Diet-induced cognitive deficits: The role of fat and sugar, potential mechanisms and nutritional interventions

Nutrients

Volumn 7, Issue 8, 2015, Pages 6719-6738

  Beilharz, Jessica E ^a   Maniam, Jayanthi ^a   Morris, Margaret J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

Author keywords

BDNF; Curcumin; Diet; Fat; Hippocampus; Inflammation; Intervention; Memory; Neurogenesis; Omega 3; Sugar

Indexed keywords

BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CURCUMIN; FAT; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; SUGAR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR, HUMAN; CARBOHYDRATE;

BODY MASS; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DIET; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIET THERAPY; FAT INTAKE; HIPPOCAMPUS; LATENT PERIOD; MEMORY DISORDER; MINI MENTAL STATE EXAMINATION; NERVOUS SYSTEM INFLAMMATION; OBESITY; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; SUGAR INTAKE; ADVERSE EFFECTS; COGNITION DISORDERS; COMPLICATION; DIETARY SUPPLEMENT; DRUG EFFECTS; HUMAN; LIPID DIET; MEMORY; MEMORY DISORDERS; METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CARBOHYDRATES; COGNITION; COGNITION DISORDERS; CURCUMIN; DIET, HIGH-FAT; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMANS; MEMORY; MEMORY DISORDERS; OBESITY;

EID: 84940887392     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726643     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/nu7085307     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Vandevijvere, S.; Chow, C.C.; Hall, K.D.; Umali, E.; Swinburn, B.A. Increased food energy supply as a major driver of the obesity epidemic: A global analysis. Bull. World. Health. Organ. 2015, 93, 446-456. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Cook, T.; Rutishauser, I.; Seelig, M. Comparable data on food and nutrient intake and physical measurements from the 1983, 1985 and 1995 national nutrition surveys; Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care: Canberra, Australia, 2001.
3. Swinburn, B.A. Obesity prevention: The role of policies, laws and regulations. Aust. N. Z. J. Public. Health. 2008, 5, 12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Finucane, M.M.; Stevens, G.A.; Cowan, M.J.; Danaei, G.; Lin, J.K.; Paciorek, C.J.; Singh, G.M.; Gutierrez, H.R.; Lu, Y.; Bahalim, A.N.; et al. National, regional, and global trends in body-mass index since 1980: Systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 960 country-years and 9.1 million participants. Lancet 2011, 377, 557-567. [CrossRef]
5. Wang, L.; Jiao, J.; Dulawa, S.C. Infant maternal separation impairs adult cognitive performance in balb/cj mice. Psychopharmacology 2011, 216, 207-218. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Mei, Z.; Grummer-Strawn, L.M.; Pietrobelli, A.; Goulding, A.; Goran, M.I.; Dietz, W.H. Validity of body mass index compared with other body-composition screening indexes for the assessment of body fatness in children and adolescents. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 75, 978-985. [PubMed]
7. Kopelman, P.G. Obesity as a medical problem. Nature 2000, 404, 635-643. [PubMed]
8. Bruce-Keller, A.J.; Keller, J.N.; Morrison, C.D. Obesity and vulnerability of the cns. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2009, 1792, 395-400. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
9. Haslam, D.W.; James, W.P. Obesity. Lancet 2005, 366, 1197-1209. [CrossRef]
10. Molteni, R.;Wu, A.; Vaynman, S.; Ying, Z.; Barnard, R.J.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. Exercise reverses the harmful effects of consumption of a high-fat diet on synaptic and behavioral plasticity associated to the action of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Neuroscience 2004, 123, 429-440. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Beilharz, J.E.; Maniam, J.; Morris, M.J. Short exposure to a diet rich in both fat and sugar or sugar alone impairs place, but not object recognition memory in rats. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2014, 37, 134-141. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Davidson, T.L.; Monnot, A.; Neal, A.U.; Martin, A.A.; Horton, J.J.; Zheng, W. The effects of a high-energy diet on hippocampal-dependent discrimination performance and blood-brain barrier integrity differ for diet-induced obese and diet-resistant rats. Physiol. Behav. 2012, 107, 26-33. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Kanoski, S.E.; Zhang, Y.; Zheng, W.; Davidson, T.L. The effects of a high-energy diet on hippocampal function and blood-brain barrier integrity in the rat. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 2010, 21, 207-219. [PubMed]
14. Molteni, R.; Barnard, R.J.; Ying, Z.; Roberts, C.K.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. A high-fat, refined sugar diet reduces hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor, neuronal plasticity, and learning. Neuroscience 2002, 112, 803-814. [CrossRef]
15. Wu, H.W.; Ren, L.F.; Zhou, X.; Han, D.W. A high-fructose diet induces hippocampal insulin resistance and exacerbates memory deficits in male sprague-dawley rats. Nutr. Neu. 2014. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Calvo-Ochoa, E.; Hernandez-Ortega, K.; Ferrera, P.; Morimoto, S.; Arias, C. Short-term high-fat-and-fructose feeding produces insulin signaling alterations accompanied by neurite and synaptic reduction and astroglial activation in the rat hippocampus. J. Cereb. Blood. Flow. Metab. 2014, 34, 1001-1008. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Cournot, M.; Marquie, J.C.; Ansiau, D.; Martinaud, C.; Fonds, H.; Ferrieres, J.; Ruidavets, J.B. Relation between body mass index and cognitive function in healthy middle-aged men and women. Neurology 2006, 67, 1208-1214. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Dahl, A.; Hassing, L.B.; Fransson, E.; Berg, S.; Gatz, M.; Reynolds, C.A.; Pedersen, N.L. Being overweight in midlife is associated with lower cognitive ability and steeper cognitive decline in late life. J. Gerontol. A. Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2010, 65, 57-62. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Hassing, L.B.; Dahl, A.K.; Pedersen, N.L.; Johansson, B. Overweight in midlife is related to lower cognitive function 30 years later: A prospective study with longitudinal assessments. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2010, 29, 543-552. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Deschamps, V.; Astier, X.; Ferry, M.; Rainfray, M.; Emeriau, J.P.; Barberger-Gateau, P. Nutritional status of healthy elderly persons living in dordogne, france, and relation with mortality and cognitive or functional decline. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 56, 305-312. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. Kuo, H.K.; Jones, R.N.; Milberg, W.P.; Tennstedt, S.; Talbot, L.; Morris, J.N.; Lipsitz, L.A. Cognitive function in normal-weight, overweight, and obese older adults: An analysis of the advanced cognitive training for independent and vital elderly cohort. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2006, 54, 97-103. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Sturman, M.T.; de Leon, C.F.; Bienias, J.L.; Morris, M.C.; Wilson, R.S.; Evans, D.A. Body mass index and cognitive decline in a biracial community population. Neurology 2008, 70, 360-367. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Benito-Leon, J.; Mitchell, A.J.; Hernandez-Gallego, J.; Bermejo-Pareja, F. Obesity and impaired cognitive functioning in the elderly: A population-based cross-sectional study (nedices). Eur. J. Neurol. 2013, 20, 899-e77. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Yaffe, K.; Kanaya, A.; Lindquist, K.; Simonsick, E.M.; Harris, T.; Shorr, R.I.; Tylavsky, F.A.; Newman, A.B. The metabolic syndrome, inflammation, and risk of cognitive decline. JAMA 2004, 292, 2237-2242. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Elias, M.F.; Elias, P.K.; Sullivan, L.M.; Wolf, P.A.; D'Agostino, R.B. Lower cognitive function in the presence of obesity and hypertension: The framingham heart study. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 2003, 27, 260-268. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Waldstein, S.R.; Katzel, L.I. Interactive relations of central versus total obesity and blood pressure to cognitive function. Int. J. Obes. (Lond.) 2006, 30, 201-207. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Convit, A.; Wolf, O.T.; Tarshish, C.; de Leon, M.J. Reduced glucose tolerance is associated with poor memory performance and hippocampal atrophy among normal elderly. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 2019-2022. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Teunissen, C.E.; van Boxtel, M.P.; Bosma, H.; Bosmans, E.; Delanghe, J.; De Bruijn, C.; Wauters, A.; Maes, M.; Jolles, J.; Steinbusch, H.W.; et al. Inflammation markers in relation to cognition in a healthy aging population. J. Neuroimmunol. 2003, 134, 142-150. [CrossRef]
29. Ylikoski, R.; Ylikoski, A.; Raininko, R.; Keskivaara, P.; Sulkava, R.; Tilvis, R.; Erkinjuntti, T. Cardiovascular diseases, health status, brain imaging findings and neuropsychological functioning in neurologically healthy elderly individuals. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2000, 30, 115-130. [CrossRef]
30. Stewart, R.; Masaki, K.; Xue, Q.L.; Peila, R.; Petrovitch, H.; White, L.R.; Launer, L.J. A 32-year prospective study of change in body weight and incident dementia: The honolulu-asia aging study. Arch. Neurol. 2005, 62, 55-60. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Francis, H.M.; Stevenson, R.J. Higher reported saturated fat and refined sugar intake is associated with reduced hippocampal-dependent memory and sensitivity to interoceptive signals. Behav. Neurosci. 2011, 125, 943-955. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. Nyaradi, A.; Foster, J.K.; Hickling, S.; Li, J.; Ambrosini, G.L.; Jacques, A.; Oddy, W.H. Prospective associations between dietary patterns and cognitive performance during adolescence. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry. 2014, 55, 1017-1024. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Overby, N.C.; Ludemann, E.; Hoigaard, R. Self-reported learning difficulties and dietary intake in norwegian adolescents. Scand. J. Public. Health. 2013, 41, 754-760. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Eskelinen, M.H.; Ngandu, T.; Helkala, E.L.; Tuomilehto, J.; Nissinen, A.; Soininen, H.; Kivipelto, M. Fat intake at midlife and cognitive impairment later in life: A population-based caide study. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry. 2008, 23, 741-747. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. Grant, W.B.; Campbell, A.; Itzhaki, R.F.; Savory, J. The significance of environmental factors in the etiology of alzheimer's disease. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 2002, 4, 179-189. [PubMed]
36. Okereke, O.I.; Rosner, B.A.; Kim, D.H.; Kang, J.H.; Cook, N.R.; Manson, J.E.; Buring, J.E.; Willett,W.C.; Grodstein, F. Dietary fat types and 4-year cognitive change in community-dwelling older women. Ann. Neurol. 2012, 72, 124-134. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Solfrizzi, V.; Scafato, E.; Capurso, C.; D'Introno, A.; Colacicco, A.M.; Frisardi, V.; Vendemiale, G.; Baldereschi, M.; Crepaldi, G.; Di Carlo, A.; et al. Metabolic syndrome, mild cognitive impairment, and progression to dementia. The italian longitudinal study on aging. Neurobiol. Aging. 2011, 32, 1932-1941. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Devore, E.E.; Grodstein, F.; van Rooij, F.J.; Hofman, A.; Rosner, B.; Stampfer, M.J.; Witteman, J.C.; Breteler, M.M. Dietary intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids in relation to long-term dementia risk. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 90, 170-176. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Kalmijn, S.; van Boxtel, M.P.; Ocke, M.; Verschuren, W.M.; Kromhout, D.; Launer, L.J. Dietary intake of fatty acids and fish in relation to cognitive performance at middle age. Neurology 2004, 62, 275-280. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Morris, M.C.; Evans, D.A.; Bienias, J.L.; Tangney, C.C.; Wilson, R.S. Dietary fat intake and 6-year cognitive change in an older biracial community population. Neurology 2004, 62, 1573-1579. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Heude, B.; Ducimetiere, P.; Berr, C.; Study, E.V.A. Cognitive decline and fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes-the eva study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 77, 803-808. [PubMed]
42. Luchtman, D.W.; Song, C. Cognitive enhancement by omega-3 fatty acids from child-hood to old age: Findings from animal and clinical studies. Neuropharmacology 2013, 64, 550-565. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43. Swanson, D.; Block, R.; Mousa, S.A. Omega-3 fatty acids epa and dha: Health benefits throughout life. Adv. Nutr. (Bethesda). 2012, 3, 1-7. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Roberts, R.O.; Roberts, L.A.; Geda, Y.E.; Cha, R.H.; Pankratz, V.S.; O'Connor, H.M.; Knopman, D.S.; Petersen, R.C. Relative intake of macronutrients impacts risk of mild cognitive impairment or dementia. J. Alzheimer Dis. 2012, 32, 329-339.
45. Abargouei, A.S.; Kalantari, N.; Omidvar, N.; Rashidkhani, B.; Rad, A.H.; Ebrahimi, A.A.; Khosravi-Boroujeni, H.; Esmaillzadeh, A. Refined carbohydrate intake in relation to non-verbal intelligence among tehrani schoolchildren. Public. Health. Nutr. 2012, 15, 1925-1931. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Holloway, C.J.; Cochlin, L.E.; Emmanuel, Y.; Murray, A.; Codreanu, I.; Edwards, L.M.; Szmigielski, C.; Tyler, D.J.; Knight, N.S.; Saxby, B.K.; et al. A high-fat diet impairs cardiac high-energy phosphate metabolism and cognitive function in healthy human subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 93, 748-755. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Edwards, L.M.; Murray, A.J.; Holloway, C.J.; Carter, E.E.; Kemp, G.J.; Codreanu, I.; Brooker, H.; Tyler, D.J.; Robbins, P.A.; Clarke, K. Short-term consumption of a high-fat diet impairs whole-body efficiency and cognitive function in sedentary men. FASEB. J. 2011, 25, 1088-1096. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Wolraich, M.L.; Lindgren, S.D.; Stumbo, P.J.; Stegink, L.D.; Appelbaum, M.I.; Kiritsy, M.C. Effects of diets high in sucrose or aspartame on the behavior and cognitive performance of children. N. Engl. J. Med. 1994, 330, 301-307. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Micha, R.; Rogers, P.J.; Nelson, M. Glycaemic index and glycaemic load of breakfast predict cognitive function and mood in school children: A randomised controlled trial. Br. J. Nutr. 2011, 106, 1552-1561. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Nabb, S.; Benton, D. The influence on cognition of the interaction between the macro-nutrient content of breakfast and glucose tolerance. Physiol. Behav. 2006, 87, 16-23. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Kanoski, S.E.; Davidson, T.L. Different patterns of memory impairments accompany short- and longer-term maintenance on a high-energy diet. J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process. 2010, 36, 313-319. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
52. Jurdak, N.; Lichtenstein, A.H.; Kanarek, R.B. Diet-induced obesity and spatial cognition in young male rats. Nutr. Neurosci. 2008, 11, 48-54. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. Jurdak, N.; Kanarek, R.B. Sucrose-induced obesity impairs novel object recognition learning in young rats. Physiol. Behav. 2009, 96, 1-5. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Kendig, M.D.; Lin, C.S.; Beilharz, J.E.; Rooney, K.B.; Boakes, R.A. Maltodextrin can produce similar metabolic and cognitive effects to those of sucrose in the rat. Appetite 2014, 77, 1-12. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Hsu, T.M.; Konanur, V.R.; Taing, L.; Usui, R.; Kayser, B.D.; Goran, M.I.; Kanoski, S.E. Effects of sucrose and high fructose corn syrup consumption on spatial memory function and hippocampal neuroinflammation in adolescent rats. Hippocampus 2015, 25, 227-239. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
56. Nikonenko, A.G.; Radenovic, L.; Andjus, P.R.; Skibo, G.G. Structural features of ischemic damage in the hippocampus. Anat. Rec. 2009, 292, 1914-1921. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Schwartz, M.; London, A.; Shechter, R. Boosting t-cell immunity as a therapeutic approach for neurodegenerative conditions: The role of innate immunity. Neuroscience 2009, 158, 1133-1142. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
58. Dheen, S.T.; Kaur, C.; Ling, E.A. Microglial activation and its implications in the brain diseases. Curr. Med. Chem. 2007, 14, 1189-1197. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59. Mrak, R.E.; Griffin, W.S. Potential inflammatory biomarkers in alzheimer's disease. J. Alzheimer Dis. 2005, 8, 369-375.
60. Tuppo, E.E.; Arias, H.R. The role of inflammation in alzheimer's disease. Int. J. Biochem. Cell. Biol. 2005, 37, 289-305. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
61. Compher, C.; Badellino, K.O. Obesity and inflammation: Lessons from bariatric surgery. JPEN J. Parenter. Enteral. Nutr. 2008, 32, 645-647. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Cottam, D.R.; Mattar, S.G.; Barinas-Mitchell, E.; Eid, G.; Kuller, L.; Kelley, D.E.; Schauer, P.R. The chronic inflammatory hypothesis for the morbidity associated with morbid obesity: Implications and effects of weight loss. Obes. Surg. 2004, 14, 589-600. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. Das, U.N. Is obesity an inflammatory condition? Nutrition 2001, 17, 953-966. [CrossRef]
64. Romeo, G.R.; Lee, J.; Shoelson, S.E. Metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and roles of inflammation-mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2012, 32, 1771-1776. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Luft, V.C.; Schmidt, M.I.; Pankow, J.S.; Couper, D.; Ballantyne, C.M.; Young, J.H.; Duncan, B.B. Chronic inflammation role in the obesity-diabetes association: A case-cohort study. Diabetol. Metab. Syndr. 2013, 5, 31. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Reichenberg, A.; Yirmiya, R.; Schuld, A.; Kraus, T.; Haack, M.; Morag, A.; Pollmacher, T. Cytokine-associated emotional and cognitive disturbances in humans. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2001, 58, 445-452. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Gibertini, M. Il1 beta impairs relational but not procedural rodent learning in a water maze task. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 1996, 402, 207-217. [PubMed]
68. Gibertini, M.; Newton, C.; Friedman, H.; Klein, T.W. Spatial learning impairment in mice infected with legionella pneumophila or administered exogenous interleukin-1-beta. Brain. Behav. Immun. 1995, 9, 113-128. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Barrientos, R.M.; Sprunger, D.B.; Campeau, S.; Watkins, L.R.; Rudy, J.W.; Maier, S.F. Bdnf mrna expression in rat hippocampus following contextual learning is blocked by intrahippocampal il-1beta administration. J. Neuroimmunol. 2004, 155, 119-126. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. Gonzalez, P.V.; Schioth, H.B.; Lasaga, M.; Scimonelli, T.N. Memory impairment induced by il-1beta is reversed by alpha-msh through central melanocortin-4 receptors. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2009, 23, 817-822. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Pugh, C.R.; Nguyen, K.T.; Gonyea, J.L.; Fleshner, M.;Wakins, L.R.; Maier, S.F.; Rudy, J.W. Role of interleukin-1 beta in impairment of contextual fear conditioning caused by social isolation. Behav. Brain. Res. 1999, 106, 109-118. [CrossRef]
72. Parnet, P.; Kelley, K.W.; Bluthe, R.M.; Dantzer, R. Expression and regulation of interleukin-1 receptors in the brain. Role in cytokines-induced sickness behavior. J. Neuroimmunol. 2002, 125, 5-14. [CrossRef]
73. Thaler, J.P.; Yi, C.X.; Schur, E.A.; Guyenet, S.J.; Hwang, B.H.; Dietrich, M.O.; Zhao, X.; Sarruf, D.A.; Izgur, V.; Maravilla, K.R.; et al. Obesity is associated with hypothalamic injury in rodents and humans. J. Clin. Invest. 2012, 122, 153-162. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
74. Sobesky, J.L.; Barrientos, R.M.; De May, H.S.; Thompson, B.M.; Weber, M.D.; Watkins, L.R.; Maier, S.F. High-fat diet consumption disrupts memory and primes elevations in hippocampal il-1beta, an effect that can be prevented with dietary reversal or il-1 receptor antagonism. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2014, 42, 22-32. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
75. Boitard, C.; Cavaroc, A.; Sauvant, J.; Aubert, A.; Castanon, N.; Laye, S.; Ferreira, G. Impairment of hippocampal-dependent memory induced by juvenile high-fat diet intake is associated with enhanced hippocampal inflammation in rats. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2014, 40, 9-17. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Yamada, K.; Mizuno, M.; Nabeshima, T. Role for brain-derived neurotrophic factor in learning and memory. Life. Sci. 2002, 70, 735-744. [CrossRef]
77. Gottmann, K.; Mittmann, T.; Lessmann, V. Bdnf signaling in the formation, maturation and plasticity of glutamatergic and gabaergic synapses. Exp. Brain. Res. 2009, 199, 203-234. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Koponen, E.; Lakso, M.; Castren, E. Overexpression of the full-length neurotrophin receptor trkb regulates the expression of plasticity-related genes in mouse brain. Brain. Res. Mol. Brain. Res. 2004, 130, 81-94. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Finkbeiner, S. Calcium regulation of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2000, 57, 394-401. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
80. Gomez-Pinilla, F. Collaborative effects of diet and exercise on cognitive enhancement. Nutr. Health. 2011, 20, 165-169. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Labrousse, V.F.; Nadjar, A.; Joffre, C.; Costes, L.; Aubert, A.; Gregoire, S.; Bretillon, L.; Laye, S. Short-term long chain omega3 diet protects from neuroinflammatory processes and memory impairment in aged mice. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e36861. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Grundy, T.; Toben, C.; Jaehne, E.J.; Corrigan, F.; Baune, B.T. Long-term omega-3 supplementation modulates behavior, hippocampal fatty acid concentration, neuronal progenitor proliferation and central tnf-α expression in 7 month old unchallenged mice. Front. Cell. Neurosci. 2014, 8, 399. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Dong, S.; Zeng, Q.; Mitchell, E.S.; Xiu, J.; Duan, Y.; Li, C.; Tiwari, J.K.; Hu, Y.; Cao, X.; Zhao, Z. Curcumin enhances neurogenesis and cognition in aged rats: Implications for transcriptional interactions related to growth and synaptic plasticity. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e31211. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Janssen, C.I.; Kiliaan, A.J. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (lcpufa) from genesis to senescence: The influence of lcpufa on neural development, aging, and neurodegeneration. Prog. Lipid. Res. 2014, 53, 1-17. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Youdim, K.A.; Martin, A.; Joseph, J.A. Essential fatty acids and the brain: Possible health implications. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 2000, 18, 383-399. [CrossRef]
86. Beydoun, M.A.; Kaufman, J.S.; Satia, J.A.; Rosamond, W.; Folsom, A.R. Plasma n-3 fatty acids and the risk of cognitive decline in older adults: The atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85, 1103-1111. [PubMed]
87. Barberger-Gateau, P.; Raffaitin, C.; Letenneur, L.; Berr, C.; Tzourio, C.; Dartigues, J.F.; Alperovitch, A. Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: The three-city cohort study. Neurology 2007, 69, 1921-1930. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
88. Samieri, C.; Feart, C.; Letenneur, L.; Dartigues, J.F.; Peres, K.; Auriacombe, S.; Peuchant, E.; Delcourt, C.; Barberger-Gateau, P. Low plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and depressive symptomatology are independent predictors of dementia risk. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 714-721. [PubMed]
89. Cherubini, A.; Andres-Lacueva, C.; Martin, A.; Lauretani, F.; Iorio, A.D.; Bartali, B.; Corsi, A.; Bandinelli, S.; Mattson, M.P.; Ferrucci, L. Low plasma n-3 fatty acids and dementia in older persons: The inchianti study. J. Gerontol. A. Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2007, 62, 1120-1126. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
90. Conquer, J.A.; Tierney, M.C.; Zecevic, J.; Bettger, W.J.; Fisher, R.H. Fatty acid analysis of blood plasma of patients with alzheimer's disease, other types of dementia, and cognitive impairment. Lipids 2000, 35, 1305-1312. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
91. Lister, J.P.; Barnes, C.A. Neurobiological changes in the hippocampus during normative aging. Arch. Neurol. 2009, 66, 829-833. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Cederholm, T.; Salem, N., Jr.; Palmblad, J. Omega-3 fatty acids in the prevention of cognitive decline in humans. Adv. Nutr. (Bethesda) 2013, 4, 672-676. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
93. Stonehouse,W.; Conlon, C.A.; Podd, J.; Hill, S.R.; Minihane, A.M.; Haskell, C.; Kennedy, D. Dha supplementation improved both memory and reaction time in healthy young adults: A randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2013, 97, 1134-1143. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. Fontani, G.; Corradeschi, F.; Felici, A.; Alfatti, F.; Migliorini, S.; Lodi, L. Cognitive and physiological effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in healthy subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 2005, 35, 691-699. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Nilsson, A.; Radeborg, K.; Salo, I.; Bjorck, I. Effects of supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cognitive performance and cardiometabolic risk markers in healthy 51 to 72 years old subjects: A randomized controlled cross-over study. Nutr. J. 2012, 11, 99. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
96. Yurko-Mauro, K.; McCarthy, D.; Rom, D.; Nelson, E.; Ryan, A.; Blackwell, A.; Salem, N.; Stedman, M. Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline. Alzheimers. Dement. 2010, 6, 456-464. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
97. Van de Rest, O.; Geleijnse, J.M.; Kok, F.J.; van Staveren, W.A.; Dullemeijer, C.; Olderikkert, M.G.; Beekman, A.T.; de Groot, C.P. Effect of fish oil on cognitive performance in older subjects: A randomized, controlled trial. Neurology 2008, 71, 430-438. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98. Dangour, A.D.; Allen, E.; Elbourne, D.; Fasey, N.; Fletcher, A.E.; Hardy, P.; Holder, G.E.; Knight, R.; Letley, L.; Richards, M.; et al. Effect of 2-y n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on cognitive function in older people: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 91, 1725-1732. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Kotani, S.; Sakaguchi, E.; Warashina, S.; Matsukawa, N.; Ishikura, Y.; Kiso, Y.; Sakakibara, M.; Yoshimoto, T.; Guo, J.; Yamashima, T. Dietary supplementation of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids improves cognitive dysfunction. Neurosci. Res. 2006, 56, 159-164. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
100. Vakhapova, V.; Cohen, T.; Richter, Y.; Herzog, Y.; Korczyn, A.D. Phosphatidylserine containing omega-3 fatty acids may improve memory abilities in non-demented elderly with memory complaints: A double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2010, 29, 467-474. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
101. Yurko-Mauro, K.; McCarthy, D.; Rom, D.; Nelson, E.B.; Ryan, A.S.; Blackwell, A.; Salem, N., Jr.; Stedman, M. Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline. Alzheimers. Dement. 2010, 6, 456-464. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
102. Yvonne, F.-L.; Maria, E.-J.; Tommy, C.; Hans, B.; Gerd, F.-I.; Anita, G.; Inger, V.; Bengt, V.; Lars-Olof, W.; Jan, P. ω-3 fatty acid treatment in 174 patients with mild to moderate alzheimer disease: Omegad study: A randomized double-blind trial. Arch. Neurol. 2006, 63, 1402-1408. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Chiu, C.-C.; Su, K.-P.; Cheng, T.-C.; Liu, H.-C.; Chang, C.-J.; Dewey, M.E.; Stewart, R.; Huang, S.-Y. The effects of omega-3 fatty acids monotherapy in alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment: A preliminary randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 2008, 32, 1538-1544. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
104. Hooijmans, C.R.; Pasker-de Jong, P.C.; de Vries, R.B.; Ritskes-Hoitinga, M. The effects of long-term omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on cognition and alzheimer's pathology in animal models of alzheimer's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Alzheimers. Dis. 2012, 28, 191-209. [PubMed]
105. Simopoulos, A.P. Evolutionary aspects of diet: The omega-6/omega-3 ratio and the brain. Mol. Neurobiol. 2011, 44, 203-215. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
106. Chilton, F.H.; Murphy, R.C.; Wilson, B.A.; Sergeant, S.; Ainsworth, H.; Seeds, M.C.; Mathias, R.A. Diet-gene interactions and pufa metabolism: A potential contributor to health disparities and human diseases. Nutrients 2014, 6, 1993-2022. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
107. Hibbeln, J.R.; Nieminen, L.R.; Blasbalg, T.L.; Riggs, J.A.; Lands, W.E. Healthy intakes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids: Estimations considering worldwide diversity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 1483-1493.
108. Buaud, B.; Esterle, L.; Vaysse, C.; Alfos, S.; Combe, N.; Higueret, P.; Pallet, V. A high-fat diet induces lower expression of retinoid receptors and their target genes gap-43/neuromodulin and rc3/neurogranin in the rat brain. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 103, 1720-1729. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
109. Lepinay, A.L.; Larrieu, T.; Joffre, C.; Acar, N.; Garate, I.; Castanon, N.; Ferreira, G.; Langelier, B.; Guesnet, P.; Bretillon, L.; et al. Perinatal high-fat diet increases hippocampal vulnerability to the adverse effects of subsequent high-fat feeding. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015, 53, 82-93. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
110. Agrawal, R.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. 'Metabolic syndrome' in the brain: Deficiency in omega-3 fatty acid exacerbates dysfunctions in insulin receptor signalling and cognition. J. Physiol. 2012, 590, 2485-2499. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
111. Simopoulos, A.P. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid deficiency and high fructose intake in the development of metabolic syndrome, brain metabolic abnormalities, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Nutrients 2013, 5, 2901-2923. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
112. Carrie, I.; Clement, M.; de Javel, D.; Frances, H.; Bourre, J.M. Specific phospholipid fatty acid composition of brain regions in mice. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency and phospholipid supplementation. J. Lipid. Res. 2000, 41, 465-472. [PubMed]
113. Calderon, F.; Kim, H.Y. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurite growth in hippocampal neurons. J. Neurochem. 2004, 90, 979-988. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
114. Crupi, R.; Marino, A.; Cuzzocrea, S. N-3 fatty acids: Role in neurogenesis and neuroplasticity. Curr. Med. Chem. 2013, 20, 2953-2963. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
115. Lestari, M.L.; Indrayanto, G. Curcumin. Profiles. Drug. Subst. Excip. Relat. Methodol. 2014, 39, 113-204. [PubMed]
116. Conboy, L.; Foley, A.G.; O'Boyle, N.M.; Lawlor, M.; Gallagher, H.C.; Murphy, K.J.; Regan, C.M. Curcumin-induced degradation of pkc delta is associated with enhanced dentate ncam psa expression and spatial learning in adult and aged wistar rats. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2009, 77, 1254-1265. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
117. Jaques, J.A.; Rezer, J.F.; Carvalho, F.B.; da Rosa, M.M.; Gutierres, J.M.; Goncalves, J.F.; Schmatz, R.; de Bairros, A.V.; Mazzanti, C.M.; Rubin, M.A.; et al. Curcumin protects against cigarette smoke-induced cognitive impairment and increased acetylcholinesterase activity in rats. Physiol. Behav. 2012, 106, 664-669. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
118. Yu, S.Y.; Zhang, M.; Luo, J.; Zhang, L.; Shao, Y.; Li, G. Curcumin ameliorates memory deficits via neuronal nitric oxide synthase in aged mice. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry. 2013, 45, 47-53. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
119. Reeta, K.H.; Mehla, J.; Gupta, Y.K. Curcumin ameliorates cognitive dysfunction and oxidative damage in phenobarbitone and carbamazepine administered rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2010, 644, 106-112. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
120. Xu, Y.; Lin, D.; Li, S.; Li, G.; Shyamala, S.G.; Barish, P.A.; Vernon, M.M.; Pan, J.; Ogle, W.O. Curcumin reverses impaired cognition and neuronal plasticity induced by chronic stress. Neuropharmacology 2009, 57, 463-471. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
121. Sun, C.Y.; Qi, S.S.; Zhou, P.; Cui, H.R.; Chen, S.X.; Dai, K.Y.; Tang, M.L. Neurobiological and pharmacological validity of curcumin in ameliorating memory performance of senescence-accelerated mice. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2013, 105, 76-82. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
122. Ataie, A.; Sabetkasaei, M.; Haghparast, A.; Moghaddam, A.H.; Kazeminejad, B. Neuroprotective effects of the polyphenolic antioxidant agent, curcumin, against homocysteine-induced cognitive impairment and oxidative stress in the rat. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2010, 96, 378-385. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
123. Wu, A.; Noble, E.E.; Tyagi, E.; Ying, Z.; Zhuang, Y.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. Curcumin boosts dha in the brain: Implications for the prevention of anxiety disorders. BBA-Mol. Basis. Dis. 2015, 1852, 951-961. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
124. Wu, A.; Ying, Z.; Gomez-Pinilla, F. Dietary strategy to repair plasma membrane after brain trauma: Implications for plasticity and cognition. Neurorehabil. Neural. Repair. 2014, 28, 75-84. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
125. Davidson, T.L.; Kanoski, S.E.; Walls, E.K.; Jarrard, L.E. Memory inhibition and energy regulation. Physiol. Behav. 2005, 86, 731-746. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
126. Davidson, T.L.; Kanoski, S.E.; Schier, L.A.; Clegg, D.J.; Benoit, S.C. A potential role for the hippocampus in energy intake and body weight regulation. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 2007, 7, 613-616.