, Campos-Rodriguez F, Lloberes P, Diaz de Atauri MJ, Somoza M, Masa JF, Gonzalez M, Sacristan L, Barbe F, Duran-Cantolla J, Aizpuru F, Manas E, Barreiro B, Mosteiro M, Cebrian JJ, de la Pena M, Garcia-Rio F, Maimo A, Zapater J, Hernandez C, Grau SanMarti N, Montserrat JM, Spanish Sleep N. Effect of CPAP on blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea and resistant hypertension: The HIPARCO randomized clinical trial. Jama 310: 2407-2415, 2013.
80. Martinez-Garcia MA, Soler-Cataluna JJ, Ejarque-Martinez L, Soriano Y, Roman-Sanchez P, Illa FB, Canal JM, Duran-Cantolla J. Continuous positive airway pressure treatment reduces mortality in patients with ischemic stroke and obstructive sleep apnea: A 5-year follow-up study. AmJRespirCritCareMed180: 36-41, 2009.
81. McEvoy RD, Anderson CS, Antic NA, Chen B, He Q, Heeley E, Huang S, Huang Y, Wang J, Zhong N. The sleep apnea cardiovascular end-points (SAVE) trial: Rationale and start-up phase. JThoracDis2: 138-143, 2010.
82. McNicholas WT. Arousal in the sleep apnoea syndrome: A mixed blessing? EurRespirJ12: 1239-1241, 1998.
83. Mooe T, Franklin KA, Holmstrom K, Rabben T, Wiklund U. Sleep-disordered breathing and coronary artery disease: Long-term prognosis. AmJRespirCritCareMed164: 1910-1913, 2001.
84. Munoz R, Duran-Cantolla J, Martinez-Vila E, Gallego J, Rubio R, Aizpuru F, De La Torre G. Severe sleep apnea and risk of ischemic stroke in the elderly. Stroke 37: 2317-2321, 2006.
85. Netzer N, Werner P, Jochums I, Lehmann M, Strohl KP. Blood flow of the middle cerebral artery with sleep-disordered breathing: Correlation with obstructive hypopneas. Stroke 29: 87-93, 1998.
86. Nieto FJ, Peppard PE, Young T, Finn L, Hla KM, Farre R. Sleep-disordered breathing and cancer mortality: Results from the Wisconsin Sleep Cohort Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 186: 190-194, 2012.
87. Paton JF, Ratcliffe L, Hering D, Wolf J, Sobotka PA, Narkiewicz K. Revelations about carotid body function through its pathological role in resistant hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 15: 273-280, 2013.
88. Paton JF, Sobotka PA, Fudim M, Engelman ZJ, Hart EC, McBryde FD, Abdala AP, Marina N, Gourine AV, Lobo M, Patel N, Burchell A, Ratcliffe L, Nightingale A. The carotid body as a therapeutic target for the treatment of sympathetically mediated diseases. Hypertension 61: 5-13, 2013.
89. Patt BT, Jarjoura D, Haddad DN, Sen CK, Roy S, Flavahan NA, Khayat RN. Endothelial dysfunction in the microcirculation of patients with obstructive sleep apnea. AmJRespirCritCareMed182: 1540-1545, 2010.
90. Peker Y, Glantz H, Thunstrom E, Kallryd A, Herlitz J, Ejdeback J. Rationale and design of the Randomized Intervention with CPAP in Coronary Artery Disease and Sleep Apnoea–RICCADSA trial. Scand Cardiovasc J 43: 24-31, 2009.
91. Peppard PE, Ward NR, Morrell MJ. The impact of obesity on oxygen desaturation during sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 180: 788-793, 2009.
92. Peppard PE, Young T, Barnet JH, Palta M, Hagen EW, Hla KM. Increased prevalence of sleep-disordered breathing in adults. Am J Epi-demiol 177: 1006-1014, 2013.
93. Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J. Longitudinal study of moderate weight change and sleep-disordered breathing. Jama 284: 3015-3021, 2000.
94. Pettersen KH, Bugenhagen SM, Nauman J, Beard DA, Omholt SW. Arterial stiffening provides sufficient explanation for primary hyper-tension. PLoS Comput Biol 10: e1003634, 2014.
95. Phillips CL, Butlin M, Wong KK, Avolio AP. Is obstructive sleep apnoea causally related to arterial stiffness? A critical review of the experimental evidence. Sleep Med Rev 17: 7-18, 2013.
96. Pialoux V, Hanly PJ, Foster GE, Brugniaux JV, Beaudin AE, Hartmann SE, Pun M, Duggan CT, Poulin MJ. Effects of exposure to intermittent hypoxia on oxidative stress and acute hypoxic ventilatory response in humans. AmJRespirCritCareMed180: 1002-1009, 2009.
97. Pickering TG. Arterial stiffness as a cause of resistant hypertension? J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 9: 390-395, 2007.
98. Priou P, Gagnadoux F, Tesse A, Mastronardi ML, Agouni A, Meslier N, Racineux JL, Martinez MC, Trzepizur W, Andriantsitohaina R. Endothelial dysfunction and circulating microparticles from patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Pathol 177: 974-983, 2010.
99. Punjabi NM, Shahar E, Redline S, Gottlieb DJ, Givelber R, Resnick HE. Sleep-disordered breathing, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance: The Sleep Heart Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 160: 521-530, 2004.
100. Querido JS, Sheel AW, Cheema R, Van Eeden S, Mulgrew AT, Ayas NT. Effects of 10 days of modest intermittent hypoxia on circulating measures of inflammation in healthy humans. Sleep Breath 16: 657-662, 2012.
101. Redline S, Yenokyan G, Gottlieb DJ, Shahar E, O’Connor GT, Resnick HE, Diener-West M, Sanders MH, Wolf PA, Geraghty EM, Ali T, Lebowitz M, Punjabi NM. Obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea and incident stroke: The sleep heart health study. AmJRespirCritCareMed 182: 269-277, 2010.
102. Redline S, Yenokyan G, Gottlieb DJ, Shahar E, O’Connor GT, Resnick HE, Diener-West M, Sanders MH, Wolf PA, Geraghty EM, Ali T, Lebowitz M, Punjabi NM. Obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea and incident stroke: The sleep heart health study. AmJRespirCritCareMed 182: 269-277, 2010.
103. Scorza FA, Cavalheiro EA, Scorza CA, Galduroz JC, Tufik S, Andersen ML. Sleep apnea and inflammation—getting a good night’s sleep with Omega-3 supplementation. Front Neurol 4: 193, 2013.
104. Shah NA, Yaggi HK, Concato J, Mohsenin V. Obstructive sleep apnea as a risk factor for coronary events or cardiovascular death. Sleep & breathing = Schlaf & Atmung 14: 131-136, 2010.
105. Shahar E, Whitney CW, Redline S, Lee ET, Newman AB, Nieto FJ, O’Connor GT, Boland LL, Schwartz JE, Samet JM. Sleep-disordered breathing and cardiovascular disease: Cross-sectional results of the Sleep Heart Health Study. AmJRespirCritCareMed163: 19-25, 2001.
106. Somers VK, Mark AL, Zavala DC, Abboud FM. Influence of ventilation and hypocapnia on sympathetic nerve responses to hypoxia in normal humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 67: 2095-2100, 1989.
107. Somers VK, White DP, Amin R, Abraham WT, Costa F, Culebras A, Daniels S, Floras JS, Hunt CE, Olson LJ, Pickering TG, Russell R, Woo M, Young T, American Heart Association Council for High Blood Pressure Research Professional Education Committee CoCC, American Heart Association Stroke C, American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular N, and American College of Cardiology F. Sleep apnea and cardiovascular disease: an American Heart Associa-tion/american College Of Cardiology Foundation Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association Council for High Blood Pressure Research Professional Education Committee, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke Council, and Council On Cardiovascular Nursing. In collaboration with the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National Center on Sleep Disorders Research (National Institutes of Health). Circulation 118: 1080-1111, 2008.
108. Spicuzza L, Caruso D, Di Maria G. Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome and its management. Ther Adv Chronic Dis 6: 273-285, 2015.
109. Stamatakis KA, Punjabi NM. Effects of sleep fragmentation on glucose metabolism in normal subjects. Chest 137: 95-101, 2010.
110. Stiefel P, Sanchez-Armengol MA, Villar J, Vallejo-Vaz A, Moreno-Luna R, Capote F. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, vascular pathol-ogy, endothelial function and endothelial cells and circulating micropar-ticles. Arch Med Res 44: 409-414, 2013.
111. Stradling JR, Craig SE, Kohler M, Nicoll D, Ayers L, Nunn AJ, Bratton DJ. Markers of inflammation: Data from the MOSAIC randomised trial of CPAP for minimally symptomatic OSA. Thorax 70: 181-182, 2014.
112. Strollo PJ, Jr., Rogers RM. Obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med 334: 99-104, 1996.
113. Strollo PJ, Jr., Soose RJ, Maurer JT, de Vries N, Cornelius J, Froy-movich O, Hanson RD, Padhya TA, Steward DL, Gillespie MB, Woodson BT, Van de Heyning PH, Goetting MG, Vanderveken OM, Feldman N, Knaack L, Strohl KP, Group ST. Upper-airway stim-ulation for obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med 370: 139-149, 2014.
114. Sutherland K, Vanderveken OM, Tsuda H, Marklund M, Gagnadoux F, Kushida CA, Cistulli PA. Oral appliance treatment for obstructive sleep apnea: An update. J Clin Sleep Med 10: 215-227, 2014.
115. Tahrani AA, Ali A, Raymond NT, Begum S, Dubb K, Altaf QA, Piya MK, Barnett AH, Stevens MJ. Obstructive sleep apnea and diabetic nephropathy: A cohort study. Diabetes Care 36: 3718-3725, 2013.
116. Tahrani AA, Ali A, Raymond NT, Begum S, Dubb K, Mughal S, Jose B, Piya MK, Barnett AH, Stevens MJ. Obstructive sleep apnea and diabetic neuropathy: A novel association in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 186: 434-441, 2012.
117. Tamisier R, Pepin JL, Remy J, Baguet JP, Taylor JA, Weiss JW, Levy P. 14 nights of intermittent hypoxia elevate daytime blood pressure and sympathetic activity in healthy humans. Eur Respir J 37: 119-128, 2011.
118. Tasali E, Leproult R, Ehrmann DA, Van Cauter E. Slow-wave sleep and the risk of type 2 diabetes in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105: 1044-1049, 2008.
119. Trzebski A. Arterial chemoreceptor reflex and hypertension. Hypertension 19: 562-566, 1992.
120. Utriainen KT, Airaksinen JK, Polo O, Laitio R, Pietila MJ, Scheinin H, Vahlberg T, Leino KA, Kentala ES, Jalonen JR, Hakovirta H, Parkkola R, Virtanen S, Laitio TT. Sleep apnoea is associated with major cardiac events in peripheral arterial disease. EurRespirJ43: 1652-1660, 2014.
121. Utriainen KT, Airaksinen JK, Polo O, Raitakari OT, Pietila MJ, Scheinin H, Helenius HY, Leino KA, Kentala ES, Jalonen JR, Hakovirta H, Salo TM, Laitio TT. Unrecognised obstructive sleep apnoea is com-mon in severe peripheral arterial disease. Eur Respir J 41: 616-620, 2013.
122. Vlachantoni IT, Dikaiakou E, Antonopoulos CN, Stefanadis C, Daskalopoulou SS, Petridou ET. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment for obstructive sleep apnea in arterial stiffness: A meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev 17: 19-28, 2013.
123. Wang X, Ouyang Y, Wang Z, Zhao G, Liu L, Bi Y. Obstructive sleep apnea and risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality: A meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Cardiol 169: 207-214, 2013.
124. Weaver TE, Grunstein RR. Adherence to continuous positive airway pressure therapy: The challenge to effective treatment. Proc Am Thorac Soc 5: 173-178, 2008.
125. Wozniak DR, Lasserson TJ, Smith I. Educational, supportive and behavioural interventions to improve usage of continuous positive airway pressure machines in adults with obstructive sleep apnoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 1: CD007736, 2014.
126. Xie W, Zheng F, Song X. Obstructive sleep apnea and serious adverse outcomes in patients with cardiovascular or cerebrovascular disease: A PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 93: e336, 2014.
127. Xie X, Pan L, Ren D, Du C, Guo Y. Effects of continuous positive airway pressure therapy on systemic inflammation in obstructive sleep apnea: A meta-analysis. Sleep Med 14: 1139-1150, 2013.
128. Yaggi HK, Concato J, Kernan WN, Lichtman JH, Brass LM, Mohsenin V. Obstructive sleep apnea as a risk factor for stroke and death. N Engl JMed353: 2034-2041, 2005.
129. Yim-Yeh S, Rahangdale S, Nguyen AT, Jordan AS, Novack V, Veves A, Malhotra A. Obstructive sleep apnea and aging effects on macrovascular and microcirculatory function. Sleep 33: 1177-1183, 2010.
130. Yim-Yeh S, Rahangdale S, Nguyen AT, Stevenson KE, Novack V, Veves A, Malhotra A. Vascular dysfunction in obstructive sleep apnea and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Obesity (Silver Spring) 19: 17-22, 2011.
131. Young T, Finn L, Peppard PE, Szklo-Coxe M, Austin D, Nieto FJ, Stubbs R, Hla KM. Sleep disordered breathing and mortality: Eighteen-year follow-up of the Wisconsin sleep cohort. Sleep 31: 1071-1078, 2008.
132. Young T, Skatrud J, Peppard PE. Risk factors for obstructive sleep apnea in adults. Jama 291: 2013-2016, 2004.
133. Zhou S, Wang Y, Tan Y, Cai X, Cai L, Cai J, Zheng Y. Deletion of metallothionein exacerbates intermittent hypoxia-induced oxidative and inflammatory injury in aorta. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2014: 141053, 2014.