Acute hyperglycemia and the innate immune system: Clinical, cellular, and molecular aspects

Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 33, Issue 7, 2005, Pages 1624-1633

  Turina, Matthias ^a,b   Fry, Donald E ^c   Polk Jr , Hiram C ^a,b  

^a University of Louisville School of Medicine   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Blood glucose; Critical illness; Hyperglycemia; Natural immunity; Sepsis syndrome; Stress

Indexed keywords

CHEMOKINE; CYTOKINE; GAMMA INTERFERON INDUCIBLE PROTEIN 10; GLUCOSE; INSULIN; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 6; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 3; NITRIC OXIDE; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; THYMUS AND ACTIVATION REGULATED CHEMOKINE; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ACUTE DISEASE; BLOOD VESSEL REACTIVITY; CONTROLLED STUDY; CRITICAL ILLNESS; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DIABETES MELLITUS; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; IMMUNITY; INNATE IMMUNITY; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LEUKOCYTE ADHERENCE; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MICROVASCULATURE; NEUTROPHIL CHEMOTAXIS; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEPSIS; STRESS; SURGICAL PATIENT;

EID: 22144434453     PISSN: 00903493     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000170106.61978.D8     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Finney SJ, Zekveld C, Elia A, et al: Glucose control and mortality in critically ill patients. JAMA 2003; 290:2041-2047
2. Malmberg K, Norhammar A, Wedel H, et al: Glycometabolic state at admission: Important risk marker of mortality in conventionally treated patients with diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction: Long-term results from the Diabetes and Insulin-Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction (DIGAMI) study. Circulation 1999; 99:2626-2632
3. Malmberg K: Role of insulin-glucose infusion in outcomes after acute myocardial infarction: The Diabetes and Insulin-Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction (Digami) Study. Endocr Pract 2004; 10(Suppl 2):13-16
4. Umpierrez GE, Isaacs SD, Bazargan N, et al: Hyperglycemia: An independent marker of in-hospital mortality in patients with undiagnosed diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87:978-982
5. Van Den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al: Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1359-1367
6. Wasmuth HE, Kunz D, Graf J, et al: Hyperglycemia at admission to the intensive care unit is associated with elevated serum concentrations of interleukin-6 and reduced ex vivo secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Crit Care Med 2004; 32:1109-1114
7. Das UN: Critical advances in septicemia and septic shock. Crit Care 2000; 4:290-296
8. Parrillo JE, Parker MM, Natanson C, et al: Septic shock in humans. Advances in the understanding of pathogenesis, cardiovascular dysfunction, and therapy. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113:227-242
9. Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, et al: Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: Analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:1303-1310
10. Fry DE: Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome: Past, present and future. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2000; 1:155-163
11. Polk HC Jr, Christmas AB: Prophylactic antibiotics in surgery and surgical wound infections. Am Surg 2000; 66:105-111
12. Nylen ES, Muller B: Endocrine changes in critical illness. J Intensive Care Med 2004; 19:67-82
13. Desai D, March R, Watters JM: Hyperglycemia after trauma increases with age. J Trauma 1989; 29:719-723
14. McCowen KC, Malhotra A, Bistrian BR: Stress-induced hyperglycemia. Crit Care Clin 2001; 17:107-124
15. Mizock BA: Alterations in carbohydrate metabolism during stress: A review of the literature. Am J Med 1995; 98:75-84
16. Vincent JL, Abraham E, Annane D, et al: Reducing mortality in sepsis: New directions. Crit Care 2002; 6(Suppl 3):S1-18
17. Van Den Berghe G: Beyond diabetes: Saving lives with insulin in the ICU. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2002; 26(Suppl 3): S3-S8
18. Van Den Berghe G, Wouters PJ, Bouillon R, et al: Outcome benefit of intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill: Insulin dose versus glycemic control. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:359-366
19. Van Den Berghe G: Insulin therapy for the critically ill patient. Clin Cornerstone 2003; 5:56-63
20. Hansen TK, Thiel S, Wouters PJ, et al: Intensive insulin therapy exerts antiinflammatory effects in critically ill patients and counteracts the adverse effect of low mannose-binding lectin levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88:1082-1088
21. Dandona P, Aljada A, Mohanty P, et al: Insulin inhibits intranuclear nuclear factor kappaB and stimulates IkappaB in mononuclear cells in obese subjects: Evidence for an anti-inflammatory effect? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86:3257-3265
22. Mesotten D, Swinnen JV, Vanderhoydonc F, et al: Contribution of circulating lipids to the improved outcome of critical illness by glycemic control with intensive insulin therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89:219-226
23. Finney SJ, Evans TW: Glucose and the immune system: A victory for Claude Bernard? Crit Care Med 2004; 32:1224-1225
24. Furnary AP, Gao G, Grunkemeier GL, et al: Continuous insulin infusion reduces mortality in patients with diabetes undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125:1007-1021
25. Laird AM, Miller PR, Kilgo PD, et al: Relationship of early hyperglycemia to mortality in trauma patients. J Trauma 2004; 56:1058-1062
26. Krinsley JS: Association between hyperglycemia and increased hospital mortality in a heterogeneous population of critically ill patients. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78:1471-1478
27. Krinsley JS: Effect of an intensive glucose management protocol on the mortality of critically ill adult patients. Mayo Clin Proc 2004; 79:992-1000
28. Goldsby RA, Kindt TJ, Osborne BA, et al: Immunology. Fifth Edition. New York, Freeman, 2003
29. Venema RC: Post-translational mechanisms of endothelial nitric oxide synthase regulation by bradykinin. Int Immunopharmacol 2002; 2:1755-1762
30. Gomes MB, Affonso FS, Cailleaux S, et al: Glucose levels observed in daily clinical practice induce endothelial dysfunction in the rabbit macro- and microcirculation. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2004; 18:339-346
31. Kim SH, Park KW, Kim YS, et al: Effects of acute hyperglycemia on endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with diabetes mellitus or impaired glucose metabolism. Endothelium 2003; 10:65-70
32. Santilli F, Cipollone F, Mezzetti A, et al: The role of nitric oxide in the development of diabetic angiopathy. Horm Metab Res 2004; 36:319-335
33. Schiekofer S, Balletshofer B, Andrassy M, et al: Endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus. Semin Thromb Hemost 2000; 26: 503-511
34. Carlos TM, Harlan JM: Leukocyte-endothelial adhesion molecules. Blood 1994; 84:2068-2101
35. Sampson MJ, Davies IR, Brown JC, et al: Monocyte and neutrophil adhesion molecule expression during acute hyperglycemia and after antioxidant treatment in type 2 diabetes and control patients. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22:1187-1193
36. Ceriello A, Falleti E, Motz E, et al: Hyperglycemia-induced circulating ICAM-1 increase in diabetes mellitus: The possible role of oxidative stress. Horm Metab Res 1998; 30:146-149
37. Ceriello A, Quagliaro L, Piconi L, et al: Effect of postprandial hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia on circulating adhesion molecules and oxidative stress generation and the possible role of simvastatin treatment. Diabetes 2004; 53:701-710
38. Chen NG, Azhar S, Abbasi F, et al: The relationship between plasma glucose and insulin responses to oral glucose, LDL oxidation, and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in healthy volunteers. Atherosclerosis 2000; 152:203-208
39. Marfella R, Esposito K, Giunta R, et al: Circulating adhesion molecules in humans: Role of hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. Circulation 2000; 101:2247-2251
40. Altannavch TS, Roubalova K, Kucera P, et al: Effect of high glucose concentrations on expression of ELAM-1, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 in HUVEC with and without cytokine activation. Physiol Res 2004; 53:77-82
41. Kado S, Wakatsuki T, Yamamoto M, et al: Expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 induced by high glucose concentrations in human aortic endothelial cells. Life Sci 2001; 68:727-737
42. Morigi M, Angioletti S, Imberti B, et al: Leukocyte-endothelial interaction is augmented by high glucose concentrations and hyperglycemia in a NF-kB-dependent fashion. J Clin Invest 1998; 101:1905-1915
43. Frank MM: The mechanism by which microorganisms avoid complement attack. Curr Opin Immunol 1992; 4:14-19
44. Heinzelmann M, Scott M, Lam T: Factors predisposing to bacterial invasion and infection. Am J Surg 2002; 183:179-190
45. Krantz S, Stelter F, Lober M, et al: Complement component 3 (C 3) and diabetes mellitus. Exp Clin Endocrinol 1988; 92:287-296
46. McMillan DE: Elevation of complement components in diabetes mellitus. Diabete Metab 1980; 6:265-270
47. Sundsmo JS, Papin RA, Wood L, et al: Complement activation in type 1 human diabetes. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1985; 35:211-225
48. Tang S, Leung JC, Chan LY, et al: Regulation of complement C3 and C4 synthesis in human peritoneal mesothelial cells by peritoneal dialysis fluid. Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 136:85-94
49. Ebeling P, Teppo AM, Koistinen HA, et al: Concentration of the complement activation product, acylation-stimulating protein, is related to C-reactive protein in patients with type 2 diabetes. Metabolism 2001; 50:283-287
50. Weyer C, Tataranni PA, Pratley RE: Insulin action and insulinemia are closely related to the fasting complement C3, but not acylation stimulating protein concentration. Diabetes Care 2000; 23:779-785
51. Black CT, Hennessey PJ, Andrassy RJ: Short-term hyperglycemia depresses immunity through nonenzymatic glycosylation of circulating immunoglobulin. J Trauma 1990; 30:830-832
52. Dolhofer-Bliesener R, Gerbitz KD: Impairment by glycation of immunoglobulin G Fc fragment function. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1990; 50:739-746
53. Hennessey PJ, Black CT, Andrassy RJ: Non-enzymatic glycosylation of immunoglobulin G impairs complement fixation. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1991; 15:60-64
54. Hostetter MK: Handicaps to host defense. Effects of hyperglycemia on C3 and Candida albicans. Diabetes 1990; 39:271-275
55. Saiepour D, Sehlin J, Oldenborg PA: Hyperglycemia-induced protein kinase C activation inhibits phagocytosis of C3b- and immunoglobulin g-opsonized yeast particles in normal human neutrophils. Exp Diabesity Res 2003; 4:125-132
56. Levi M, ten Gate H: Disseminated intravascular coagulation. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 586-592
57. Stouthard JM, Levi M, Hack CE, et al: Interleukin-6 stimulates coagulation, not fibrinolysis, in humans. Thromb Haemost 1996; 76:738-742
58. Johnson K, Choi Y, DeGroot E, et al: Potential mechanisms for a proinflammatory vascular cytokine response to coagulation activation. J Immunol 1998; 160:5130-5135
59. Riewald M, Kravchenko W, Petrovan RJ, et al: Gene induction by coagulation factor Xa is mediated by activation of protease-activated receptor 1. Blood 2001; 97:3109-3116
60. Rao AK, Chouhan V, Chen X, et al: Activation of the tissue factor pathway of blood coagulation during prolonged hyperglycemia in young healthy men. Diabetes 1999; 48:1156-1161
61. Kado S, Nagase T, Nagata N: Circulating levels of interleukin-6, its soluble receptor and interleukin-6/interleukin-6 receptor complexes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Acta Diabetol 1999; 36:67-72
62. Mooradian AD, Reed RL, Meredith KE, et al: Serum levels of tumor necrosis factor and IL-1 alpha and IL-1 beta in diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 1991; 14:63-65
63. Pickup JC, Chusney GD, Thomas SM, et al: Plasma interleukin-6, tumour necrosis factor alpha and blood cytokine production in type 2 diabetes. Life Sci 2000; 67:291-300
64. Yu WK, Li WQ, Li N, et al: Influence of acute hyperglycemia in human sepsis on inflammatory cytokine and counter regulatory hormone concentrations. World J Gastroenterol 2003; 9:1824-1827
65. Brix-Christensen V, Andersen SK, Andersen R, et al: Acute hyperinsulinemia restrains endotoxin-induced systemic inflammatory response: An experimental study in a porcine model. Anesthesiology 2004; 100:861-870
66. Esposito K, Nappo F, Marfella R, et al: Inflammatory cytokine concentrations are acutely increased by hyperglycemia in humans: Role of oxidative stress. Circulation 2002; 106:2067-2072
67. Jeschke MG, Einspanier R, Klein D, et al: Insulin attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to thermal trauma. Mol Med 2002; 8:443-450
68. Krogh-Madsen R, Moller K, Dela F, et al: Effect of hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia on the response of IL-6, TNF-alpha, and FFAs to low-dose endotoxemia in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004; 286:E766-E772
69. Losser MR, Bernard C, Beaudeux JL, et al: Glucose modulates hemodynamic, metabolic, and inflammatory responses to lipopolysaccharide in rabbits. J Appl Physiol 1997; 83:1566-1574
70. Morohoshi M, Fujisawa K, Uchimura I, et al: The effect of glucose and advanced glycosylation end products on IL-6 production by human monocytes. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1995; 748:562-570
71. Morohoshi M, Fujisawa K, Uchimura I, et al: Glucose-dependent interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor production by human peripheral blood monocytes in vitro. Diabetes 1996; 45:954-959
72. Orlinska U, Newton RC: Role of glucose in interleukin-1 beta production by lipopolysaccharide-activated human monocytes. J Cell Physiol 1993; 157:201-208
73. Soop M, Duxbury H, Agwunobi AO, et al: Euglycemic hyperinsulinemia augments the cytokine and endocrine responses to endotoxin in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2002; 282:E1276-E1285
74. Krogh-Madsen R, Plomgaard P, Keller P, et al: Insulin stimulates interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene expression in human subcutaneous adipose tissue. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004; 286: E234-E238
75. Borst SE: The role of TNF-alpha in insulin resistance. Endocrine 2004; 23:177-182
76. de Alvaro C, Teruel T, Hernandez R, et al: Tumor necrosis factor alpha produces insulin resistance in skeletal muscle by activation of inhibitor kappaB kinase in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:17070-17078
77. Hotamisligil GS: Inflammatory pathways and insulin action. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2003; 27(Suppl 3):S53-S55
78. Stephens JM, Pekala PH: Transcriptional repression of the GLUT4 and C/EBP genes in 3T3-L1 adipocytes by tumor necrosis factor-alpha. J Biol Chem 1991; 266:21839-21845
79. Feingold KR, Grunfeld C: Role of cytokines in inducing hyperlipidemia. Diabetes 1992; 41(Suppl 2):97-101
80. Fried SK, Bunkin DA, Greenberg AS: Omental and subcutaneous adipose tissues of obese subjects release interleukin-6: Depot difference and regulation by glucocorticoid. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83:847-850
81. Hauner H, Bender M, Haastert B, et al: Plasma concentrations of soluble TNF-alpha receptors in obese subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1998; 22:1239-1243
82. Ogawa H, Nielsen S, Kawakami M: Cachectin/tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 show different modes of combined effect on lipoprotein lipase activity and intracellular lipolysis in 3T3-L1 cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1989; 1003:131-135
83. Coppack SW: Pro-inflammatory cytokines and adipose tissue. Proc Nutr Soc 2001; 60:349-356
84. Tsigos C, Papanicolaou DA, Kyrou I, et al: Dose-dependent effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 on glucose regulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82:4167-4170
85. Mandrup-Poulsen T, Nerup J, Reimers JI, et al: Cytokines and the endocrine system. I. The immunoendocrine network. Eur J Endocrinol 1995; 133:660-671
86. Mowat A, Baum J: Chemotaxis of polymorphonuclear leukocytes from patients with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1971; 284: 621-627
87. Okuno Y, Gliemann J: Effect of chemotactic factors on hexose transport in polymorphonuclear leucocytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 1988; 941:157-164
88. Tan AS, Ahmed N, Berridge MV: Acute regulation of glucose transport after activation of human peripheral blood neutrophils by phorbol myristate acetate, fMLP, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Blood 1998; 91:649-655
89. Delamaire M, Maugendre D, Moreno M, et al: Impaired leucocyte functions in diabetic patients. Diabet Med 1997; 14:29-34
90. Geerlings SE, Hoepelman AI: Immune dysfunction in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1999; 26:259-265
91. Tater D, Tepaut B, Bercovici JP, et al: Polymorphonuclear cell derangements in type I diabetes. Horm Metab Res 1987; 19:642-647
92. Cavalot F, Anfossi G, Russo I, et al: Insulin, at physiological concentrations, enhances the polymorphonuclear leukocyte chemotactic properties. Horm Metab Res 1992; 24:225-228
93. Oldenburg PA, Sehlin J: Hyperglycemia in vitro attenuates insulin-stimulated chemokinesis in normal human neutrophils. Role of protein kinase C activation. J Leukoc Biol 1999; 65:635-640
94. Wierusz-Wysocka B, Wysocki H, Wykretowicz A, et al: The influence of increasing glucose concentrations on selected functions of polymorphonuclear neutrophils. Acta Diabetol Lat 1988; 25:283-288
95. Alexiewicz JM, Kumar D, Smogorzewski M, et al: Polymorphonuclear leukocytes in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Abnormalities in metabolism and function. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123:919-924
96. Marhoffer W, Stein M, Maeser E, et al: Impairment of polymorphonuclear leukocyte function and metabolic control of diabetes. Diabetes Care 1992; 15:256-260
97. Liu BF, Miyata S, Kojima H, et al: Low phagocytic activity of resident peritoneal macrophages in diabetic mice: Relevance to the formation of advanced glycation end products. Diabetes 1999; 48:2074-2082
98. Weekers F, Giulietti AP, Michalaki M, et al: Metabolic, endocrine, and immune effects of stress hyperglycemia in a rabbit model of prolonged critical illness. Endocrinology 2003; 144:5329-5338
99. Dziatkowiak H, Kowalska M, Denys A: Phagocytic and bactericidal activity of granulocytes in diabetic children. Diabetes 1982; 31:1041-1043
100. Wilson RM, Reeves WG: Neutrophil phagocytosis and killing in insulin-dependent diabetes. Clin Exp Immunol 1986; 63:478-484
101. Kwoun MO, Ling PR, Lydon E, et al: Immunologic effects of acute hyperglycemia in nondiabetic rats. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1997; 21:91-95
102. Rassias AJ, Givan AL, Marrin CA, et al: Insulin increases neutrophil count and phagocytic capacity after cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 2002; 94:1113-9, table
103. Forman HJ, Torres M: Reactive oxygen species and cell signaling: Respiratory burst in macrophage signaling. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166:S4-S8
104. Dhindsa S, Tripathy D, Mohanty P, et al: Differential effects of glucose and alcohol on reactive oxygen species generation and intranuclear nuclear factor-kappaB in mononuclear cells. Metabolism 2004; 53:330-334
105. Gallacher SJ, Thomson G, Fraser WD, et al: Neutrophil bactericidal function in diabetes mellitus: Evidence for association with blood glucose control. Diabet Med 1995; 12:916-920
106. Nielson CP, Hindson DA: Inhibition of polymorphonuclear leukocyte respiratory burst by elevated glucose concentrations in vitro. Diabetes 1989; 38:1031-1035
107. Oldenburg PA, Sundqvist IM, Sehlin J: Different effects of glucose on extracellular and intracellular respiratory burst response in normal human neutrophils activated with the soluble agonist fMet-Leu-Phe. Diabet Med 2000; 17:532-537
108. Ortmeyer J, Mohsenin V: Inhibition of phospholipase D and superoxide generation by glucose in diabetic neutrophils. Life Sci 1996; 59:255-262
109. Perner A, Nielsen SE, Rask-Madsen J: High glucose impairs superoxide production from isolated blood neutrophils. Intensive Care Med 2003; 29:642-645
110. Sato N, Kashima K, Shimizu H, et al: Hypertonic glucose impairs glucose-induced increases in cytosol Ca2+ concentration and insulin secretion by HIT-T 15 cells. Cell Calcium 1996; 20:273-278
111. Zhang Z, Apse K, Pang J, et al: High glucose inhibits glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase via cAMP in aortic endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:40042-40047
112. Mohanty P, Hamouda W, Garg R, et al: Glucose challenge stimulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by leucocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85:2970-2973
113. Kettritz R, Gaido ML, Haller H, et al: Interleukin-8 delays spontaneous and tumor necrosis factor-alpha-mediated apoptosis of human neutrophils. Kidney Int 1998; 53:84-91
114. Maianski NA, Roos D, Kuijpers TW: Tumor necrosis factor alpha induces a caspase-independent death pathway in human neutrophils. Blood 2003; 101:1987-1995
115. Murray J, Barbara JA, Dunkley SA, et al: Regulation of neutrophil apoptosis by tumor necrosis factor-alpha: Requirement for TNFR55 and TNFR75 for induction of apoptosis in vitro. Blood 1997; 90:2772-2783
116. Takeda Y, Watanabe H, Yonehara S, et al: Rapid acceleration of neutrophil apoptosis by tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Int Immunol 1993; 5:691-694
117. Yamashita K, Takahashi A, Kobayashi S, et al: Caspases mediate tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced neutrophil apoptosis and downregulation of reactive oxygen production. Blood 1999; 93:674-685
118. Maianski NA, Maianski AN, Kuijpers TW, et al: Apoptosis of neutrophils. Acta Haematol 2004; 111:56-66
119. Catalan MP, Reyero A, Egido J, et al: Acceleration of neutrophil apoptosis by glucose-containing peritoneal dialysis solutions: Role of caspases. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001; 12:2442-2449
120. Cendoroglo M, Sundaram S, Jaber BL, et al: Effect of glucose concentration, osmolality, and sterilization process of peritoneal dialysis fluids on cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells and polymorphonuclear cell functions in vitro. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 31:273-282
121. Jin HM, Di YD, Xu QJ: Effects of commercial glucose-based peritoneal dialysates on peripheral blood phagocytes apoptosis. Perit Dial Int 1999; 19(Suppl 2):S388-S393
122. Tennenberg SD, Finkenauer R, Dwivedi A: Absence of lipopolysaccharide- induced inhibition of neutrophil apoptosis in patients with diabetes. Arch Surg 1999; 134:1229-1233
123. Healy DA, Watson RW, Newsholme P: Glucose, but not glutamine, protects against spontaneous and anti-Fas antibody-induced apoptosis in human neutrophils. Clin Sci (Lond) 2002; 103:179-189