Autophagy in sepsis: Degradation into exhaustion?

Autophagy

Volumn 12, Issue 7, 2016, Pages 1073-1082

  Ho, Jeffery ^a   Yu, Jun ^a   Wong, Sunny H ^a   Zhang, Lin ^a   Liu, Xiaodong ^a   Wong, Wai T ^a   Leung, Czarina C H ^a   Choi, Gordon ^a   Wang, Maggie H T ^a   Gin, Tony ^a   Chan, Matthew T V ^a   Wu, William K K ^a  

^a CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

apoptosis; autophagy; immunity; mitochondrial function; sepsis

Indexed keywords

CYTOKINE;

AUTOPHAGY; BRAIN; HEART; IMMUNE SYSTEM; KIDNEY; KINETICS; LIVER; LUNG; MITOCHONDRIAL DYNAMICS; MITOPHAGY; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SKELETAL MUSCLE; ANIMAL; APOPTOSIS; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGY; INNATE IMMUNITY; METABOLISM; MITOCHONDRION; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; APOPTOSIS; AUTOPHAGY; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; IMMUNITY, INNATE; MITOCHONDRIA; SEPSIS;

EID: 84979017547     PISSN: 15548627     EISSN: 15548635     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2016.1179410     Document Type: Review

References (77)

1. T.Shintani, D.J.Klionsky. Autophagy in health and disease: a double-edged sword. Science 2004; 306:990-5; PMID:15528435; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1099993
2. D.Glick, S.Barth, K.F.Macleod. Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms. J Pathology 2010; 221:3-12; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/path.2697
3. P.Jiang, N.Mizushima. Autophagy and human diseases. Cell Res 2014; 24:69-79; PMID:24323045; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/cr.2013.161
4. A.Kuma, M.Hatano, M.Matsui, A.Yamamoto, H.Nakaya, T.Yochimori, Y.Ohsumi, T.Tokuhisa, N.Mizushima. The role of autophagy during the early neonatal starvation period. Nature 2004; 432:1032-6; PMID:15525940; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature03029
5. D.Schmid, C.Munz. Innate and adaptive immunity through autophagy. Immunity 2007; 27:11-21; PMID:17663981; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2007.07.004
6. W.Xiao, M.N.Mindrinos, J.Seok, J.Cuschieri, A.G.Cuenca, H.Gao, D.L.Hayden, L.Hennessy, E.E.Moore, J.P.Minei, et al. A genomic storm in critically injured humans. J Exp Med 2011; 208:2581-90; PMID:22110166; http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20111354
7. J.Seok, H.S.Warren, A.G.Cuenca, M.N.Mindrinos, H.V.Baker, W.Xu, D.R.Richards, G.P.McDonald-Smith, H.Gao, L.Hennessy, et al. Genomic responses in mouse models poorly mimic human inflammatory diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2013; 110:3507-12; PMID:23401516; http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1222878110
8. T.Kimura, E.Watanabe, T.Sakamoto, O.Takasu, T.Ikeda, K.Ikeda, J.Kotani, N.Kitamura, T.Sadahiro, Y.Tateishi, et al. Autophagy-related IRGM polymorphism is associated with mortality of patients with severe sepsis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91522; PMID:24626347; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0091522
9. C.W.Lin, S.Lo, C.Hsu, C.H.Hsieh, Y.F.Chang, B.S.Hou, Y.H.Kao, C.C.Lin, M.L.Yu, S.S.Yuan, et al. T-cell autophagy deficiency increases mortality and suppresses immune responses after sepsis. PloS One 2014; 9:e102066; PMID:25029098; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102066
10. S.Lee, S.J.Lee, A.A.Coronata, L.E.Fredenburgh, S.W.Chung, M.A.Perrella, K.Nakahira, S.W.Ryter, A.M.Choi. Carbon monoxide confers protection in sepsis by enhancing beclin 1-dependent autophagy and phagocytosis. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 20:432-42; PMID:23971531; http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ars.2013.5368
11. C.W.Lin, S.Lo, D.S.Perng, D.B.Wu, P.H.Lee, Y.F.Chang, P.L.Kuo, M.L.Yu, S.S.Yuan, Y.C.Hsieh. Complete activation of autophagic process attenuates liver injury and improves survival in septic mice. Shock 2014; 41:241-9; PMID:24365881; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SHK.0000000000000111
12. J.Piquereau, R.Godin, S.Deschenes, V.L.Bessi, M.Mofarrahi, S.N.Hussain, Y.Burelle. Protective role of PARK2/Parkin in sepsis-induced cardiac contractile and mitochondrial dysfunction. Autophagy 2013; 9:1837-51; PMID:24121678; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/auto.26502
13. Y.Su, Y.Qu, F.Zhao, H.Li, D.Mu, X.Li. Regulation of autophagy by the nuclear factor kappaB signaling pathway in the hippocampus of rats with sepsis. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:116; PMID:26067996; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12974-015-0336-2
14. W.Takahashi, E.Watanabe, L.Fujimura, H.Watanabe-Takano, H.Yoshidome, P.E.Swanson, T.Tokuhisa, S.Oda, M.Hatano. Kinetics and protective role of autophagy in a mouse cecal ligation and puncture-induced sepsis. Crit Care 2013; 17:R160; PMID:23883625; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/cc12839
15. Z.Tang, L.Ni, S.Javidiparsijani, F.Hu, L.A.Gatto, R.Cooney, G.Wang. Enhanced liver autophagic activity improves survival of septic mice lacking surfactant proteins A and D. Tohoku J Exp Med 2013; 231:127-38; PMID:24126241; http://dx.doi.org/10.1620/tjem.231.127
16. A.F.Ceylan-Isik, P.Zhao, B.Zhang, X.Xiao, G.Su, J.Ren. Cardiac overexpression of metallothionein rescues cardiac contractile dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress but not autophagy in sepsis. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2010; 48:367-78; PMID:19914257; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yjmcc.2009.11.003
17. U.Kana, A.Toshihiko, T.Funakoshi, K.Hashimoto, K.Uemura. Extrusion of mitochondrial contents from lipopolysaccharide-stimulated cells: Involvement of autophagy. Autophagy 2015; 11:1500-36
18. Y.Jiang, M.Gao, W.Wang, Y.Lang, Z.Tong, K.Wang, H.Zhang, G.Chen, M.Liu, Y.Yao, et al. Sinomenine hydrochloride protects against polymicrobial sepsis via autophagy. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:2559-73; PMID:25625512; http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms16022559
19. E.H.Carchman, J.Rao, P.A.Loughran, M.R.Rosengart, B.S.Zuckerbraun. Heme oxygenase-1-mediated autophagy protects against hepatocyte cell death and hepatic injury from infection/sepsis in mice. Hepatology 2011; 53:2053-62; PMID:21437926; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hep.24324
20. N.Figueiredo, A.Chora, H.Raquel, N.Pejanovic, P.Pereira, B.Hartleben, A.Neves-Costa, C.Moita, D.Pedroso, A.Pinto, et al. Anthracyclines induce DNA damage response-mediated protection against severe sepsis. Immunity 2013; 39:874-84; PMID:24184056; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2013.08.039
21. P.Puneet, M.A.McGrath, H.K.Tay, L.Al-Riyami, J.Rzepecka, S.M.Moochhala, S.Pervaiz, M.M.Harnett, W.Harnett, A.J.Melendez. The helminth product ES-62 protects against septic shock via Toll-like receptor 4-dependent autophagosomal degradation of the adaptor MyD88. Nat Immunol 2011; 12:344-51; PMID:21358639; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ni.2004
22. W.Li, S.Zhu, J.Li, A.Assa, A.Jundoria, J.Xu, S.Fan, N.T.Eissa, K.J.Tracey, A.E.Sama, et al. EGCG stimulates autophagy and reduces cytoplasmic HMGB1 levels in endotoxin-stimulated macrophages. Biochemical Pharmacol 2011; 81:1152-63; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2011.02.015
23. T.Johansen, T.Lamark. Selective autophagy mediated by autophagic adapter proteins. Autophagy 2011; 7:279-96; PMID:21189453; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/auto.7.3.14487
24. P.Codogno, M.Mehrpour, T.Proikas-Cezanne. Canonical and non-canonical autophagy: variations on a common theme of self-eating? Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2012; 13:7-12
25. N.Mizushima, T.Yoshimori, B.Levine. Methods in mammalian autophagy research. Cell 2010; 140:313-26; PMID:20144757; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.028
26. J.E.Oh, H.K.Lee. Pattern Recognition Receptors and Autophagy. Front Immunol 2014; 5:300; PMID:25009542; http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00300
27. M.A.Delgado, R.A.Elmaoued, A.S.Davis, G.Kyei, V.Deretic. Toll-like receptors control autophagy. EMBO J 2008; 27:1110-21; PMID:18337753; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2008.31
28. X.Zou, J.Xu, S.Yao, J.Li, Y.Yang, L.Yang. Endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated autophagy protects against lipopolysaccharide-induced apoptosis in HL-1 cardiomyocytes. Exp Physiol 2014; 99:1348-1358; PMID:24951501; http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/expphysiol.2014.079012
29. T.Corrêa, S.Jakob, J.Takala. Mitochondrial dysfunction in sepsis. Crit Care Horizons 2015; 1:31-41
30. L.Zhang, J.S.Cardinal, R.Bahar, J.Evankovich, H.Huang, G.Nace, T.R.Billiar, M.R.Rosengart, P.Pan, A.Tsung. Interferon regulatory factor-1 regulates the autophagic response in LPS-stimulated macrophages through nitric oxide. Mol Med 2012; 18:201-208; PMID:22105605; http://dx.doi.org/10.2119/molmed.2011.00094
31. M.Mofarrahi, I.Sigala, Y.Guo, R.Godin, E.C.Davis, B.Petrof, M.Sandri, Y.Burelle, S.N.Hussain. Autophagy and skeletal muscles in sepsis. PloS One 2012; 7:e47265; PMID:23056618; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047265
32. C.S.Shi, K.Shenderov, N.N.Huang, J.Kabat, M.Abu-Asab, K.A.Fitzgerald. Activation of autophagy by inflammatory signals limtis IL-1β production by targeting ubiquitinated inflammasomes for destruction. Nat Immunol 2012; 13:255-63; PMID:22286270; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ni.2215
33. R.S.Hotchkiss, C.M.Coopersmith, J.E.McDunn, T.A.Ferguson. The sepsis seesaw: tilting toward immunosuppression. Nat Med 2009; 15:496-7; PMID:19424209; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm0509-496
34. F.Daviaud, D.Grimaldi, A.Dechartres, J.Charpentier, G.Geri, N.Marin, J.D.Chiche, A.Cariou, J.P.Mira, F.Pène. Timing and causes of death in septic shock. Ann Intensive Care 2015; 5:58; PMID:26714808; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13613-015-0058-8
35. Z.Zi, Z.Song, S.Zhang, Y.Ye, C.Li, M.Xu, Y.Zou, L.He, H.Zhu. Rubicon deficiency enhances cardiac autophagy and protects mice from lipopolysaccharide-induced lethality and reduction in stroke volume. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 2015; 65:252-61; PMID:25502307; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FJC.0000000000000188
36. W.S.Chien, Y.H.Chen, P.C.Chiang, H.W.Hsiao, S.M.Chuang, S.I.Lue, C.Hsu. Suppression of autophagy in rat liver at late stage of polymicrobial sepsis. Shock 2011; 35:506-511; PMID:21263383; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SHK.0b013e31820b2f05
37. C.H.Hsieh, P.Y.Pai, H.W.Hsueh, S.S.Yuan, Y.C.Hsieh. Complete induction of autophagy is essential for cardioprotection in sepsis. Ann Surg 2011; 253:1190-200; PMID:21412148; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0b013e318214b67e
38. P.Boya, R.A.Gonzalez-Polo, N.Casares, J.L.Perfettini, P.Dessen, N.Larochette, D.Métivier, D.Meley, S.Souquere, T.Yoshimori, et al. Inhibition of macroautophagy triggers apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 2005; 25:1025-40; PMID:15657430; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/MCB.25.3.1025-1040.2005
39. H.H.Pua, I.Dzhagalov, M.Chuck, N.Mizushima, Y.W.He. A critical role for the autophagy gene Atg5 in T cell survival and proliferation. J Exp Med 2007; 204:25-31; PMID:17190837; http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem.20061303
40. Y.C.Hsieh, M.Athar, I.H.Chaudry. When apoptosis meets autophagy: deciding cell fate after trauma and sepsis. Trends Mol Med 2009; 15:129; PMID:19231289; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2009.01.002
41. R.A.Gottlieb, R.M.Mentzer. Autophagy during cardiac stress: joys and frustrations of autophagy. Annual Rev Physiol 2010; 72:45-59; PMID:20148666; http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135757
42. K.A.Kirkeboen, O.A.Strand. The role of nitric oxide in sepsis: an overview. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1999; 43:275-288; PMID:10081533; http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-6576.1999.430307.x
43. S.Sarkar, I.Korolchuk Viktor, M.Renna, S.Imarisio, A.Fleming, A.Williams, M.Garcia-Arencibia, C.Rose, S.Luo, B.R.Underwood, et al. Complex Inhibitory Effects of Nitric Oxide on Autophagy. Molecular Cell 2011; 43:19-32; PMID:21726807; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2011.04.029
44. N.D.Roe, J.Ren. Akt2 knockout mitigates chronic iNOS inhibition-induced cardiomyocyte atrophy and contractile dysfunction despite persistent insulin resistance. Toxicol Lett 2011; 207:222-31; PMID:21964073; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.09.015
45. S.Turdi, X.Han, A.F.Huff, N.D.Roe, N.Hu, F.Gao, J.Ren. Cardiac-specific overexpression of catalase attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced myocardial contractile dysfunction: role of autophagy. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 53:1327-38; PMID:22902401; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.07.084
46. K.Nakahira, J.A.Haspel, V.A.Rathinam, S.J.Lee, T.Dolinay, H.C.Lam, J.A.Englert, M.Rabinovitch, M.Cernadas, H.P.Kim, et al. Autophagy proteins regulate innate immune responses by inhibiting the release of mitochondrial DNA mediated by the NALP3 inflammasome. Nat Immunol 2011; 12:222-30; PMID:21151103; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ni.1980
47. A.K.Giegerich, L.Kuchler, L.K.Sha, T.Knape, H.Heide, I.Wittig, C.Behrends, B.Brüne, A.von Knethen. Autophagy-dependent PELI3 degradation inhibits proinflammatory IL1B expression. Autophagy 2014; 10:1937-52; PMID:25483963; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/auto.32178
48. R.Zhou, A.S.Yazdi, P.Menu, J.Tschopp. A role for mitochondria in NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Nature 2011; 469:221-5; PMID:21124315; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature09663
49. M.Yang, L.Cao, M.Xie, Y.Yu, R.Kang, L.Yang, M.Zhao, D.Tang. Chloroquine inhibits HMGB1 inflammatory signaling and protects mice from lethal sepsis. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 86:410-8; PMID:23707973; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2013.05.013
50. E.Watanabe, J.T.Muenzer, W.G.Hawkins, C.G.Davis, D.J.Dixon, J.E.McDunn, D.J.Brackett, M.R.Lerner, P.E.Swanson, R.S.Hotchkiss. Sepsis induces extensive autophagic vacuolization in hepatocytes: a clinical and laboratory-based study. Lab Invest 2009; 89:549-61; PMID:19188912; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/labinvest.2009.8
51. Z.Tang, L.Ni, S.Javidiparsijani, F.Hu, L.Gatto, R.Cooney, G.Wang. Enhanced liver autophagic activity improves survival of septic mice lacking surfactant proteins A and D. Tohoku J Exp Med 2013; 231:127-38; PMID:24126241; http://dx.doi.org/10.1620/tjem.231.127
52. Y.T.Yen, H.R.Yang, H.C.Lo, Y.C.Hsieh, S.C.Tsai, C.W.Hong, C.H.Hsieh. Enhancing autophagy with activated protein C and rapamycin protects against sepsis-induced acute lung injury. Surgery 2013; 153:689-698; PMID:23434181; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.surg.2012.11.021
53. S.Lo, S.S.Yuan, C.Hsu, Y.J.Cheng, Y.F.Chang, H.W.Hsueh, P.H.Lee, Y.C.Hsieh. Lc3 over-expression improves survival and attenuates lung injury through increasing autophagosomal clearance in septic mice. Ann Surgery 2013; 257:352-363; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0b013e318269d0e2
54. Y.Takaoka, S.Goto, T.Nakano, H.P.Tseng, S.M.Yang, S.Kawamoto, K.Ono, C.L.Chen. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) prevents lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced, sepsis-related severe acute lung injury in mice. Sci Rep 2014; 4:5204; PMID:24902773; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep05204
55. A.Colell, J.E.Ricci, S.Tait, S.Milasta, U.Maurer, L.Bouchier-Hayes, P.Fitzgerald, A.Guio-Carrion, N.J.Waterhouse, C.W.Li, et al. GAPDH and autophagy preserve survival after apoptotic cytochrome c release in the absence of caspase activation. Cell 2007; 129:983-997; PMID:17540177; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.03.045
56. A.Aguirre, I.Lopez-Alonso, A.Gonzalez-Lopez, L.Amado-Rodriguez, E.Batalla-Solis, A.Astudillo, J.Blázquez-Prieto, A.F.Fernández, J.A.Galván, C.C.dos Santos, et al. Defective autophagy impairs ATF3 activity and worsens lung injury during endotoxemia. J Mol Med 2014; 92:665-76; PMID:24535031; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00109-014-1132-7
57. G.M.Howell, H.Gomez, R.D.Collage, P.Loughran, X.Zhang, D.A.Escobar, T.R.Billiar, B.S.Zuckerbraun, M.R.Rosengart. Augmenting autophagy to treat acute kidney injury during endotoxemia in mice. PloS One 2013; 8:e69520; PMID:23936035; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069520
58. L.T.Wang, B.L.Chen, C.T.Wu, K.H.Huang, C.K.Chiang, S.Hwa Liu. Protective role of AMP-activated protein kinase-evoked autophagy on an in vitro model of ischemia/reperfusion-induced renal tubular cell injury. PloS One 2013; 8:e79814; PMID:24223196; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0079814
59. X.Zhang, G.M.Howell, L.Guo, R.D.Collage, P.A.Loughran, B.S.Zuckerbraun, M.R.Rosengart. CaMKIV-dependent preservation of mTOR expression is required for autophagy during lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation and acute kidney injury. J Immunol 2014; 193:2405-15; PMID:25070845; http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1302798
60. S.Mordier, C.Deval, D.Bechet, A.Tassa, M.Ferrara. Leucine limitation induces autophagy and activation of lysosome-dependent proteolysis in C2C12 myotubes through a mammalian target of rapamycin-independent signaling pathway. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:29900-6; PMID:10893413; http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M003633200
61. L.Zhao, R.An, Y.Yang, X.Yang, H.Liu, L.Yue, X.Li, Y.Lin, R.J.Reiter, Y.Qu. Melatonin alleviates brain injury in mice subjected to cecal ligation and puncture via attenuating inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidative stress: the role of SIRT1 signaling. J Pineal Res 2015; 59:230-239; PMID:26094939; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jpi.12254
62. Y.Su, Y.Qu, F.Zhao, H.Li, D.Mu, X.Li. Regulation of autophagy by the nuclear factor kappaB signaling pathway in the hippocampus of rats with sepsis. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:116; PMID:26067996; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12974-015-0336-2
63. X.Gu, Y.Yao, G.Wu, T.Lv, L.Luo, Y.Song. The plasma mitochondrial DNA is an independent predictor for post-traumatic systemic inflammatory response syndrome. PloS One 2013; 8:e72834; PMID:23977360; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072834
64. J.A.Watts, J.A.Kline, L.R.Thornton, R.M.Grattan, S.S.Brar. Metabolic dysfunction and depletion of mitochondria in hearts of septic rats. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2004; 36:141-50; PMID:14734056; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yjmcc.2003.10.015
65. V.Vanasco, T.Saez, N.D.Magnani, L.Pereyra, T.Marchini, A.Corach, M.I.Vaccaro, D.Corach, P.Evelson, S.Alvarez. Cardiac mitochondrial biogenesis in endotoxemia is not accompanied by mitochondrial function recovery. Free Radic Biol Med 2014; 77:1-9; PMID:25224040; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.08.009
66. E.H.Carchman, S.Whelan, P.Loughran, K.Mollen, S.Stratamirovic, S.Shiva, M.R.Rosengart, B.S.Zuckerbraun. Experimental sepsis-induced mitochondrial biogenesis is dependent on autophagy, TLR4, and TLR9 signaling in liver. FASEB J 2013; 27:4703-11; PMID:23982147; http://dx.doi.org/10.1096/fj.13-229476
67. Q.Zhang, H.Kuang, C.Chen, J.Yan, H.C.Do-Umehara, X.Y.Liu, L.Dada, K.M.Ridge, N.S.Chandel, J.Liu. The kinase Jnk2 promotes stress-induced mitophagy by targeting the small mitochondrial form of the tumor suppressor ARF for degradation. Nat Immunol 2015; 16:458-66; PMID:25799126; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ni.3130
68. A.L.Chang, A.Ulrich, H.B.Suliman, C.A.Piantadosi. Redox regulation of mitophagy in the lung during murine Staphylococcus aureus sepsis. Free Radic Biol Med 2015; 78:179-89; PMID:25450328; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.10.582
69. H.W.Hsiao, K.L.Tsai, L.F.Wang, Y.H.Chen, P.C.Chiang, S.M.Chuang, C.Hsu. The decline of autophagy contributes to proximal tubular dysfunction during sepsis. Shock 2012; 37:289-96; PMID:22089196; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SHK.0b013e318240b52a
70. M.E.Mansilla Pareja, M.I.Colombo. Autophagic clearance of bacterial pathogens: molecular recognition of intracellular microorganisms. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:54; PMID:24137567; http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2013.00054
71. K.Maurer, T.Reyes-Robles, F.Alonzo, J.Durbin, V.J.Torres, K.Cadwell. Autophagy mediates tolerance to Staphylococcus aureus alpha-toxin. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 17:429-40; PMID:25816775; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2015.03.001
72. J.Huang, J.H.Brumell. Bacteria-autophagy interplay: a battle for survival. Nat Rev Micro 2014; 12:101-14; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3160
73. G.van Den Berghe, P.Wouters, F.Weekers, C.Verwaest, F.Bruyninckx, M.Schetz, D.Vlasselaers, P.Ferdinande, P.Lauwers, R.Bouillon. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1359-67; PMID:11794168; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011300
74. Y.M.Arabi, A.S.Alldawood, S.H.Haddad, H.M.Al-Dorzi, H.M.Tamim, G.Jones. Permissive underfeeding or standard enteral feeding in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 2015; 372:2398-408; PMID:25992505; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1502826
75. K.Unuma, T.Aki, T.Funakoshi, K.Yoshida, K.Uemura. Cobalt protoporphyrin accelerates TFEB activation and lysosome reformation during LPS-induced septic insults in the rat heart. PloS one 2013; 8:e56526; PMID:23457579; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0056526
76. R.Medzhitov. Septic shock: on the importance of being tolerant. Immunity 2013; 39:799-800; PMID:24238335; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2013.10.012
77. Y.E.Ha, K.H.Kong, M.H.Cho, D.H.Kim, Y.S.Song, S.Y.Yoon. Vancomycin blocks autophagy and induces iinterleukin-1 beta release in macrophages. J antibiot 2015; 68:76-80; PMID:25138142; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ja.2014.112