Harm Mediates the Disgust-Immorality Link

Emotion

Volumn 16, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 862-876

  Schein, Chelsea ^a   Ritter, Ryan S ^b   Gray, Kurt ^a  

^a The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

Disgust; Dyadic morality; Ethics; Purity; Values

Indexed keywords

ANGER; CONCEPTION; DISGUST; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; MARRIAGE; MORALITY; PREDICTION; PSYCINFO; COGNITION; DECISION MAKING; EMOTION; FEMALE; PHYSIOLOGY;

COGNITION; EMOTIONS; FEMALE; HUMANS; JUDGMENT; MORALS;

EID: 84992309306     PISSN: 15283542     EISSN: 19311516     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/emo0000167     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Altemeyer, B. (1988). Enemies of freedom: Understanding right-wing authoritarianism. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
2. Barrett, L. F. (2006). Are emotions natural kinds? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 28-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916 .2006.00003.x
3. Barrett, L. F. (2009). The future of psychology: Connecting mind to brain. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 326-339. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01134.x
4. Barrett, L. F. (2013). Psychological construction: The Darwinian approach to the science of emotion. Emotion Review, 5, 379-389. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/1754073913489753
5. Brosnan, S. F., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2003). Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature, 425, 297-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature01963
6. Bryant, A. (1977). The Anita Bryant story: The survival of our nation's families and the threat of militant homosexuality. Grand Rapids, MI: Revell.
7. Buchtel, E. E., Guan, Y., Peng, Q., Su, Y., Sang, B., Chen, S. X., & Bond, M. H. (2015). Immorality East and West: Are Immoral Behaviors Especially Harmful, or Especially Uncivilized? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 1382-1394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0146167215595606
8. Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Larsen, J. T., Poehlmann, K. M., & Ito, T. A. (2000). The psychophysiology of emotion. In R. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), The handbook of emotion (2nd ed., 173-191). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
9. Cameron, C. D., Lindquist, K. A., & Gray, K. (2015). A constructionist review of morality and emotions: No evidence for specific links between moral content and discrete emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19, 371-394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868314566683
10. Chapman, H. A., & Anderson, A. K. (2012). Understanding disgust. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1251, 62-76. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06369.x
11. Cheng, J. S., Ottati, V. C., & Price, E. D. (2013). The arousal model of moral condemnation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 1012-1018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2013.06.006
12. Clifford, S., Iyengar, V., Cabeza, R., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2015). Moral foundations vignettes: A standardized stimulus database of scenarios based on moral foundations theory. Behavior Research Methods, 47, 1178-1198. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-014-0551-2
13. Crawford, J. T., Inbar, Y., & Maloney, V. (2014). Disgust sensitivity selectively predicts attitudes toward groups that threaten (or uphold) traditional sexual morality. Personality and Individual Differences, 70, 218-223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.07.001
14. Cushman, F. (2008). Crime and punishment: Distinguishing the roles of causal and intentional analyses in moral judgment. Cognition, 108, 353-380. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.03.006
15. Cushman, F., & Young, L. (2011). Patterns of moral judgment derive from nonmoral psychological representations. Cognitive Science, 35, 1052- 1075. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01167.x
16. Dehghani, M., Johnson, K., Hoover, J., Sagi, E., Garten, J., Parmar, N. J., . . . Graham, J. (2016). Purity homophily in social networks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 366-375. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/xge0000139
17. DeScioli, P., Gilbert, S., & Kurzban, R. (2012). Indelible victims and persistent punishers in moral cognition. Psychological Inquiry, 23, 143- 149. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2012.666199
18. Druker, S. (2015). Altered genes, twisted truth: How the venture to genetically engineer our food has subverted science, corrupted government, and systematically deceived the public. Salt Lake City, UT: Clear River Press.
19. Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699939208411068
20. Ekman, P., & Cordaro, D. (2011). What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emotion Review, 3, 364 -370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1754073911410740
21. Feinberg, M., & Willer, R. (2013). The moral roots of environmental attitudes. Psychological Science, 24, 56-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0956797612449177
22. Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science, 18, 233-239. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.x
23. Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (Eds.). (2015). Theory and explanation in social psychology. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Retrieved from http://www.guilford.com/excerpts/gawronski3.pdf
24. Gendron, M., Roberson, D., van der Vyver, J. M., & Barrett, L. F. (2014). Perceptions of emotion from facial expressions are not culturally universal: Evidence from a remote culture. Emotion, 14, 251-262. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036052
25. Govrin, A. (2014). The ABC of moral development: An attachment approach to moral judgment. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 6. http://dx.doi .org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00006
26. Graham, J. (2015). Explaining away differences in moral judgment: Comment on Gray & Keeney (2015). Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 869-873. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550615592242
27. Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S., Motyl, M., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S., & Ditto, P. (2013). Moral foundations theory: The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 55-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-7.00002-4
28. Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 1029-1046. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015141
29. Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 366-385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0021847
30. Gray, K. (2014). Harm concerns predict moral judgments of suicide: Comment on Rottman, Kelemen and Young (2014). Cognition, 133, 329-331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.06.007
31. Gray, K., & Keeney, J. E. (2015a). Disconfirming moral foundations theory on its own terms: Reply to Graham (2015). Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 874 - 877. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1948550615592243
32. Gray, K., & Keeney, J. E. (2015b). Impure, or just weird? Scenario sampling bias raises questions about the foundation of moral cognition. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 859-868. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/1948550615592241
33. Gray, K., & Schein, C. (2012). Two minds vs. two philosophies: Mind perception defines morality and dissolves the debate between deontology and utilitarianism. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 3, 405- 423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13164-012-0112-5
34. Gray, K., & Schein, C. (in press). No absolutism here: Harm predicts moral judgment 30x better than disgust-Commentary on Scott, Inbar & Rozin (2015). Perspectives on Psychological Science. Retrieved from http:// www.mpmlab.org/No%20Absolutism%20Here.pdf
35. Gray, K., Schein, C., & Ward, A. F. (2014). The myth of harmless wrongs in moral cognition: Automatic dyadic completion from sin to suffering. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 1600-1615. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036149
36. Gray, K., Waytz, A., & Young, L. (2012). The moral dyad: A fundamental template unifying moral judgment. Psychological Inquiry, 23, 206-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2012.686247
37. Gray, K., Young, L., & Waytz, A. (2012). Mind perception is the essence of morality. Psychological Inquiry, 23, 101-124. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1080/1047840X.2012.651387
38. Guglielmo, S., Monroe, A. E., & Malle, B. F. (2009). At the heart of morality lies folk psychology. Inquiry, 52, 449-466. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/00201740903302600
39. Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108, 814-834. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814
40. Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
41. Haidt, J., Bjorklund, F., & Murphy, S. (2000). Moral dumbfounding: When intuition finds no reason. Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA.
42. Haidt, J., Graham, J., & Ditto, P. (2015, October 28). The Volkswagen of moral psychology [Web blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.spsp .org/blog/dyadic-morality
43. Haidt, J., & Hersh, M. A. (2001). Sexual morality: The cultures and emotions of conservatives and liberals. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 191-221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001 .tb02489.x
44. Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2004). Intuitive ethics: How innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues. Daedalus, 133, 55-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/0011526042365555
45. Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. (2007). The moral mind: How five sets of innate intuitions guide the development of many culture-specific virtues, and perhaps even modules. In P. Carruthers, S. Laurence, & S. Stich (Eds.), The innate mind (Vol. 3, pp. 367-391). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
46. Haidt, J., Koller, S. H., & Dias, M. G. (1993). Affect, culture, and morality, or is it wrong to eat your dog? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 613- 628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.4 .613
47. Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 701-713. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7
48. Haslam, N. O. (1998). Natural kinds, human kinds, and essentialism. Social Research, 65, 291-314.
49. Hayes, A. F. (2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling. Retrieved from http://is.muni.cz/el/1423/podzim2014/PSY704/ 50497615/hayes_2012_navod_process.pdf
50. Henrich, J., Heine, S., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61-83. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
51. Horberg, E. J., Oveis, C., Keltner, D., & Cohen, A. B. (2009). Disgust and the moralization of purity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 963-976. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017423
52. Inbar, Y., & Pizarro, D. (2014). Pollution and purity in moral and political judgment. In J. Wright and H. Sarkissian (Eds.), Advances in experimental moral psychology: Affect, character, and commitments (pp. 111- 129). New York, NY: Continuum Press.
53. Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D. A., & Bloom, P. (2012). Disgusting smells cause decreased liking of gay men. Emotion, 12, 23-27. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/a0023984
54. Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D. A., Knobe, J., & Bloom, P. (2009). Disgust sensitivity predicts intuitive disapproval of gays. Emotion, 9, 435-439. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/a0015960
55. Janoff-Bulman, R., & Carnes, N. C. (2013). Surveying the moral landscape: Moral motives and group-based moralities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 17, 219 -236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1088868313480274
56. Kahan, D. M. (2007). The cognitively illiberal state. Stanford Law Review, 60, 115-154.
57. Kass, L. R. (1997, June 2). The wisdom of repugnance: Why we should ban the cloning of humans. The New Republic, 216, 17-26.
58. Kayyal, M. H., Pochedly, J., McCarthy, A., & Russell, J. A. (2015). On the limits of the relation of disgust to judgments of immorality. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 951. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00951
59. Kellogg, J. H. (1890). Plain facts for old and young: Embracing the natural history and hygiene of organic life. Burlington, IA: I. F. Segner. Retrieved from http://archive.org/details/plainfactsforol00kell
60. Knobe, J. (2006). The concept of intentional action: A case study in the uses of folk psychology. Philosophical Studies, 130, 203-231. http://dx .doi.org/10.1007/s11098-004-4510-0
61. Kruglanski, A. W., & Gigerenzer, G. (2011). Intuitive and deliberate judgments are based on common principles. Psychological Review, 118, 97-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020762
62. Kugler, M., Jost, J. T., & Noorbaloochi, S. (2014). Another look at Moral Foundations Theory: Do authoritarianism and social dominance orientation explain liberal-conservative differences in "moral" intuitions? Social Justice Research, 27, 413-431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211- 014-0223-5
63. Landy, J. F., & Goodwin, G. P. (2015). Does incidental disgust amplify moral judgment? A meta-analytic review of experimental evidence. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 518-536. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/1745691615583128
64. Lieberman, D., Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2003). Does morality have a biological basis? An empirical test of the factors governing moral sentiments relating to incest. Proceedings of The Royal Society B: Biological sciences, 270, 819-826. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2002 .2290
65. Lindquist, K. A. (2013). Emotions emerge from more basic psychological ingredients: A modern psychological constructionist model. Emotion Review, 5, 356-368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073913489750
66. Lindquist, K. A., & Barrett, L. F. (2008). Constructing emotion: The experience of fear as a conceptual act. Psychological Science, 19, 898-903. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02174.x
67. Lindquist, K. A., Wager, T. D., Kober, H., Bliss-Moreau, E., & Barrett, L. F. (2012). The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 121-143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ S0140525X11000446
68. Lukianoff, G., & Haidt, J. (2015, September). The coddling of the American mind. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/ magazine/archive/2015/09/the-coddling-of-the-american-mind/399356/
69. Mikhail, J. (2007). Universal moral grammar: Theory, evidence and the future. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 143-152. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.tics.2006.12.007
70. Nail, P. R., McGregor, I., Drinkwater, A. E., Steele, G. M., & Thompson, A. W. (2009). Threat causes liberals to think like conservatives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 901-907. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.jesp.2009.04.013
71. Nichols, S. (2002). Norms with feeling: Towards a psychological account of moral judgment. Cognition, 84, 221-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0010-0277(02)00048-3
72. Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231-259. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.3.231
73. Nussbaum, M. C. (2010). From disgust to humanity: Sexual orientation and constitutional law. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=-Oq3katPB40C&oi=fnd&pg=PT9&dq=from+disgust+to+humanity&ots=rksQ_C8eBj&sig=r3IUQcfMmlZAbCx_Rd9rCAv8c4s
74. Pierce, J. (2001, May 4). Opponents of pornography contend it's not "harmless" or victimless. Baptist Press. Retrieved October 16, 2015, from http://www.bpnews.net/10832/opponents-of-pornographycontend- its-not-harmless-or-victimless
75. Pizarro, D. A., Inbar, Y., & Helion, C. (2011). On disgust and moral judgment. Emotion Review, 3, 267-268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1754073911402394
76. Rai, T. S., & Fiske, A. P. (2011). Moral psychology is relationship regulation: Moral motives for unity, hierarchy, equality, and proportionality. Psychological Review, 118, 57-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0021867
77. Ritter, R. S., & Preston, J. L. (2011). Gross gods and icky atheism: Disgust responses to rejected religious beliefs. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 1225-1230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05 .006
78. Ritter, R. S., Preston, J. L., Salomon, E., & Relihan-Johnson, D. (2016). Imagine no religion: Heretical disgust, anger and the symbolic purity of mind. Cognition and Emotion, 30, 778-796. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 02699931.2015.1030334
79. Rottman, J., Kelemen, D., & Young, L. (2014). Tainting the soul: Purity concerns predict moral judgments of suicide. Cognition, 130, 217-226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2013.11.007
80. Rottman, J., & Young, L. (2014). Comment: Scholarly disgust and related mysteries. Emotion Review, 6, 222-223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1754073914523043
81. Royzman, E., Atanasov, P., Landy, J. F., Parks, A., & Gepty, A. (2014). CAD or MAD? Anger (not disgust) as the predominant response to pathogen-free violations of the divinity code. Emotion, 14, 892-907. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036829
82. Royzman, E. B., Goodwin, G. P., & Leeman, R. F. (2011). When sentimental rules collide: "Norms with feelings" in the dilemmatic context. Cognition, 121, 101-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.06 .006
83. Royzman, E., Kim, K., & Leeman, R. F. (2015). The curious tale of Julie and Mark: Unraveling the moral dumbfounding effect. Judgment and Decision Making, 10, 296-313.
84. Rozin, P., Lowery, L., Imada, S., & Haidt, J. (1999). The CAD triad hypothesis: A mapping between three moral emotions (contempt, anger, disgust) and three moral codes (community, autonomy, divinity). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 574-586. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.574
85. Russell, J. A. (2003). Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychological Review, 110, 145-172. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0033-295X.110.1.145
86. Russell, P. S., & Giner-Sorolla, R. (2013). Bodily moral disgust: What it is, how it is different from anger, and why it is an unreasoned emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 328 -351. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0029319
87. Schein, C., Goranson, A., & Gray, K. (2015). The uncensored truth about morality. The Psychologist, 28, 982-985.
88. Schein, C., & Gray, K. (2015). The unifying moral dyad: Liberals and conservatives share the same harm-based moral template. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41, 1147-1163. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/0146167215591501
89. Schein, C., & Gray, K. (2016). Moralization and harmification: The dyadic loop explains how the innocuous becomes harmful and wrong. Psychological Inquiry, 27, 62-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2016 .1111121
90. Schein, C., Hester, N., & Gray, K. (in press). The visual guide to morality: Vision as an integrative analogy for moral experience, variability and mechanism. Social and Personality Psychology Compass. Retrieved from http://www.mpmlab.org/The%20Visual%20Guide%20to% 20Morality.pdf
91. Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G. L., & Jordan, A. H. (2008). Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1096 -1109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167208317771
92. Shafran, R., Thordarson, D. S., & Rachman, S. (1996). Thought-action fusion in obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 379 -391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0887-6185(96) 00018-7
93. Shweder, R. A. (2012). Relativism and universalism. In D. Fassin (Ed.), A Companion to moral anthropology (pp. 85-102). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118290620.ch5
94. Shweder, R. A., Much, N. C., Mahapatra, M., & Park, L. (1997). The "big three" of morality (autonomy, community, and divinity), and the "big three" explanations of suffering. In A. Brandt & P. Rozin (Eds.), Morality and Health (pp. 119-169). New York, NY: Routledge.
95. Sood, A. M., & Darley, J. M. (2007). The plasticity of harm in the service of punishment goals: An experimental demonstration. Paper presented at the 5th Annual Conference on Empirical Legal Studies, Yale Law School, New Haven, CT.
96. Sousa, P., Holbrook, C., & Piazza, J. (2009). The morality of harm. Cognition, 113, 80-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.06 .015
97. Terrizzi, J. A., Jr., Shook, N. J., & Ventis, W. L. (2010). Disgust: A predictor of social conservatism and prejudicial attitudes toward homosexuals. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 587-592. http://dx .doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.024
98. Thórisdóttir, H., & Jost, J. T. (2011). Motivated closed-mindedness mediates the effect of threat on political conservatism. Political Psychology, 32, 785- 811. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221 .2011.00840.x
99. Turiel, E., Killen, M., & Helwig, C. C. (1987). Morality: Its structure, functions, and vagaries. The Emergence of Morality in Young Children, 155-243.
100. Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., & Griskevicius, V. (2009). Microbes, mating, and morality: Individual differences in three functional domains of disgust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 103-122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015474
101. Tybur, J. M., Merriman, L. A., Hooper, A. E., McDonald, M. M., & Navarrete, C. D. (2010). Extending the behavioral immune system to political psychology: Are political conservatism and disgust sensitivity really related? Evolutionary Psychology, 8, 599-616. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/147470491000800406
102. Uhlmann, E. L., & Zhu, L. (2014). Acts, persons, and intuitions personcentered cues and gut reactions to harmless transgressions. Social Psychological and Personality Science 5, 279-285.
103. United States of America v. Philip Morris USA, Inc., Civil Action No. 99-2496 (U. S. Dist. Court for the District of Columbia 2006).
104. Valdesolo, P., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Manipulations of emotional context shape moral judgment. Psychological Science, 17, 476-477. http://dx .doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01731.x
105. van Leeuwen, F., & Park, J. H. (2009). Perceptions of social dangers, moral foundations, and political orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 169-173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.02.017
106. van Leeuwen, F., Park, J. H., Koenig, B. L., & Graham, J. (2012). Regional variation in pathogen prevalence predicts endorsement of group-focused moral concerns. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 429-437. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.12.005
107. Wheatley, T., & Haidt, J. (2005). Hypnotic disgust makes moral judgments more severe. Psychological Science, 16, 780-784. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01614.x
108. Wheeler, C. (2015, August 23). Children were cheap guinea pigs for deadly tainted blood products. UK News Daily Express. Retrieved from http:// www.express.co.uk/news/uk/600114/Children-were-cheap-guinea-pigsdeadly- tainted-blood-products
109. Wright, J. C., & Baril, G. L. (2013). Understanding the role of dispositional and situational threat sensitivity in our moral judgments. Journal of Moral Education, 42, 383-397. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2013.820659
110. Young, L., & Saxe, R. (2011). When ignorance is no excuse: Different roles for intent across moral domains. Cognition, 120, 202-214. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.04.005
111. Zhang, Z., Zyphur, M. J., & Preacher, K. J. (2009). Testing multilevel mediation using hierarchical linear models problems and solutions. Organizational Research Methods, 12, 695-719. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/1094428108327450