Climate Geoengineering and the Role of Public Deliberation: A Comment on the us National Academy of Sciences' Recommendations on Public Participation

Climate Law

Volumn 5, Issue 2-4, 2015, Pages 252-294

  Burns, William C G ^a   Flegal, Jane A ^b  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Climate geoengineering; public deliberation; public participation; US National Academy of Sciences

Indexed keywords

EID: 84946213655     PISSN: 18786553     EISSN: 18786561     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/18786561-00504006     Document Type: Article

References (235)

1. Andy Stirling, 'Deliberate Futures: Precaution and Progress in Social Choice of Sustainable Technology', 15(5) Sustainable Development 286, 290 (2007).
2. Amy Schaefer, 'Controversial Plan of "Geoengineering" to Stop Global Warming Could be in the Works', Inquisitor, 10 February 2015.
3. The Royal Society, Geoengineering the Climate: Science, Governance and Uncertainty (2009), at 11, .
4. Philip J. Rasch et al., 'An Overview of Geoengineering of Climate Using Stratospheric Sulphate Aerosols', 366 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 4007, 4008 (2008).
5. James Rodger Fleming, 'The Pathological History of Weather and Climate Modification: Three Cycles of Promise and Hype', 37(1) Historical Studies Physical Sciences 3-25 (2006), .
6. David Victor, 'On the Regulation of Geoengineering', 24(2) Oxford Review of Economic Policy 323 (2008).
7. Michel Den Elzen and Niklas Höhne, 'Sharing the Reduction Effort to Limit Global Warming to 2°C', 10 Climate Policy 247, 248 (2010).
8. Jeff Tollefson, 'Global-Warming Limit of 2°C Hangs in the Balance', 520 Nature 14-15 (2015);
9. Katherine Richardson et al., 'Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions', Copenhagen 2009, 10-12 March, Synthesis Report (2009), at 13.
10. IPCC, Summary for Policymakers, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability 12-15 (2014)
11. Climate Action Tracker, 'Effect of Current Pledges and Policies on Global Temperature', (projected increases in temperature associated with indcs of 2.9-3.1°C by 2100);
12. International Energy Agency, Energy and Climate Change: World Energy Outlook Special Report 2015 (2015), at 12, . (indc commitments could lead to a 2.6°C temperature increase by 2100).
13. mit Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change, Energy and Climate Outlook 2014 (2014), at 11 (global mean temperatures may increase by 3.3-5.6°C above 1901-1950 levels by 2100) ;
14. World Bank Group, 'Turn Down the Heat: Confronting the New Climate Normal' (2014) (temperatures could increase by 4°C by 2100), .
15. K. Frieler et al., 'Limiting Global Warming to 2°C is Unlikely to Save Most Coral Reefs', 3 Nature Climate Change 165, 168 (2013) (long-term degradation of coral-reef ecosystems in all present coral-reef cells at 2°C global mean temperature rise);
16. Richard Alleyne, 'Amazon Rainforest at Risk of Ecological "catastrophe"', Telegraph.com, 12 March 2009 (3°C increase in temperatures could destroy 75% of the world's rainforests by 2150), .
17. Carolyn Kousky, Responding to Threats of Climate Change Megacatastrophes, World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper 5127 (2009), at 5 (temperature increases of beyond 3°C could threaten existence of 20-50% of species by 2100) .
18. John A. Church et al., 'Sea Level Change', in Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the ipcc (2013)
19. A. Dutton et al., 'Sea-Level Rise Due to Polar Ice-Sheet Mass Loss During Past Warm Periods', 349 Science 4019-1-19 (2015)
20. J. Hansen et al., 'Ice Melt, Sea Level Rise and Superstorms: Evidence from Paleoclimate Data, Climate Modeling, and Modern Observations that 2°C Global Warming is Highly Dangerous', 15 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 20059-20179 (2015) (sea levels could rise more than three meters in the next 50 years), .
21. Ken Caldeira and David W. Keith, 'The Need for Climate Engineering Research', xviii (1) Issues in Science and Technology 57, 57 (2010), .
22. Jason J. Blackstock et al., Climate Engineering Responses to Climate Emergencies, Novim (2009), at 1-2.
23. Stephen Schneider, 'The Worst-Case Scenario', 458 Nature 1104, 1104 (2009). This could raise global sea level by approximately seven meters and trigger a
24. Jason A. Lowe et al., 'The Role of Sea-Level Rise and the Greenland Ice Sheet in Dangerous Climate Change: Implications for the Stabilisation of Climate', in Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change, edited by Hans Joachim Schellnhuber (Cambridge University Press, 2006) 29-37.
25. Martin Bunzl, 'Research Geoengineering: Should Not or Could Not?', 4 Environmental Research Letters 045104 (2009), .
26. Christopher Mims, '"Albedo Yachts" and Marine Clouds: A Cure for Climate Change?', Scientific American, 21 October 2009, at 3.
27. Michael C. MacCracken, 'Beyond Mitigation: Potential Options for Counter-Balancing the Climatic and Environmental Consequences of the Rising Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases' (Policy Research Working Paper 4938, World Bank, Development Economics, May 2009), at 15.
28. U. Niemeier, H. Schmidt, K. Alterskjaer, and J. E. Kristjansson, 'Solar Irradiance Reduction via Climate Engineering: Impact of Different Techniques on the Energy Balance and the Hydrological Cycle', 118(11) Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 905, 907 (2013);
29. Ben Kravitz, Alan Robock, Luke Oman, Gregiy Stenchikov, and Allison B. Marquardt, 'Sulfuric Acid Deposition from Stratospheric Geoengineering with Sulfate Aerosols', 114 (D14) Journal of Geophysical Research (2009), at 2.
30. John Latham et al., 'Global Temperature Stabilization via Controlled Albedo Enhancement of Low-Level Maritime Clouds', 366 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 3969, 3970 (2008).
31. Randall S. Abate, 'Sowing Seeds Uncertain: Ocean Iron Fertilization, Climate Change, and the International Environmental Law Framework', 27(2) Pace Environmental Law Review 555, 561-66 (2010).
32. Andrew Wiltshire and T. Davies-Barnard, Planetary Limits to beccs Negative Emissions, avoid 2 Programme, 1104872 / avoid 2 wpd.2a Report 1, at 5, .
33. Sabine Fuss et al., 'Betting on Negative Emissions', 4 Nature Climate Change 850, 850 (2014).
34. Geoffrey Holmes and David Keith, 'An Air-Liquid Contactor for Large-Scale Capture of co2 from Air', 370 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 4380, 4380 (2012);
35. C. Pritchard, 'Thermodynamics, Economics and Systemsthinking: What Role for Air Capture of co2?', 94 Process Safety and Environmental Protection 188-95 (2015).
36. Gernot Klepper and Wilfried Rickels, 'Climate Engineering: Economic Considerations', 8(2) Review of Environmental Economics 270, 271 (2014).
37. A. V. Eliseev, I. I. Mokhov and A. A. Karpenko, 'Global Warming Mitigation by Means of Controlled Aerosol Emissions into the Stratosphere: Global and Regional Peculiarities of Temperature Response as Estimated in iap ras cm Simulations', 22(4) Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics 388, 390 (2009).
38. Simone Tilmes, Rolf Müller, and Ross Salawitch, 'The Sensitivity of Polar Ozone Depletion to Proposed Geoengineering Schemes', 320 Science 1201, 1202 (2008).
39. Scott Barrett, 'The Incredible Economics of Geoengineering', 39 Environmental Resource Economics 45, 45 (2008);
40. Alan Robock et al., 'Benefits, Risks and Costs of Stratospheric Geoengineering', 36 Geophysical Research Letters L19703 (2009), at 1-9.
41. T. M. Lenton and N. E. Vaughan, 'The Radiative Forcing Potential of Different Climate Geoengineering Options', 9 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5539, 5548 (2009).
42. A. Oschlies, W. Koeve, W. Rickels, and K. Rehdanz, 'Side Effects and Accounting Aspects of Hypothetical Large-Scale Southern Ocean Iron Fertilization', 7 Biogeosciences 4017, 4031 (2010);
43. O. Aumont and L. Bopp, 'Globalizing Results from Ocean In Situ Iron Fertilization Studies', 20 Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1, 1 (2006).
44. C. Gough and N. Vaughan, Synthesising Existing Knowledge on the Feasibility of beccs, avoid 2 Programme (2015), at 5, ;
45. Christian Azar, Daniel J. A. Johansson, and Niclas Mattson, 'Meeting Global Temperature Targets: The Role of Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage', 8 Environmental Research Letters 034004 (2013), at 3.
46. Klaus Lackner, Air Capture and Mineral Sequestration, Hearings, House Science/ Technology Subcommittee, 4 February 2010, at 3
47. Nicola Jones, 'Sucking It Up', 458 Nature 1094, 1094, 1096 (2009)
48. David Biello, 'Pulling co2 from the Air: Promising Idea, Big Price Tag', environment360, 8 October 2009, .
49. Klaus Lackner et al., 'The Urgency of the Development of co2 Capture from Ambient Air', 109(33) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 13156, 13158 (2012).
50. Victor Brovkin et al., 'Geoengineering Climate by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: Earth System Vulnerability to Technological Failure', 92 Climatic Change 243, 252 (2009).
51. Alan Robock, Luke Oman, and Georgiy L. Stenichov, 'Regional Climate Responses to Geoengineering with Tropical and Arctic so2 Injections', 113 Journal of Geophysical Research D16101 (2008), at 13.
52. Jim M. Haywood et al., 'Asymmetric Forcing from Stratospheric Aerosols Impacts Sahelian Rainfall', 3 Nature Climate Change (2013), at 664.
53. Simone Tilmes, Rolf Müller and Ross Salawitch, 'The Sensitivity of Polar Ozone Depletion to Proposed Geoengineering Schemes', 320 Science 1201, 1201 (2008).
54. Philip J. Rasch et al., 'An Overview of Geoengineering of Climate Using Stratospheric Sulphate Aerosols', 366 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 4007, 4027 (2008).
55. Lynn M. Russell et al., 'Ecosystem Impacts of Geoengineering: A Review for Developing a Science Plan', 41 Ambio 350, 362.
56. Victor Brovkin et al., 'Geoengineering Climate by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: Earth System Vulnerability to Technological Failure', 92 Climatic Change 243, 254 (2009).
57. Eli Kintisch, 'Scientists Say Continued Warming Warrants Closer Look at Drastic Fixes', 318 Science 1054, 1055 (2007).
58. Andrew Ross and H. Damon Matthews, 'Climate Engineering and the Risk of Rapid Climate Change, 4 Environmental Research Letters 045103 (Oct.-Dec. 2009), http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/4/4/045103
59. Helmut Haberl, 'Global Bioenergy Potentials from Agricultural Land in 2050: Sensitivity to Climate Change, Diets and Yields', 35 Biomass and Energy 4753, 4764 (2011).
60. Kelsi Bracmort and Richard K. Lattanzio, Geoengineering: Governance and Technology Policy, Congressional Research Service, 7-500 (2013), at 12.
61. Rachel Smolker and Almuth Ernsting, 'beccs (Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage): Climate Saviour or Dangerous Hype?', Biofuelwatch, October 2012, at 5, .
62. John J. Cullen and Philip W. Boyd, 'Predicting and Verifying the Intended and Unintended Consequences of Large-Scale Ocean Iron Fertilization', 364 Marine Ecology Progress Series 295, 300 (2008).
63. Rosemary Rayfuse, Mark G. Lawrence, and Kristina M. Gjerde, 'Ocean Fertilisation and Climate Change: The Need to Regulate Emerging High Seas Uses', 23 International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 297, 306 (2008).
64. Randall S. Abate and Andrew B. Greenlee, 'International Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Post-Copenhagen', 27 Pace Environmental Law Review 555, 567 (2010);
65. J. M. Rose et al., 'Synergistic Effects of Iron and Temperature on Antarctic Phytoplankton and Microzooplankton Assemblages', 6 Biogeosciences 3131, 3136 (2009).
66. US National Academy of Sciences, Geoengineering Climate: Technical Evaluation of Selected Approaches (2015) .
67. Simon Dalby, 'Geoengineering: The Next Era of Geopolitics?', 9(4) Geography Compass 1, 8 (2015).
68. Aisha Ghaus-Pasha, Role of Civil Society Organizations in Governance, 6th Global Forum on Reinventing Government Towards Participatory and Transparent Governance, 24-27 May 2005, Seoul, Republic of Korea (2004).
69. Manuel Castells, 'Public Sphere: Global Civil Society, Communication Networks, and Global Governance', 616 Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 78, 83 (2008).
70. Hildy Teegen, Jonathan P. Doh, and Sushil Vachani, 'The Importance of Nongovernmental Organizations (ngos) in Global governance and Value Creation: An International Business Research Agenda', 35 Journal of International Business Studies 463, 463 (2004);
71. Barbara Gemmill and Abimbola Bamidele-Izu, 'The Role of ngos and Civil Society in Global Environmental Governance', in Global Environmental Governance, 3rd edition, edited by Daniel C. Esty and Maria H. Invanova (Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies: 2002).
72. John S. Dryzek and Aviezer Tucker, 'Deliberative Innovation to Different Effect: Consensus Conferences in Denmark, France, and the United States', 68(5) Public Administration Review 864, 870 (2008).
73. Christine Merk et al., 'Exploring Public Perceptions of Stratospheric Sulfate Injection', 130 Climatic Change 299, 300 (2015). A survey in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom by Mercer et al. found an even lower figure of 8%;
74. A. Mercer, D. Keith, and J. Sharp, 'Public Understanding of Solar Radiation Management', 6(4) Environmental Research Letters 1, 2 (2011).
75. Victoria Wibeck, Anders Hansson, and Jonas Anshelm, 'Questioning the Technological Fix to Climate Change: Law Sense-Making of Geoengineering in Sweden', 7 Energy Research and Social Science 23, 23 (2015).
76. Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative, About .
77. Environmental Defense Fund, 'Our Position on Geoengineering' (2015) .
78. Defense Council, 'Geoengineering: Research is Prudent, But No Substitute for Carbon Pollution Cuts', .
79. etc Group, .
80. The status of home is unclear, however, as its website, , appears to no longer be operational.
81. Sheila Jasanoff, 'ngos and the Environment: From Knowledge to Action', 18(3) Third World Quarterly 579-594 (1997).
82. Shantayanan Devarajan, Stuti Khemani, and Michael Walton, 'Civil Society, Public Action and Accountability in Africa', World Bank Policy Research Paper 5733 (July 2011), at 15, .
83. George Holmes, 'Conservation's Friends in High Places: Neoliberalism, Networks, and the Transnational Conservation Elite', 11(4) Global Environmental Politics 1-20 (2011);
84. Carol Stephenson, 'Nongovernmental Organizations, Beyond Intractability', .
85. Elah Matt and Chukwumerije Okereke, 'A Neo-Gramscian Account of Carbon Markets', in The Politics of Carbon Markets, edited by Benjamin Stephan and Richard Lane (Routledge, 2015).
86. Hans Holmén and Magnus Jirström, 'Look Who's Talking! Second Thoughts about ngos as Representing Civil Society', 44 Journal of Asian and African Studies 429, 436 (2009).
87. P. Oldham et al., 'Mapping the Landscape of Climate Engineering', 372 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 1, 2 (2014).
88. Ida-Elisabeth Andersen and Birgit Jæger, 'Scenario Workshops and Consensus Conferences: Towards More Democratic Decision-Making', 26(5) Science and Public Policy 331, 333 (1999).
89. Gene Rowe and Lynn J. Frewer, 'A Typology of Public Engagement Mechanisms', 30(2) Science, Technology and Human Values (2005)
90. Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson, Why Deliberative Democracy? 3rd ed. (Princeton University Press, 2004).
91. Simone Chambers, 'Deliberative Democratic Theory', 6 Annual Review of Political Science 307, 315 (2003).
92. Paul Anderson, 'Which Direction for International Environmental Law?', 6(1) Journal of Human Rights and Environment 98, 121 (2015).
93. J. Dryzek, 'Ecology and Discursive Democracy', in Is Capitalism Sustainable? Political Economy and the Politics of Ecology, edited by M. O'Connor (Guilford Press, 1994) at 176;
94. S. Chambers, Reasonable Democracy: Jürgen Habermas and the Politics of Discourse (Cornell University Press, 2003) at 309.
95. See also National Research Council, Understanding Risk, edited by Paul C. Stern and Harvey V. Fineberg (1996) at 4, .
96. James Bohman, Public Deliberation: Pluralism, Complexity, and Democracy (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2000), at 27.
97. Jason Chilvers, 'Reflexive Engagement? Actors, Learning, and Reflexivity in Public Dialogue on Science and Technology', 35(3) Science Communication 283, 287 (2012);
98. P. Macnaghten et al., 'Responsible Innovation Across Borders: Tensions, Paradoxes and Possibilities', 1(2) Journal of Responsible Innovation 191, 194 (2014);
99. Bronislaw Szerszynski and Maialen Galarraga, 'Geoengineering Knowledge: Interdisciplinarity and the Shaping of Climate Engineering Research', 45 Environment and Planning A 2817, 2819 (2013).
100. Jacquelin Burgess et al., 'Deliberative Mapping: A Novel Analytic-Deliberative Methodology to Support Contested Science-Policy Decisions', 16 Public Understanding of Science 299, 301 (2007).
101. John R. Parkins and Ross E. Mitchell, 'Public Participation as Public Debate: A Deliberative Turn in Natural Resource Management', 18(6) Society and Natural Resources: An International Journal 529, 530 (2005).
102. Sheila Jasanoff, 'Technologies of Humility: Citizen Participation in Governing Science', 41 Minerva 223, 243 (2003).
103. Mike Anderson, 'Geoengineering and the Arctic: Defining the Governance', at 4, .
104. Nick Pidgeon et al., 'Exploring Early Public Responses to Geoengineering', 370 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 4176, 4180 (2012);
105. Brian Wynne, 'Creating Public Alienation: Expert Cultures of Risk and Ethics of gmos', 10(4) Science as Culture 445, 454 (2001).
106. Nick Pidgeon et al., 'Deliberating Stratospheric Aerosols for Climate Geoengineering and the spice Project', 3 Nature Climate Change 451, 451 (2013).
107. Daniel J. Fiorino, 'Citizen Participation and Financial Risk: A Survey of Institutional Mechanisms', 15(2) Science, Technology, and Human Values 226, 227 (1990).
108. Rob Bellamy et al., 'A Review of Climate Geoengineering Appraisals', 3 wires Climate Change 597, 611 (2012);
109. Brian Wynne, 'Public Participation in Science and Technology: Performing and Obscuring a Political-Conceptual Category Mistake', 1 East Asian Science Technology and Society: An International Journal 99, 101 (2007);
110. Alan Irwin, 'Citizen Engagement in Science and Technology Policy: A Commentary on Recent uk Experience', 40 pla Notes 72, 72 (Feb. 2001), .
111. Daniel Sarewitz, 'Science Can't Solve It', 522 Nature 413, 414 (2015);
112. Ciaran O'Farchellaigh, 'Public Participation and Environmental Impact Assessment: Purposes, Implications and Lessons for Public Policy Making', 30 Environmental Impact Assessment Review 19, 21 (2010).
113. Amandine Crespy, 'Deliberative Democracy and the Legitimacy of the European Union: A Reappraisal of Conflict', 62(S1) Political Studies 81, 95 (2013), .
114. Pablo De Greiff, 'Deliberative Democracy and Group Representation', 26(3) Social Theory and Practice 397 (2000).
115. John Parkinson, 'Legitimacy Problems in Deliberative Democracy', 51 Political Studies 180, 182 (2003).
116. Joshua Cohen, 'Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy', in Debates in Contemporary Political Philosophy, edited by Derek Matravers and Jon Pike (Routledge, 2003), at 203;
117. Javier Lezaun and Linda Soneryd, 'Consulting Citizens: Technologies of Elicitation and the Mobility of Publics', 16 Public Understanding of Science 379, 379 (2007);
118. Patrick Sturgis, 'On the Limits of Public Engagement for the Governance of Emerging Technologies', 23(1) Public Understanding of Science 38, 39 (2014).
119. Leonardo Avritzer, 'Democracy Beyond Aggregation: The Participatory Dimension of Public Deliberation', 8 Journal of Public Deliberation, Art. 10 (2012), at 2;
120. Erik Oddvar, Eriksen and John Erik Fossum, 'Representation Through Deliberation: The European Case', paper presented at the 12th eusa Biennial International Conference, Boston, ma, 3-5 March 2011, .
121. 'How Good is Deliberative Democracy?', Understanding Society 23 July 2009 . See also John Rawls, Political Liberalism (Columbia University Press, 1993) at 212-253.
122. John Dewey, 'The Economic Basis of a New Society', in John Dewey: The Later Works, edited by Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988) at 320.
123. John Shook, 'Dewey's Ethical Justification for Public Deliberation', 29 Education and Culture 3-26 (2013);
124. Alison Kadlec and Will Friedman, 'Deliberative Democracy and the Problem of Power', 3(2) Journal of Public Deliberation 1, 8 (2007).
125. Gene Rowe and Lynn J. Frewer, 'A Typology of Public Engagement Mechanisms', 30(2) Science, Technology, and Human Values 251, 252 (2005).
126. Sebastián Ureta, 'A Failed Platform: The Citizen Consensus Conference Travels to Chile', Public Understanding of Science 1, 1 (2015).
127. D. E. Winickoff, J. A. Flegal, and A. Asrat, 'Engaging the Global South on Climate Engineering', 5 Nature Climate Change 627-634 (2015).
128. Nick Pidgeon et al., 'Deliberating Stratospheric Aerosols for Climate Geoengineering and the spice Project', 3 Nature Climate Change (2013) 451-457;
129. Adam Corner et al. 'Messing with Nature? Exploring Public Perceptions of Geoengineering in the uk,' 23 Global Environmental Change (2013) 938-947.
130. Seyla Benhabib, 'Toward a Deliberative Model of Democratic Legitimacy,' in Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political, edited by Seyla Benhabib (Princeton University Press, 1996) at 87.
131. Abby Williamson and Archon Fung, 'Public Deliberation: Where We Are and Where Can We Go?', National Civil Review (2004), at 11.
132. Annika P. Nielson et al., Consensus Conference Manual, 15-37 February 2006, ;
133. Michael D. Cobb, 'Creating Informed Public Opinion: Citizen Deliberation About Nanotechnologies for Human Enhancements', 13 Journal of Nanoparticle Research 1533, 1545 (2011).
134. Jon Fixdal, 'Consensus Conferences as "Extended Peer Review"', 24(6) Science and Public Policy 366, 370 (1997).
135. Christopher Karpowitz and Chad Raphael, Deliberation, Democracy, and Civic Forums: Improving Equality and Publicity (Cambridge University Press, 2014) at 56.
136. Edna F. Einsiedel and Deborah L. Eastlick, 'Consensus Conferences as Deliberative Democracy', 21(4) Science Communication 323, 325 (2000).
137. David H. Guston, 'Evaluating the First u.s. Consensus Conference: The Impact of the Citizens', Panel on Telecommunications and the Future of Democracy', 24(4) Science, Technology, and Human Values 451-481 (1999).
138. Nancy Irvin Maxwell, Understanding Environmental Health: How We Live in the World (Jones and Bartlett Learning llc, an Ascend Learning Company, 2014) at 65.
139. Andy Stirling, '"Opening Up" and "Closing Down": Power, Participation, and Pluralism in the Social Appraisal of Technology', 33 Science, Technology, and Human Values 262, 277 (2008).
140. Helen Wallace, The Issue of Framing and Consensus Conferences, 40 pla Notes 61-3 (Feb. 2001) .
141. World Wide Views, .
142. World Wide Views, The World Wide Views Method .
143. Bjørn Bedsted, 'World Wide Views on Climate and Energy: Making the Views of the Citizens Heard at cop 21', A Multi-Stakeholder Magazine: Outreach on Climate Change and Sustainable Development at .
144. Edna F. Einsiedel, 'Communities of Fate and the Challenges of International Public Participation in Transnational Governance Contexts', 9(2) Journal of Public Deliberation, Art. 4 (2013), at 3, n. 1.
145. Expert and Citizen Assessment of Science and Technology (ecast), Technology Assessment and Public Participation: From ta to pta, 6 December 2012, at 18, .
146. World Wide Views, World Wide Views on Global Warming 1-36 (Nov. 2009), .
147. World Wide Views on Global Warming, Policy Recommendations, .
148. Jose Batista and Mark Manio, 'World Wide Views on Global Warming Overview and Analysis', .
149. Martin Knapp et al., 'World Wide Views on Global Warming (wwviews): A Worldwide Citizens' Participation Procedure Regarding Climate Policy' (2009), .
150. World Wide Views on Biodiversity, Results, .
151. Parliaments and Civil Society in Technology Assessment, .
152. Bjørn Bedsted, 'World Wide Views on Climate and Energy', .
153. World Wide Views, Launch of Largest Ever Global Citizen Consultation on Climate and Energy, .
154. World Wide Views on Climate and Energy, Press Conference with Key Result Presentation, .
155. Martin Knapp et al., World Wide Views on Biodiversity: An International Citizens' Deliberation on Biological Diversity, in Biodiversity and Society: Conference Proceedings (Jan Friedrich, Aurélie Halsband, and Lisa Minkmar eds., 2012).
156. University of Sussex, Multicriteria Mapping: Helping to Understand Complex Decisions, . The origin of mcm has a longer pedigree in military logistics and operations research during World War ii;
157. Andy Stirling and Sue Mayer, 'A Novel Approach to the Appraisal of Technological Risk: A Multicriteria Mapping Study of a Genetically Modified Crop', 19 Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 529, 531 (2001).
158. J. Burgess and J. Clark, 'Evaluating Public and Stakeholder Engagement Strategies in Environmental Governance', in Interfaces between Science and Society, edited by A. G. Perez, S. G. Vaz, and S. Tognetti (Greenleaf Publishing, 2006), at 222-52.
159. Andy Stirling and Gale Davies, 'Using the Multi-Criteria Mapping (mcm) Technique', Deliberative Mapping, Briefing 5, Science and Technology Policy Research (Mar. 2004), at 2, .
160. Ruairí Brugha and Zsuzsa Varvasovszky, 'Stakeholder Analysis: A Review', 15(3) Health Policy and Planning 239, 239 (2000).
161. Rob Bellamy, 'Beyond Climate Control: "Opening Up" Propositions for Geoengineering Governance', Climate Geoengineering Governance Working Paper Series 011 (2014), at 12 .
162. Science and Technology Policy Research et al., The Deliberative Mapping Approach, Briefing 2 (2004), at 4, .
163. Andy Stirling and Gale Davies, 'Deliberative Mapping in Practice: The "Kidney Gap"', Briefing 3, Science and Technology Policy Research (2004), at 2.
164. Rob Bellamy, Jason Chilvers, and Naomi E. Vaughan, 'Deliberative Mapping of Options for Tackling Climate Change: Citizens and Specialists "Open Up" Appraisal of Geoengineering', Public Understanding of Science 1-18 (2014).
165. Rob Bellamy, 'A Sociotechnical Framework for Governing Climate Engineering', Public Understanding of Science 1, 10-13 (2015).
166. Clare Delap, 'Citizens' Juries: Reflections on the uk Experience', 40 pla Notes 39, 39-40 (2001) .
167. Walter F. Baber and Robert V. Bartlett, Consensus and Global Environmental Governance: Deliberative Democracy in Nature's Regime (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2015) at 22.
168. P. E. Converse, 'Attitudes and Non-Attitudes: Continuation of a Dialogue', in The Quantitative Analysis of Social Problems, edited by E. R. Tufte (Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1970) at 15.
169. James S. Fishkin, Robert C. Luskin, and Roger Jowell, 'Deliberative Polling and Public Consultation', 53(4) Parliamentary Affairs 657, 661 (2000).
170. Center for Deliberative Democracy, 'What is Deliberative Polling?' .
171. James S. Fishkin and Robert C. Luskin, 'Experimenting with a Democratic Ideal: Deliberative Polling and Public Opinion', 40 Acta Politica 284, 293 (2005).
172. David H. Guston, 'Building the Capacity for Public Engagement with Science in the United States', 23(1) Public Understanding of Science 53, 56 (2014);
173. Cynthia Selin and Prasad Boradkar, 'Prototyping Nanotechnology: A Transdisciplinary Approach to Responsible Innovation', 2 Nanotechnology Education 1-12 (2010).
174. International Federation of Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies, Ready!, .
175. Wylie A. Carr et al., 'Public Engagement on Solar Radiation Management and Why it Needs to Happen Now', 121 Climatic Change 567, 571 (2013).
176. University of Montana, Ethics of Geoengineering, .
177. Sarah R. Davies and Cynthia Selin, 'Energy Futures: Five Dilemmas of the Practice of Anticipatory Governance', 6(1) Environmental Communication 119, 123 (2012).
178. Adam Corner and Nick Pidgeon, 'Geoengineering the Climate: The Social and Ethical Implications', 52(1) Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 25, 32 (2010);
179. T. Rogers-Hayden and N. Pidgeon, 'Moving Engagement Upstream? Nanotechnologies and the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering's Inquiry', 16 Public Understanding of Science 345, 345 (2007).
180. Adam Corner, Nick Pidgeon, and Karen Parkhill, 'Perceptions of Geoengineering: Public Attitudes, Stakeholder Perspectives, and the Challenge of "Upstream" Engagement', 3 wires Climate Change 451, 454 (2012).
181. Jack Stilgoe, Experiment Earth: Responsible Innovation in Geoengineering, (New York, NY: Routledge, 2015), at 36.
182. Hui Liu and Susanna Priest, 'Understanding Public Support for Stem Cell Research: Media Communication, Interpersonal Communication and Trust in Key Actors', 18(6) Public Understanding of Science 704, 710 (2009).
183. Lisa Dilling and Rachel Hauser, 'Governing Geoengineering Research: Why, When, and How?', 121(3) Climatic Change 553, 553 (2013).
184. Michael Zürn and Stefan Schäfer, 'The Paradox of Climate Engineering', 4(3) Global Policy 1, 7 (2013), .
185. Christopher J. Preston, 'Ethics and Geoengineering: Reviewing the Moral Issues Raised by Solar Radiation Management and Carbon Dioxide Removal', 4 wires Climate Change 23, 28 (2013).
186. Stephen M. Gardiner, 'Ethics and Climate Change: An Introduction', 1 wires Climate Change 54, 63 (2010).
187. M. Hourdequin, 'Geoengineering, Solidarity, and Moral Risk', in Engineering the Climate: The Ethics of Solar Radiation Management, edited by C. Preston (Lexington Books, 2012) at 27.
188. Maria Lee et al., 'Public Participation and Climate Change Infrastructure', 25 Journal of Environmental Law 33, 61 (2013).
189. Solar Radiation Management Governance Initiative, Solar Radiation Management: The Governance of Research 41 (2011), ('Public engagement requires discussion that relates to the 'visions, ends and purposes of science and technology').
190. Margherita Pieraccini, 'Rethinking Participation in Environmental Decision-Making: Epistemologies of Marine Conservation in South-East England', 27 Journal of Environmental Law 45, 64 (2015)
191. Chris Riedy and Jade Herriman, 'Deliberative Mini-Publics and the Global Deliberative System: Insights from an Evaluation of World Wide Views on Global Warming in Australia', 8(3) Portal 1, 8 (2011).
192. D. H. Guston et al., 'cns-anu Annual Report to the National Science Foundation, Year 3, for the period October 1, 2007 to September 30, 2008', Center for Nanotechnology in Society at Arizona State University, nsf #0531194, at vi.
193. Daniel Barben et al., 'Anticipatory Governance of Nanotechnology: Foresight, Engagement, and Integration', in The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies, edited by E. J. Hackett (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2008), at 979;
194. David H. Guston, 'Understanding 'Anticipatory Governance', 44(2) Social Studies of Science 218, 226 (2014).
195. Martin Carcasson and Leah Sprain, 'Key Aspects of the Deliberative Democracy Movement', Public Sector Digest (July 2010), at 3 ;
196. Jenny Steele, 'Participation and Deliberation in Environmental Law: Exploring a Problem-solving Approach', 21(3) Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 415, 435 (2001).
197. Robert Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (Yale University Press, 1989) at 340.
198. Graham Smith and Matt Ryan, 'Defining Mini-publics: Making Sense of Existing Conceptions', Paper to be presented to the psa Annual Conference, Belfast, 3-5 April 2012, .
199. Robert E. Goodin and John S. Dryzek, 'Deliberative Impacts: The Macro-Political Uptake of Mini-Publics', 34(2) Politics and Society 219, 220 (2006).
200. Michael Burgess, 'From "Trust Us" to Participatory Governance: Deliberative Publics and Science Policy', 23(1) Public Understanding of Science 48, 49 (2014).
201. Hayley Stevenson and John S. Dryzek, Democratizing Global Climate Governance (Cambridge University Press, 2014) at 184.
202. Ian Shapiro, 'Optimal Deliberation', in Debating Deliberative Democracy, edited by James S. Fishkin and Peter Laslett (Blackwell Publishing, 2008) at 121.
203. I. M. Young, Inclusion and Democracy (Oxford University Press, 2000) at 52.
204. Mark Philbrick and Javiera Barandiaran, 'The National Citizens' Technology Forum: Lessons for the Future', 36(5) Science and Public Policy 335-47 (2009).
205. Bernice Bovenkerk, The Biotechnology Debate: Democracy in the Face of Intractable Disagreement (Springer, 2012) at 222.
206. Wylie A. Carr et al., 'Public Engagement on Solar Radiation Management and Why it Needs to Happen Now', 121 Climatic Change 567, 568 (2013).
207. D. Jones, 'A weird View of Human Nature Skews Psychologists' Studies', 328 Science 1627;
208. Hans Holmén and Magnus Jirström, 'Look Who's Talking! Second Thoughts about ngos as Representing Civil Society', 44 Journal of Asian and African Studies 429, 436 (2009).
209. Jack Stilgoe, Simon J. Lock and James Wilsdon, 'Why Should We Promote Public Engagement with Science?', 23(1) Public Understanding of Science 4, 6 (2014).
210. Phil Macnaghten and Jason Chilvers, 'Governing Risky Technologies', in Critical Risk Research: Practices, Politics and Ethics, edited by S. Lane, F. Klauser, and M. Kearnes (Wiley-Blackwell, 2012) at 110.
211. International Association for Public Participation, .
212. Center for Public Deliberation, .
213. The Loka Institute for Science and Technology of, by, and for the People, .
214. Tufts University, Education for Public Inquiry and International Citizenship .
215. Richard Worthington, 'Community-Based Research and Technoscience Activism: A Report on the Living Knowledge 3 Conference', 16(4) Science as Culture 475, 475 (2007).
216. Loet Leydesdorff and Janelle Ward, 'Science Shops: A Kaleidoscope of Science-Society Collaborations in Europe', 14 Public Understanding of Science 353, 354 and 358 (2005).
217. Alexander Hellemans, 'Science Shops Provide Non-Profit Alternative', 412 Nature 4-5 (2001). Berkeley Science Shop, .
218. About Living Knowledge: The International Science Shop Network, .
219. Corinna Fischer, Loet Leydesdoff, and Malte Schophaus, 'Science Shops in Europe: The Public as Stakeholder', .
220. Joseph Wachelder, 'Democratizing Science: Various Routes and Visions of Dutch Science Shops', 28(2) Science, Technology, and Human Values 244-273 (2003).
221. Jack Stilgoe, Richard Owen, and Phil Macnaghten, 'Developing a Framework for Responsible Innovation', 42 Research Policy 1568, 1577 (2013).
222. International Association for Public Participation, iap2 Spectrum of Public Participation, .
223. Mark B. Brown, 'Citizen Panels and the Concept of Representation', 14(2) Journal of Political Philosophy 203, 208 (2006).
224. Claire Marris, 'The Construction of Imaginaries of the Public as a Threat to Synthetic Biology', 24(1) Science as Culture 83, 95 (2015).
225. Margherita Pieraccini, 'Rethinking Participation in Environmental Decision-Making: Epistemologies of Marine Conservation in South-East England', 27 Journal of Environmental Law 45, 49 (2015).
226. Wylie A. Carr et al., 'Public Engagement on Solar Radiation Management and Why it Needs to Happen Now', 121 Climatic Change 567, 568 (2013)
227. Levidow and C. Marris, 'Science and Governance in Europe: Lessons from the Case of Agricultural Biotechnology', 28(5) Science and Public Policy 345, 348 (2001).
228. Jeffrey R. Masuda, Tara K. McGee, and Theresa D. Garvin, 'Power, Knowledge, and Public Engagement: Constructing 'Citizenship' in Alberta's Industrial Heartland', 10(4) Journal of Enviromental Policy and Planning 359-380 (2015);
229. Andrea Cornwell and John Gaverta, 'Bridging the Gap, Citizenship, Participation and Accountability', 40 pla Notes 32, 34 (Feb. 2001), .
230. Peter Glasner, 'Why Juries can do More Harm Than Good', 40 pla Notes 43, 44 (Feb. 2001), .
231. Peter McLaverty, 'Is Deliberative Democracy the Answer to Representative Democracy's Problems? A Consideration of the uk Government's Programme of Citizens' Juries', 45(4) Representation 379, 385 (2009).
232. Archon Fung and Erik Olin Wright, 'Deepening Democracy: Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance', 29(1) Politics and Society 5, 7 (2001).
233. Joshua Cohen and Charles Sabel, 'Directly-Deliberative Polyarchy', 3(4) European Law Journal 313 (1997).
234. Healthy Democracy, Citizens' Initiative Review, .
235. David H. Guston and Daniel Sarewitz, 'Real-Time Technology Assessment', 24 Technology in Society 93, 103 (2002).