Metabolic and nutritional support of critically ill patients: Consensus and controversies

Critical Care

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2015, Pages

  Preiser, Jean Charles ^a   van Zanten, Arthur R H ^b   Berger, Mette M ^c   Biolo, Gianni ^d   Casaer, Michael P ^e   Doig, Gordon S ^f   Griffiths, Richard D ^g   Heyland, Daren K ^h   Hiesmayr, Michael ⁱ   Iapichino, Gaetano ^j   Laviano, Alessandro ^k   Pichard, Claude ^l   Singer, Pierre ^m   Van den Berghe, Greet ^e   Wernerman, Jan ⁿ   Wischmeyer, Paul ^o   Vincent, Jean Louis ^a  

^a ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

^b GELDERSE VALLEI HOSPITAL   (Netherlands)

^c LAUSANNE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

^d UNIVERSITY OF TRIESTE   (Italy)

^e UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^f UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^g UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

^h KINGSTON GENERAL HOSPITAL   (Canada)

ⁱ MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

^j UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^k SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^l GENEVA UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS   (Switzerland)

^m Beilison Medical Center   (Israel)

ⁿ KAROLINSKA UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Sweden)

^o UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARGININE; GLUTAMINE; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PREBIOTIC AGENT; PROBIOTIC AGENT; SELENIUM; SYNBIOTIC AGENT; TRACE ELEMENT; VITAMIN; PROTEIN INTAKE;

ARTICLE; AUTOPHAGY; CALORIC INTAKE; CALORIMETRY; CONSENSUS; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG SAFETY; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ENTERIC FEEDING; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; LOW DRUG DOSE; MALNUTRITION; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); NONHUMAN; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; OVERNUTRITION; PANCREATITIS; PARENTERAL NUTRITION; PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN INTAKE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REFEEDING SYNDROME; ADMINISTRATION AND DOSAGE; CRITICAL ILLNESS; PROCEDURES;

CONSENSUS; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DIETARY PROTEINS; ENERGY INTAKE; ENTERAL NUTRITION; HUMANS; PARENTERAL NUTRITION;

EID: 84937940934     PISSN: 13648535     EISSN: 1466609X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/s13054-015-0737-8     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Van den Berghe G, de Zegher F, Baxter RC, Veldhuis JD, Wouters P, Schetz M, et al. Neuroendocrinology of prolonged critical illness: effects of exogenous thyrotropin-releasing hormone and its combination with growth hormone secretagogues. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:309-19.
2. Preiser JC, Ichai C, Orban JC, Groeneveld J. Metabolic response to the stress of critical illness. Br J Anaesth. 2014 Jun 26. pii: aeu187. [Epub ahead of print].
3. Cuesta JM, Singer M. The stress response and critical illness: a review. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:3283-9.
4. Jones C, Backman C, Griffiths RD. Intensive care diaries and relatives' symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder after critical illness: a pilot study. Am J Crit Care. 2012;21:172-6.
5. Knowles RE, Tarrier N. Evaluation of the effect of prospective patient diaries on emotional well-being in intensive care unit survivors: a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:184-91.
6. Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1359-67.
7. Casaer MP, Mesotten D, Hermans G, Wouters PJ, Schetz M, Meyfroidt G, et al. Early versus late parenteral nutrition in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:506-17.
8. Turina M, Fry DE, Polk Jr HC. Acute hyperglycemia and the innate immune system: clinical, cellular, and molecular aspects. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:1624-33.
9. Brownlee M. The pathobiology of diabetic complications: a unifying mechanism. Diabetes. 2005;54:1615-25.
10. Weekers F, Giulietti AP, Michalaki M, Coopmans W, Van Herck E, Mathieu C, et al. Metabolic, endocrine, and immune effects of stress hyperglycemia in a rabbit model of prolonged critical illness. Endocrinology. 2003;144:5329-38.
11. Hansen TK, Thiel S, Wouters PJ, Christiansen JS, Van den Berghe G. Intensive insulin therapy exerts antiinflammatory effects in critically ill patients and counteracts the adverse effect of low mannose-binding lectin levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:1082-8.
12. Vlasselaers D, Milants I, Desmet L, Wouters PJ, Vanhorebeek I, van der Heuvel I, et al. Intensive insulin therapy for patients in paediatric intensive care: a prospective, randomised controlled study. Lancet. 2009;373:547-56.
13. Albacker T, Carvalho G, Schricker T, Lachapelle K. High-dose insulin therapy attenuates systemic inflammatory response in coronary artery bypass grafting patients. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008;86:20-7.
14. Jeschke MG, Kulp GA, Kraft R, Finnerty CC, Mlcak R, Lee JO, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in severely burned pediatric patients: a prospective randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;182:351-9.
15. Langouche L, Vanhorebeek I, Vlasselaers D, Vander Perre S, Wouters PJ, Skogstrand K, et al. Intensive insulin therapy protects the endothelium of critically ill patients. J Clin Invest. 2005;115:2277-86.
16. Ellger B, Debaveye Y, Vanhorebeek I, Langouche L, Giulietti A, Van Etten E, et al. Survival benefits of intensive insulin therapy in critical illness: impact of maintaining normoglycemia versus glycemia-independent actions of insulin. Diabetes. 2006;55:1096-105.
17. Puthucheary ZA, Rawal J, McPhail M, Connolly B, Ratnayake G, Chan P, et al. Acute skeletal muscle wasting in critical illness. JAMA. 2013;310:1591-600.
18. Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, Wolfe RR. An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. Am J Physiol. 1997;273:E122-9.
19. Berg A, Rooyackers O, Bellander BM, Wernerman J. Whole body protein kinetics during hypocaloric and normocaloric feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care. 2013;17:R158.
20. Biolo G, Maggi SP, Williams BD, Tipton KD, Wolfe RR. Increased rates of muscle protein turnover and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:E514-20.
21. Gore DC, Wolf SE, Sanford AP, Herndon DN, Wolfe RR. Extremity hyperinsulinemia stimulates muscle protein synthesis in severely injured patients. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;286:E529-34.
22. Ferrando AA, Stuart CA, Sheffield-Moore M, Wolfe RR. Inactivity amplifies the catabolic response of skeletal muscle to cortisol. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:3515-21.
23. Biolo G, Agostini F, Simunic B, Sturma M, Torelli L, Preiser JC, et al. Positive energy balance is associated with accelerated muscle atrophy and increased erythrocyte glutathione turnover during 5wk of bed rest. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:950-8.
24. Singer P, Anbar R, Cohen J, Shapiro H, Shalita-Chesner M, Lev S, et al. The tight calorie control study (TICACOS): a prospective, randomized, controlled pilot study of nutritional support in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:601-9.
25. Ziegler TR. Parenteral nutrition in the critically ill patient. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:1088-97.
26. Mickiewicz B, Duggan GE, Winston BW, Doig C, Kubes P, Vogel HJ. Metabolic profiling of serum samples by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy as a potential diagnostic approach for septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2014;42:1140-9.
27. Rogers AJ, McGeachie M, Baron RM, Gazourian L, Haspel JA, Nakahira K, et al. Metabolomic derangements are associated with mortality in critically ill adult patients. PLoS One. 2014;9:e87538.
28. Fraipont V, Preiser JC. Energy estimation and measurement in critically ill patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2013;37:705-13.
29. Alberda C, Gramlich L, Jones N, Jeejeebhoy K, Day AG, Dhaliwal R, et al. The relationship between nutritional intake and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients: results of an international multicenter observational study. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35:1728-37.
30. Villet S, Chiolero RL, Bollmann MD, Revelly JP, Cayeux RNM, Delarue J, et al. Negative impact of hypocaloric feeding and energy balance on clinical outcome in ICU patients. Clin Nutr. 2005;24:502-9.
31. Dvir D, Cohen J, Singer P. Computerized energy balance and complications in critically ill patients: an observational study. Clin Nutr. 2006;25:37-44.
32. Heyland DK, Cahill N, Day AG. Optimal amount of calories for critically ill patients: depends on how you slice the cake! Crit Care Med. 2011;39:2619-26.
33. Weijs PJ, Stapel SN, de Groot SD, Driessen RH, de Jong E, Girbes AR, et al. Optimal protein and energy nutrition decreases mortality in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a prospective observational cohort study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2012;36:60-8.
34. Allingstrup MJ, Esmailzadeh N, Wilkens Knudsen A, Espersen K, Hartvig Jensen T, Wiis J, et al. Provision of protein and energy in relation to measured requirements in intensive care patients. Clin Nutr. 2012;31:462-8.
35. Bellomo R, Cass A, Cole L, Finfer S, Gallagher M, Lee J, et al. Calorie intake and patient outcomes in severe acute kidney injury: findings from The Randomized Evaluation of Normal vs. Augmented Level of Replacement. Therapy (RENAL) study trial. Crit Care. 2014;18:R45.
36. Schetz M, Casaer MP, Van den Berghe G. Does artificial nutrition improve outcome of critical illness? Crit Care. 2013;17:302.
37. Berger MM, Revelly JP, Wasserfallen JB, Schmid A, Bouvry S, Cayeux MC, et al. Impact of a computerized information system on quality of nutritional support in the ICU. Nutrition. 2006;22:221-9.
38. Vincent JL, Preiser JC. When should we add parenteral to enteral nutrition? Lancet. 2013;381:354-5.
39. Weimann A, Singer P. Avoiding underfeeding in severely ill patients. Lancet. 2013;381:1811.
40. McClave SA, Lowen CC, Kleber MJ, Nicholson JF, Jimmerson SC, McConnell JW, et al. Are patients fed appropriately according to their caloric requirements? JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1998;22:375-81.
41. Singer P, Berger MM, Van den Berghe G, Biolo G, Calder P, Forbes A, et al. ESPEN Guidelines on Parenteral Nutrition: intensive care. Clin Nutr. 2009;28:387-400.
42. Martindale RG, McClave SA, Vanek VW, McCarthy M, Roberts P, Taylor B, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: Executive Summary. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:1757-61.
43. Sundstrom M, Tjader I, Rooyackers O, Wernerman J. Indirect calorimetry in mechanically ventilated patients. A systematic comparison of three instruments. Clin Nutr. 2013;32:118-21.
44. Graf S, Karsegard VL, Viatte V, Heidegger CP, Fleury Y, Pichard C, et al. Evaluation of three indirect calorimetry devices in mechanically ventilated patients: which device compares best with the Deltatrac II? A prospective observational study. Clin Nutr. in press.
45. Biolo G, Ciocchi B, Stulle M, Bosutti A, Barazzoni R, Zanetti M, et al. Calorie restriction accelerates the catabolism of lean body mass during 2wk of bed rest. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:366-72.
46. Mattison JA, Roth GS, Beasley TM, Tilmont EM, Handy AM, Herbert RL, et al. Impact of caloric restriction on health and survival in rhesus monkeys from the NIA study. Nature. 2012;489:318-21.
47. Derde S, Vanhorebeek I, Guiza F, Derese I, Gunst J, Fahrenkrog B, et al. Early parenteral nutrition evokes a phenotype of autophagy deficiency in liver and skeletal muscle of critically ill rabbits. Endocrinology. 2012;153:2267-76.
48. Hermans G, Casaer MP, Clerckx B, Guiza F, Vanhullebusch T, Derde S, et al. Effect of tolerating macronutrient deficit on the development of intensive-care unit acquired weakness: a subanalysis of the EPaNIC trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2013;1:621-9.
49. Heidegger CP, Berger MM, Graf S, Zingg W, Darmon P, Costanza MC, et al. Optimization of energy provision with supplemental parenteral nutrition (SPN) improves the clinical outcome of critically ill patients: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Lancet. 2012;381:385-93.
50. Rice TW, Mogan S, Hays MA, Bernard GR, Jensen GL, Wheeler AP. Randomized trial of initial trophic versus full-energy enteral nutrition in mechanically ventilated patients with acute respiratory failure. Crit Care Med. 2011;39:967-74.
51. Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, Steingrub J, Hite RD, Moss M, et al. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA. 2012;307:795-803.
52. Arabi YM, Tamim HM, Dhar GS, Al-Dawood A, Al-Sultan M, Sakkijha MH, et al. Permissive underfeeding and intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:569-77.
53. Heyland DK, Murch L, Cahill N, McCall M, Muscedere J, Stelfox HT, et al. Enhanced protein-energy provision via the enteral route feeding protocol in critically ill patients: results of a cluster randomized trial. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:2743-53.
54. Griffiths RD. Nutrition for critically ill patients: how much is enough? JAMA. 2012;307:845-6.
55. Casaer MP, Wilmer A, Hermans G, Wouters PJ, Mesotten D, Van den Berghe G. Role of disease and macronutrient dose in the randomized controlled EPaNIC trial: a post hoc analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187:247-55.
56. Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Lemieux M, Wang M, Day AG. Implementing the PEP uP protocol in critical care units in Canada: results of a multicenter, quality improvement study. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014 Apr 18. [Epub ahead of print].
57. Kondrup J. Nutritional-risk scoring systems in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2014;17:177-82.
58. Guadagni M, Biolo G. Effects of inflammation and/or inactivity on the need for dietary protein. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2009;12:617-22.
59. Rooyackers O, Kouchek-Zadeh R, Tjader I, Norberg A, Klaude M, Wernerman J. Whole body protein turnover in critically ill patients with multiple organ failure. Clin Nutr. 2014, pii:S0261-5614(14)00045-4.
60. Cheatham ML, Safcsak K, Brzezinski SJ, Lube MW. Nitrogen balance, protein loss, and the open abdomen. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:127-31.
61. Badaloo A, Reid M, Forrester T, Heird WC, Jahoor F. Cysteine supplementation improves the erythrocyte glutathione synthesis rate in children with severe edematous malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:646-52.
62. Oudemans-van Straaten HM, Bosman RJ, Treskes M, van der Spoel HJ, Zandstra DF. Plasma glutamine depletion and patient outcome in acute ICU admissions. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27:84-90.
63. Rodas PC, Rooyackers O, Hebert C, Norberg A, Wernerman J. Glutamine and glutathione at ICU admission in relation to outcome. Clin Sci (Lond). 2012;122:591-7.
64. Jackson NC, Carroll PV, Russell-Jones DL, Sonksen PH, Treacher DF, Umpleby AM. The metabolic consequences of critical illness: acute effects on glutamine and protein metabolism. Am J Physiol. 1999;276:E163-70.
65. Ishibashi N, Plank LD, Sando K, Hill GL. Optimal protein requirements during the first 2 weeks after the onset of critical illness. Crit Care Med. 1998;26:1529-35.
66. Hoffer LJ, Bistrian BR. Appropriate protein provision in critical illness: a systematic and narrative review. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96:591-600.
67. Tillquist M, Kutsogiannis DJ, Wischmeyer PE, Kummerlen C, Leung R, Stollery D, et al. Bedside ultrasound is a practical and reliable measurement tool for assessing quadriceps muscle layer thickness. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014;38:886-90.
68. Casaer MP, Langouche L, Coudyzer W, Vanbeckevoort D, De Dobbelaer B, Guiza FG, et al. Impact of early parenteral nutrition on muscle and adipose tissue compartments during critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:2298-309.
69. Hercberg S, Galan P, Preziosi P, Bertrais S, Mennen L, Malvy D, et al. The SU. VI.MAX Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the health effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:2335-42.
70. Rayman MP. Selenium and human health. Lancet. 2012;379:1256-68.
71. Forceville X, Vitoux D, Gauzit R, Combes A, Lahilaire P, Chappuis P. Selenium, systemic immune response syndrome, sepsis, and outcome in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1998;26:1536-44.
72. Singer P, Pichard C. Reconciling divergent results of the latest parenteral nutrition studies in the ICU. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013;16:187-93.
73. Doig GS, Simpson F, Sweetman EA, Finfer SR, Cooper DJ, Heighes PT, et al. Early parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients with short-term relative contraindications to early enteral nutrition: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2013;309:2130-8.
74. Marik PE, Bedigian MK. Refeeding hypophosphatemia in critically ill patients in an intensive care unit. A prospective study. Arch Surg. 1996;131:1043-7.
75. Doig GS, Heighes PT, Simpson F, Sweetman EA, Davies AR. Early enteral nutrition, provided within 24h of injury or intensive care unit admission, significantly reduces mortality in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35:2018-27.
76. The Veterans Affairs Total Parenteral Nutrition Cooperative Study Group. Perioperative total parenteral nutrition in surgical patients. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:525-32.
77. Klein CJ, Stanek GS, Wiles III CE. Overfeeding macronutrients to critically ill adults: metabolic complications. J Am Diet Assoc. 1998;98:795-806.
78. Liposky JM, Nelson LD. Ventilatory response to high caloric loads in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1994;22:796-802.
79. Reid C. Frequency of under- and overfeeding in mechanically ventilated ICU patients: causes and possible consequences. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2006;19:13-22.
80. Barret JP, Jeschke MG, Herndon DN. Fatty infiltration of the liver in severely burned pediatric patients: autopsy findings and clinical implications. J Trauma. 2001;51:736-9.
81. Mesotten D, Wauters J, Van den Berghe G, Wouters PJ, Milants I, Wilmer A. The effect of strict blood glucose control on biliary sludge and cholestasis in critically ill patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009;94:2345-52.
82. Dervan N, Dowsett J, Gleeson E, Carr S, Corish C. Evaluation of over- and underfeeding following the introduction of a protocol for weaning from parenteral to enteral nutrition in the intensive care unit. Nutr Clin Pract. 2012;27:781-7.
83. Vanhorebeek I, Gunst J, Derde S, Derese I, Boussemaere M, Guiza F, et al. Insufficient activation of autophagy allows cellular damage to accumulate in critically ill patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:E633-45.
84. Banduseela VC, Chen YW, Kultima HG, Norman HS, Aare S, Radell P, et al. Impaired autophagy, chaperone expression, and protein synthesis in response to critical illness interventions in porcine skeletal muscle. Physiol Genomics. 2013;45:477-86.
85. Gunst J, Derese I, Aertgeerts A, Ververs EJ, Wauters A, Van den Berghe G, et al. Insufficient autophagy contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction, organ failure, and adverse outcome in an animal model of critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:182-94.
86. Kieft H, Roos AN, van Drunen JD, Bindels AJ, Bindels JG, Hofman Z. Clinical outcome of immunonutrition in a heterogeneous intensive care population. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31:524-32.
87. Bertolini G, Iapichino G, Radrizzani D, Facchini R, Simini B, Bruzzone P, et al. Early enteral immunonutrition in patients with severe sepsis: results of an interim analysis of a randomized multicentre clinical trial. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29:834-40.
88. Gianotti L, Braga M, Nespoli L, Radaelli G, Beneduce A, Di Carlo V. A randomized controlled trial of preoperative oral supplementation with a specialized diet in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. Gastroenterology. 2002;122:1763-70.
89. Drover JW, Dhaliwal R, Weitzel L, Wischmeyer PE, Ochoa JB, Heyland DK. Perioperative use of arginine-supplemented diets: a systematic review of the evidence. J Am Coll Surg. 2011;212:385-99.
90. Houdijk AP, Rijnsburger ER, Jansen J, Wesdorp RI, Weiss JK, McCamish MA, et al. Randomised trial of glutamine-enriched enteral nutrition on infectious morbidity in patients with multiple trauma. Lancet. 1998;352:772-6.
91. Garrel D, Patenaude J, Nedelec B, Samson L, Dorais J, Champoux J, et al. Decreased mortality and infectious morbidity in adult burn patients given enteral glutamine supplements: a prospective, controlled, randomized clinical trial. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:2444-9.
92. Andrews PJ, Avenell A, Noble DW, Campbell MK, Croal BL, Simpson WG, et al. Randomised trial of glutamine, selenium, or both, to supplement parenteral nutrition for critically ill patients. BMJ. 2011;342:d1542.
93. Wernerman J, Kirketeig T, Andersson B, Berthelson H, Ersson A, Friberg H, et al. Scandinavian glutamine trial: a pragmatic multi-centre randomised clinical trial of intensive care unit patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2011;55:812-8.
94. Fadda V, Maratea D, Trippoli S, Messori A. Temporal trend of short-term mortality in severely ill patients receiving parenteral glutamine supplementation. Clin Nutr. 2013;32:492-3.
95. Bollhalder L, Pfeil AM, Tomonaga Y, Schwenkglenks M. A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials of parenteral glutamine supplementation. Clin Nutr. 2013;32:213-23.
96. Heyland D, Muscedere J, Wischmeyer PE, Cook D, Jones G, Albert M, et al. A randomized trial of glutamine and antioxidants in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1489-97.
97. Buijs N, Vermeulen MA, van Leeuwen PA. Glutamine and antioxidants in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:484.
98. Heyland D, Wischmeyer PE, Day AG. Glutamine and antioxidants in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:484-5.
99. Heyland D, Elke G, Cook D, Berger MM, Wischmeyer PE, Albert M, et al. Glutamine and antioxidants in the critically ill patient: a post hoc analysis of a large scale randomized trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014 May 5 [Epub ahead of print].
100. van Zanten ARH, Sztark F, Kaisers UX, Zeilmann S, Felbinger TW, Sablotzki AR, et al. High-protein enteral nutrition enriched with immune-modulating nutrients vs standard high-protein enteral nutrition and nosocomial infections in the ICU: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312:514-24.
101. Wischmeyer PE, Dhaliwal R, McCall M, Ziegler TR, Heyland DK. Parenteral glutamine supplementation in critical illness: a systematic review. Crit Care. 2014;18:R76.
102. Chen QH, Yang Y, He HL, Xie JF, Cai SX, Liu AR, et al. The effect of glutamine therapy on outcomes in critically ill patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care. 2014;18:R8.
103. Preiser JC, Wernerman J. REDOXs: important answers, many more questions raised! JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2013;37:566-7.
104. Pontes-Arruda A, Demichele S, Seth A, Singer P. The use of an inflammation-modulating diet in patients with acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome: a meta-analysis of outcome data. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008;32:596-605.
105. Zhu D, Zhang Y, Li S, Gan L, Feng H, Nie W. Enteral omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2014;40:504-12.
106. Santacruz CA, Orbegozo D, Vincent JL, Preiser JC. Modulation of dietary lipid composition during acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): systematic review and meta-analysis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. in press.
107. Heller AR, Rossler S, Litz RJ, Stehr SN, Heller SC, Koch R, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids improve the diagnosis-related clinical outcome. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:972-9.
108. Palmer AJ, Ho CK, Ajibola O, Avenell A. The role of omega-3 fatty acid supplemented parenteral nutrition in critical illness in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2013;41:307-16.
109. Manzanares W, Dhaliwal R, Jurewitsch B, Stapleton RD, Jeejeebhoy KN, Heyland DK. Parenteral fish oil lipid emulsions in the critically ill: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2014;38:20-8.
110. Umpierrez GE, Spiegelman R, Zhao V, Smiley DD, Pinzon I, Griffith DP, et al. A double-blind, randomized clinical trial comparing soybean oil-based versus olive oil-based lipid emulsions in adult medical-surgical intensive care unit patients requiring parenteral nutrition. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:1792-8.
111. Lovat R, Preiser JC. Antioxidant therapy in intensive care. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2003;9:266-70.
112. Berger MM, Eggimann P, Heyland DK, Chiolero RL, Revelly JP, Day A, et al. Reduction of nosocomial pneumonia after major burns by trace element supplementation: aggregation of two randomised trials. Crit Care. 2006;10:R153.
113. Berger MM, Baines M, Raffoul W, Benathan M, Chiolero RL, Reeves C, et al. Trace element supplementation after major burns modulates antioxidant status and clinical course by way of increased tissue trace element concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:1293-300.
114. Berger MM, Soguel L, Shenkin A, Revelly JP, Pinget C, Baines M, et al. Influence of early antioxidant supplements on clinical evolution and organ function in critically ill cardiac surgery, major trauma, and subarachnoid hemorrhage patients. Crit Care. 2008;12:R101.
115. Angstwurm MW, Engelmann L, Zimmermann T, Lehmann C, Spes CH, Abel P, et al. Selenium in Intensive Care (SIC): results of a prospective randomized, placebo-controlled, multiple-center study in patients with severe systemic inflammatory response syndrome, sepsis, and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:118-26.
116. Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Suchner U, Berger MM. Antioxidant nutrients: a systematic review of trace elements and vitamins in the critically ill patient. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31:327-37.
117. Visser J, Labadarios D, Blaauw R. Micronutrient supplementation for critically ill adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition. 2011;27:745-58.
118. Manzanares W, Dhaliwal R, Jiang X, Murch L, Heyland DK. Antioxidant micronutrients in the critically ill: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2012;16:R66.
119. Manzanares W, Langlois PL, Hardy G. Update on antioxidant micronutrients in the critically ill. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2013;16:719-25.
120. Health and nutritional properties of probiotics in food including powder milk with live lactic acid bacteria. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation. [ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/a0512e/a0512e00.pdf].
121. Besselink MG, van Santvoort HC, Buskens E, Boermeester MA, van Goor H, Timmerman HM, et al. Probiotic prophylaxis in predicted severe acute pancreatitis: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;371:651-9.
122. Barraud D, Bollaert PE, Gibot S. Impact of the administration of probiotics on mortality in critically ill adult patients: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Chest. 2013;143:646-55.
123. Hempel S, Newberry SJ, Maher AR, Wang Z, Miles JN, Shanman R, et al. Probiotics for the prevention and treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2012;307:1959-69.
124. Alverdy JC, Laughlin RS, Wu L. Influence of the critically ill state on host-pathogen interactions within the intestine: gut-derived sepsis redefined. Crit Care Med. 2003;31:598-607.
125. Khalid I, Doshi P, DiGiovine B. Early enteral nutrition and outcomes of critically ill patients treated with vasopressors and mechanical ventilation. Am J Crit Care. 2010;19:261-8.
126. Heighes PT, Doig GS, Sweetman EA, Simpson F. An overview of evidence from systematic reviews evaluating early enteral nutrition in critically ill patients: more convincing evidence is needed. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2010;38:167-74.
127. Kuppinger DD, Rittler P, Hartl WH, Ruttinger D. Use of gastric residual volume to guide enteral nutrition in critically ill patients: a brief systematic review of clinical studies. Nutrition. 2013;29:1075-9.
128. Metheny NA, Schallom L, Oliver DA, Clouse RE. Gastric residual volume and aspiration in critically ill patients receiving gastric feedings. Am J Crit Care. 2008;17:512-9.
129. Reignier J, Mercier E, Le Gouge A, Boulain T, Desachy A, Bellec F, et al. Effect of not monitoring residual gastric volume on risk of ventilatorassociated pneumonia in adults receiving mechanical ventilation and early enteral feeding: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2013;309:249-56.