Microbes, Mating, and Morality: Individual Differences in Three Functional Domains of Disgust

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 97, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 103-122

  Tybur, Joshua M ^a   Lieberman, Debra ^b   Griskevicius, Vladas ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO   (United States)

^b Department of Biology   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

disgust; emotions; evolutionary psychology; individual differences

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; EMOTION; EVOLUTION; FEMALE; HUMAN; INDIVIDUALITY; MALE; MORALITY; PERSONALITY TEST; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; PSYCHOMETRY; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL DESIRABILITY; STATISTICS; VIRULENCE;

ADOLESCENT; AVOIDANCE LEARNING; EMOTIONS; EVOLUTION; FEMALE; HUMANS; INDIVIDUALITY; MALE; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; MORALS; PERSONALITY INVENTORY; PSYCHOMETRICS; SEX CHARACTERISTICS; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL DESIRABILITY; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; VIRULENCE; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 67650389269     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0015474     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Ackerman J.M., Kenrick D.T., and Schaller M. Is friendship akin to kinship?. Evolution and Human Behavior 28 (2007) 365-374
2. Andrews P.A., Gangestad S.W., and Matthews D. Adaptationism-How to carry out an exaptationist program. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25 (2002) 480-553
3. Angyal A. Disgust and related aversions. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 36 (1941) 393-412
4. Baumeister R.F., and Exline J.J. Virtue, personality, and social relations: Self-control as the moral muscle. Journal of Personality 67 (1999) 1165-1194
5. Becker D.V., Kenrick D.T., Neuberg S.L., Blackwell K.C., and Smith D.M. The confounded nature of angry men and happy women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007) 179-190
6. Becker E. The denial of death (1973), Free Press, New York
7. Benet-Martinez V., and John O.P. Los Cinco Grandes across cultures and ethnic groups: Multitrait-multimethod analyses of the Big Five in Spanish and English. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998) 729-750
8. Berle D., and Phillips E.S. Disgust and obsessive-compulsive disorder: An update. Psychiatry 69 (2006) 228-238
9. Bittles A.H., and Neel J.V. The costs of human inbreeding and their implications for variations at the DNA level. Nature Genetics 8 (1994) 117-121
10. Bleske-Rechek A.L., and Buss D.M. Sexual strategies pursued and mate tactics deployed. Personality and Individual Differences 40 (2006) 1299-1311
11. Bloom P. Descartes' baby: How the science of child development explains what makes us human (2004), Basic Books, New York
12. Burnstein E., Crandall C., and Kitayama S. Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994) 773-789
13. Burris C.T., and Rempel J.K. "It's the end of the world as we know it": Threat and the spatial-symbolic self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004) 19-42
14. Buss D.M. Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12 (1989) 1-49
15. Buss D.M., Haselton M.G., Shackelford T.K., Bleske A.L., and Wakefield J.C. Adaptations, exaptations, and spandrels. American Psychologist 53 (1998) 533-548
16. Calder A.J., Keane J., Manes F., Antoun N., and Young A.W. Impaired recognition and experience of disgust following brain injury. Nature Neuroscience 3 (2000) 1077-1078
17. Cattell R.B. The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavior Research 1 (1966) 140-161
18. Charash M., McCay D., and Dipaolo N. Implicit attention bias for disgust. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 19 (2006) 353-364
19. Charlesworth B., and Charlesworth D. The genetic basis of inbreeding depression. Genetics Research 74 (1999) 329-340
20. Clark R.D., and Hatfield E. Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality 2 (1989) 39-55
21. Cosmides L., and Tooby J. Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In: Lewis M., and Haviland-Jones S.M. (Eds). Handbook of emotions. 2nd ed. (2000), Guilford Press, New York 91-115
22. Cottrell C.A., and Neuberg S.L. Different emotional reactions to different groups: A sociofunctional threat-based approach to "prejudice.". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005) 770-789
23. Cottrell C.A., Neuberg S.L., and Li N.P. What do people desire in others? A sociofunctional perspective on the importance of different valued characteristics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007) 208-231
24. Curtis V., Aunger R., and Rabie T. Evidence that disgust evolved to protect from risk of disease. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 271 (2004) S131-S133
25. Curtis V., and Biran A. Dirt, disgust, and disease: Is hygiene in our genes?. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 44 (2001) 17-31
26. Darwin C. The expression of emotions in man and animal (1965), University of Chicago Press, Chicago (Original work published 1872)
27. Delves P.J., Martin S.J., Burton D.R., and Roitt I.M. Roitt's essential immunology. 11th ed. (2006), Blackwell, Maiden, MA
28. Dickemann M. Paternal confidence and dowry competition: A biocultural analysis of purdah. In: Alexander R.D., and Tinkle D.W. (Eds). Natural selection and social behavior (1981), Chiron Press, New York 417-438
29. Druschel B.A., and Sherman M.F. Disgust sensitivity as a function of the Big Five and gender. Personality and Individual Differences 4 (1999) 739-748
30. Eisenberg N. Emotion, regulation, and moral development. Annual Review of Psychology 51 (2000) 665-697
31. Ekman P. Universals and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. In: Cole J. (Ed). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 19 (1972), University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln 207-283
32. Ekman P., and Friesen W.V. Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from facial clues (1975), Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
33. Ekman P., Levenson R.W., and Friesen W.V. Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes between emotions. Science 221 (1983, September 16) 1208-1210
34. Faulkner J., Schaller M., Park J.H., and Duncan L.A. Evolved disease-avoidance processes and contemporary xenophobic attitudes. Group Processes and Intergroup Behavior 7 (2004) 333-353
35. Ferrando P.J., and Lorenzo-Seva U. Unrestricted versus restricted factor analysis of multidimensional test items: Some aspects of the problem and some suggestions. Psicologica 21 (2000) 301-323
36. Fessler D.M.T., Eng S.J., and Navarrete C.D. Disgust sensitivity is elevated in the first trimester of pregnancy: Evidence supporting the compensatory prophylaxis hypothesis. Evolution and Human Behavior 26 (2005) 344-351
37. Fessler D.M.T., and Haley K.J. Guarding the perimeter: The outside-inside dichotomy in disgust and bodily experience. Cognition & Emotion 20 (2006) 3-19
38. Fessler D.M.T., and Navarrete C.D. Domain-specific variation in disgust sensitivity across the menstrual cycle. Evolution and Human Behavior 24 (2003) 406-417
39. Fessler D.M.T., and Navarrete C.D. Third-party attitudes toward sibling incest: Evidence for Westermarck's hypotheses. Evolution and Human Behavior 25 (2004) 277-294
40. Fessler D.M.T., and Navarrete C.D. The effect of age on death disgust: Challenges to terror management perspectives. Evolutionary Psychology 3 (2005) 279-296
41. Fincher C.L., Thornhill R., Murray D.R., and Schaller M. Pathogen prevalence predicts human cross-cultural variability in individualism/collectivism. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 275 (2008) 1279-1285
42. Fischer K.W., Shaver P.R., and Carnochan P. How emotions develop and how they organize development. Cognition & Emotion 4 (1990) 81-127
43. Gangestad S.W., Garver-Apgar C.E., Simpson J.A., and Cousins A.J. Changes in women's mate preferences across the ovulatory cycle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 92 (2007) 151-163
44. Gangestad S.W., Haselton M., and Buss D.M. Evolutionary foundations of cultural variation: Evoked culture and mate preferences. Psychological Inquiry 17 (2006) 75-95
45. Gangestad S.W., and Simpson J.A. On the evolutionary psychology of human mating: Trade-offs and strategic pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23 (2000) 573-587
46. Goldenberg J.L., Pyszczynski T., Greenberg J., and Solomon S. Fleeing the body: A terror management perspective on the problem of human corporeality. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4 (2000) 200-218
47. Goldenberg J.L., Pyszczynski T., Greenberg J., Solomon S., Kluck B., and Cornwell R. I am not an animal: Mortality salience, disgust, and the denial of human creatureliness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130 (2001) 427-435
48. Gorsuch R.L. Factor analysis (1983), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
49. Grammer K., Fink B., Møller A.P., and Thornhill R. Darwinian aesthetics: Sexual selection and the biology of beauty. Biological Reviews 78 (2003) 385-407
50. Griskevicius V., Goldstein N.J., Mortensen C.R., Cialdini R.B., and Kenrick D.T. Going along versus going alone: When fundamental motives facilitate strategic (non)conformity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 91 (2006) 281-294
51. Griskevicius V., Tybur J.M., Gangestad S.W., Perea E.F., Shapiro J.R., and Kenrick D.T. Aggress to impress: Hostility as an evolved context-dependent mating strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96 (2009) 980-994
52. Griskevicius V., Tybur J.M., Sundie J.M., Cialdini R.B., Miller G.F., and Kenrick D.T. Blatant benevolence and conspicuous consumption: When romantic motives elicit strategic costly signals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (2007) 85-102
53. Haidt J. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgments. Psychological Review 108 (2001) 814-834
54. Haidt J., McCauley C., and Rozin P. Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences 16 (1994) 701-713
55. Haidt J., Rozin P., McCauley C., and Imada S. Body, psyche, and culture: The relationship of disgust to morality. Psychology and Developing Societies 9 (1997) 107-131
56. Haig D. Asymmetric relations: Internal conflicts and the horror of incest. Evolution and Human Behavior 20 (1999) 83-90
57. Hare R.D. The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (1991), Multi-Health Systems, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
58. Haselton M.G., and Funder D.C. The evolution of accuracy and bias in social judgment. In: Schaller M., Simpson J.A., and Kenrick D.T. (Eds). Evolution and social psychology (2006), Psychosocial Press, Madison, CT 15-37
59. Haselton M.G., and Nettle D. The paranoid optimist: An integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (2006) 47-66
60. Horn J.L. A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis. Psychometrika 30 (1965) 179-185
61. Hu L., and Bentler P.M. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternations. Structural Equation Modeling 6 (1999) 1-55
62. Jennions M.D., and Petrie M. Why do females mate multiply? A review of the genetic benefits. Biological Review 75 (2000) 21-64
63. Jones A., and Fitness J. Moral hypervigilance: The influence of disgust sensitivity on the moral domain. Emotion 8 (2008) 613-627
64. Keltner D., Haidt J., and Shiota L. Social functionalism and the evolution of emotions. In: Schaller M., Kenrick D., and Simpson J. (Eds). Evolution and social psychology (2006), Psychology Press, New York 115-142
65. Kirkpatrick L., and Navarrete C.D. Reports of my death have been greatly exaggerated: A critique of terror management theory from an evolutionary perspective. Psychological Inquiry 17 (2006) 288-298
66. Kline R.B. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 2nd ed. (2005), Guilford Press, New York
67. Kohlberg L. The psychology of moral development (1984), Harper Collins, New York
68. Koukounas E., and McCabe M. Sexual and emotional variables influencing sexual response to erotica. Behavior Research and Therapy 35 (1997) 221-231
69. Kurzban R., DeScioli P., and O'Brien E. Audience effects on moralistic punishment. Evolution and Human Behavior 28 (2007) 75-84
70. Kurzban R., and Leary M.R. Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: The functions of social exclusion. Psychological Bulletin 127 (2001) 187-208
71. Levenson M.R., Kiehl K.A., and Fitzpatrick C.M. Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68 (1995) 151-158
72. Levenson R.W., Ekman P., and Friesen W.V. Voluntary facial action generates emotion specific autonomic nervous system activity. Psychophysiology 27 (1990) 363-384
73. Levine S.S., and Kurzban R. Explaining clustering within and between organizations: Towards an evolutionary theory of cascading benefits. Managerial and Decision Economics 27 (2006) 173-187
74. Lieberman D. An evolutionary perspective of mate selection: Adaptive problems and cognitive programs. In: Noller P., and Feeney J.A. (Eds). Frontiers of social psychology: Close relationships (2006), Psychology Press, New York 245-266
75. Lieberman D., Tooby J., and Cosmides L. Does morality have a biological basis? An empirical test of the factors governing moral sentiments regarding incest. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 270 (2003) 819-826
76. Lieberman D., Tooby J., and Cosmides L. The architecture of human kin detection. Nature 445 (2007, February 15) 727-731
77. Maner J.K., Kenrick D.T., Becker D.V., Robertson T.E., Hofer B., Neuberg S.N., et al. Functional projection: How fundamental social motives can bias interpersonal perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005) 63-78
78. Marzillier S.L., and Davey G.C.L. The emotional profiling of disgust eliciting stimuli: Evidence for primary and complex disgusts. Cognition & Emotion 18 (2004) 313-336
79. Maynard Smith J. The evolution of sex (1978), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
80. McCrae R.R., Zonderman A.B., Costa P.T., Bond M.H., and Paunonen S.V. Evaluating replicability of factors in the Revised NEO Personality Inventory: Confirmatory factor analysis versus Procrustes rotation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70 (1996) 552-566
81. Meng X.L., Rosenthal R., and Rubin D.B. Comparing correlated correlation coefficients. Psychological Bulletin 111 (1992) 172-175
82. Miller G.F., Tybur J.M., and Jordan B.D. Ovulatory cycle effects on tip earnings by lap-dancers: Economic evidence for human estrus?. Evolution and Human Behavior 28 (2007) 375-381
83. Miller S.B. Disgust: The gatekeeper emotion (2004), Analytic Press, Mahwah, NJ
84. Moll J., de Oliveira-Souza R., Moll F.T., Ignacio F.A., Bratami I.E., Caparelli-Daquer E.M., et al. The moral affiliation of disgust: A functional MRI study. Cognition and Behavioral Neurology 18 (2005) 68-78
85. Nabi R.L. The theoretical versus the lay meaning of disgust: Implications for emotion research. Cognition & Emotion 16 (2002) 695-703
86. Navarrete C.D., and Fessler D.M.T. Disease avoidance and ethnocentrism: The effects of disease vulnerability and disgust sensitivity on intergroup attitudes. Evolution and Human Behavior 27 (2006) 270-282
87. Neff B.D., and Pitcher T.E. Genetic quality and sexual selection: An integrated framework for good genes and compatible genes. Molecular Ecology 14 (2005) 19-38
88. Neuberg S.L., Smith D.M., and Asher T. Why people stigmatize: Toward a biocultural framework. In: Heatherton T.F., Kleck R.E., Hebl M.R., and Hull J.G. (Eds). The social psychology of stigma (2000), Guilford Press, New York 31-61
89. O'Connor B.P. SPSS and SAS programs for determining the number of components using parallel analysis and Velicer's MAP test. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 32 (2000) 396-402
90. Ohman A., and Mineka S. Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review 108 (2001) 483-522
91. Olatunji B.O. Disgust, scrupulosity, and conservative attitudes about sex: Evidence for a mediational model of homophobia. Journal of Research in Personality 42 (2008) 1364-1369
92. Olatunji B.O., and Sawchuk C.N. Disgust: Characteristic features, social manifestations, and clinical implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 24 (2005) 932-962
93. Olatunji B.O., Tolin D.F., Huppert J., and Lohr J.M. The relation between fearfulness, disgust sensitivity and religious obsessions in a non-clinical sample. Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 891-902
94. Olatunji B.O., Williams N.L., Sawchuk C.N., and Lohr J.M. Disgust, anxiety and fainting symptoms associated with blood-injection-injury fears: A structural model. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 20 (2006) 23-41
95. Olatunji B.O., Williams N.L., Tolin D.F., Sawchuk C.N., Abramowitz J.S., Lohr J.M., and Elwood L. The Disgust Scale: Item analysis, factor structure, and suggestions for refinement. Psychological Assessment 19 (2007) 281-297
96. Park J.H. Is aversion to incest psychologically privileged? When sex and sociosexuality do not predict sexual willingness. Personality and Individual Differences 45 (2008) 661-665
97. Park J.H., Faulkner J., and Schaller M. Evolved disease-avoidance processes and contemporary anti-social behavior: Prejudicial attitudes toward people with disabilities. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27 (2003) 65-87
98. Penn D.J., and Potts W.K. The evolution of mating preferences and major histocompatibility complex genes. The American Naturalist 153 (1999) 145-164
99. Pinker S. How the mind works (1997), Norton, New York
100. Plutchik R. The emotions: Facts, theories, and a new model (1962), Random House, New York
101. Pryor J.B., Reeder G.D., Yeadon C., and Hesson-McInnis M. A dual-process model of reactions to perceived stigma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (2004) 436-452
102. Royzman E., and Sabini J. Something it takes to be an emotion: The interesting case of disgust. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior 31 (2001) 29-59
103. Rozin P., and Fallon A. A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review 94 (1987) 23-41
104. Rozin P., Haidt J., and McCauley C. Disgust. In: Lewis M., and Haviland-Jones S.M. (Eds). Handbook of emotions. 2nd ed. (2000), Guilford Press, New York 637-653
105. Rozin P., Lowery L., and Ebert R. Varieties of disgust faces and the structure of disgust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (1994) 870-881
106. Rozin P., Lowery L., Imada S., and Haidt J. The CAD trida hypothesis: A mapping between three moral emotions (contempt, anger, disgust) and three moral codes (community, autonomy, divinity). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 76 (1999) 574-586
107. Rozin P., Millman L., and Nemeroff C. Operation of the laws of sympathetic magic in disgust and other domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986) 703-712
108. Rozin P., Taylor C., Ross L., Bennett G., and Hejmadi A. General and specific abilities to recognize negative emotions, especially disgust, as portrayed in the face and the body. Cognition & Emotion 19 (2005) 397-412
109. Schaich Borg J., Lieberman D., and Kiehl K.A. Infection, incest, and iniquity: Investigating the neural correlates of disgust and morality. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 20 (2008) 1529-1546
110. Schaller M. Parasites, behavioral defenses, and the social psychological mechanisms through which cultures are evoked. Psychological Inquiry 17 (2006) 96-101
111. Schaller M., and Duncan L.A. The behavioral immune system: Its evolution and social psychological implications. In: Forgas J.P., Haselton M.G., and von Hippel W. (Eds). Evolution and the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and social cognition (2007), Psychology Press, New York 293-307
112. Schaller M., and Murray D.R. Pathogens, personality, and culture: Disease prevalence predicts worldwide variability in sociosexuality, extraversion, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008) 212-221
113. Schaller M., and Neuberg S.L. Intergroup prejudices and intergroup conflicts. In: Crawford C., and Krebs D.L. (Eds). Foundations of evolutionary psychology: Ideas, issues, and applications (2008), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 399-412
114. Singh D. Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (1993) 293-307
115. Smith D.M., Loewenstein G., Rozin P., Sherriff R.L., and Ubel P.A. Sensitivity to disgust, stigma, and adjustment to life with a colostomy. Journal of Research in Personality 41 (2007) 787-803
116. Soufre L.A. Emotional development: The organization of emotional life in the early years (1997), Cambridge University Press, New York
117. Sprengelmeyer R., Young A.W., Calder A.J., Karnat A., Lange H., Homberg V., et al. Loss of disgust: Perception of faces and emotions in Huntington's disease. Brain 119 (1996) 1647-1665
118. Tabachnick B.G., and Fidell L.S. Using multivariate statistics. 5th ed. (2007), Allyn & Bacon, Boston
119. Thornhill R., and Gangestad S.W. Human facial beauty: Averageness, symmetry, and parasite resistance. Human Nature 43 (1993) 237-269
120. Thornhill R., and Gangestad S.W. Facial sexual dimorphism, developmental stability, and susceptibility to disease in men and women. Evolution and Human Behavior 27 (2006) 131-144
121. Tomkins S.S. Affect, imagery, consciousness: Vol. II. The negative affects (1963), Springer, New York
122. Tomkins S.S., and McCarter R. What and where are the primary affects? Some evidence for a theory. Perceptual and Motor Skills 18 (1964) 119-158
123. Tooby J. Pathogens, polymorphism, and the evolution or sex. Journal of Theoretical Biology 97 (1982) 557-576
124. Tooby J., and Cosmides L. The psychological foundations of culture. In: Barkow J., Cosmides L., and Tooby J. (Eds). The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture (1992), Oxford University Press, New York 109-113
125. Trivers R.L. Parent-offspring conflict. American Zoology 14 (1972) 249-264
126. Troop N.A., Murphy F., Bramon E., and Treasure J.L. Disgust sensitivity in eating disorders: A preliminary investigation. International Journal of Eating Disorders 27 (2000) 446-451
127. Troop N., Treasure J., and Serpell L. A further investigation of disgust in eating disorders. European Eating Disorders Review 10 (2002) 218-226
128. Varghese B., Maher J.E., Peterman T.A., Branson B.A., and Steketee R.W. Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: Quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use. Journal of Sexually Transmitted Disease 29 (2001) 38-43
129. Vonderheide S.G., and Mosher D.L. Should I put in my diaphragm? Sex-guilt and turn-offs. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality 1 (1988) 97-111
130. Westermarck E.A. The history of human marriage (1921), Macmillan, London (Original work published 1891)
131. Wheatley T., and Haidt J. Hypnotic disgust makes moral judgments more severe. Psychological Science 16 (2005) 780-784
132. Woody S., and Tolin D.F. The relationship between disgust sensitivity and avoidant behavior: Studies of clinical and nonclinical samples. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 16 (2002) 543-559
133. Zajonc R.B., and McIntosh D.N. Emotions research: Some promising questions and some questionable promises. Psychological Science 3 (1992) 70-74