Making sense of mass atrocity

Making Sense of Mass Atrocity

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-257

  Osiel, Mark ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA COLLEGE OF LAW   (United States)

^b TMC Asser Institute   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84929721555     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511596575     Document Type: Book

References (572)

1. Stathis N. Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War 10, 390 (2006).
2. Crim. L. Rev. 191 (2006); see also Olaoluwa Olusanya, “Sentencing War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity under the International”
3. Crim. J. 1221 (2007); Robert Sloane, “Sentencing for the ‘Crime of Crimes’: The Evolving ‘Common Law’ of Sentencing of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda,”
4. Richard Nisbett & Lee Ross, Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment (1980).
5. Ciara Damgaard, Individual Criminal Responsibility for Core International Crimes 257 (2008)
6. Mirjan Damaska, “What is the Point of International Criminal Justice?” 83 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 329, 349 (2008).
7. Mireille Delmas-Marty, Global Law: A Triple Challenge, Naomi Norberg trans. 74-96 (1998).
8. Ethan Nadelmann & Peter Andreas, Policing the Globe: Criminalization and Crime Control in International Relations 96-104, 224-28 (2006);
9. Ethan Nadelmann, Cops Across Borders: The Internationalization of U.S. Criminal Law Enforcement (1993).
10. A. N. Trainin Observed that “[a]s distinct from common crimes, international crimes are almost always committed not by one person but by several or many persons-a group, a band, a clique.”
11. Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, Judgment, f 191 (July 15,1999).
12. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners 164, 167 (1996).
13. Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing 418, 424 (2005).
14. avid Cohen, “Bureaucracy, Justice, and Collective Responsibility in the World War II War Crimes Trials,” 18 Rechtshistorisches J. 313, 324 (1999)
15. Daryl J. Levinson, “Collective Sanctions,” 56 Stan. L. Rev. 345, 352-7 (2003)
16. Mark J. Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Ordinary Evil, and Hannah Arendt: Criminal Consciousness in Argentina's Dirty War 150-5 (200i);
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18. John Hagan & Scott Greer, “Making War Criminal,” 40 Criminology 231 (2002).
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20. James G. March, A Primer on Decision Making 128 (1994)
21. Naomi Roht-Arriaza, The Pinochet Effect (2005); Diane Orentlicher, “Whose Justice? Reconciling Universal Jurisdiction with Democratic Principles,”
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24. John Hagan & Wenoma Rymond-Richmond, Darfur and the Crime of Genocide (2008).
25. Benjamin Valentino, Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twientieth Century (2004);
26. Jeremy Weinstein, Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence 339-49 (2007); Kalyvas.
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28. Oliver Wendell Holmes, “Patrons, Prevention, and Punishment of Genocide,” in The Prevention of Genocide: Rwanda and Yugoslavia Reconsidered 5 (Helen Fein, ed., 1994).
29. Quoted in Elizabeth Rubin, “If Not Peace, Then Justice,” N.Y. Times, April 2, 2006.
30. Elies van Sliedregt, The Criminal Responsibility of Individuals for Violations of International Humanitarian Law 195 (2003) (“The trial chambers in Krstic and Krnojelac do not make clear why they chose one ground of responsibility over the other.”)
31. Olly Arrow et al., Small Groups as Complex Systems 3 (2000).
32. Judy Dempsey, “East German Shoot-to-Kill Order Is Found,” N.Y. Times, Aug. 13, 2007, at A5.
33. Marlise Simons, “Tribunal in Hague Finds Bosnia Serb Guilty of Genocide,” N.Y. Times, Aug. 3, 2001, at Ai.
34. Luis Moreno-Ocampo, “The Nuremberg Parallel in Argentina,” 11 N.Y.L. Sch. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 357, 357 (1990).
35. John Hagan, Justice in the Balkans: Prosecuting War Crimes in The Hague Tribunal 233-4 (2003);
36. Marguerite Feitlowitz, A Lexicon of Terror: Argentina and the Legacies of Torture 50 (1998)
37. Anne-Laure Poree & Chheang Bopha, “Five Khmer Rouge to Go Before Judges,” Int'l Just. Tribune, July23, 2007.
38. Michael Newton & Michael Scharf, Enemy of the State: The Trial and Execution of Saddam Hussein 178-79 (2008).
39. Anne-Laure Poree & Chheang Bopha, “Five Khmer Rouge to Go Before Judges,” Int'l Just. Tribune, July23, 2007.
40. George P. Fletcher, Basic Concepts of Criminal Law 191-3 (1998) (contending that although vicarious liability serves legitimate public purposes in tort and contract law, it is morally indefensible in criminal law).
41. Wayne R. LaFave, Criminal Law § 3.9, at 265 (3d ed., 2000).
42. George P. Fletcher, “The Storrs Lectures: Liberals and Romantics at War: The Problem of Collective Guilt,” 111 Yale L.J. 1499,1541-2 (2002).
43. Enrique Gimbernat Ordeig, Autory Complice en Derecho Penal 187 (1966).
44. Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem 6 (1962).
45. Allison Marston Danner & Jenny S. Martinez, “Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law,” 93 Cal. L. Rev. 75,97 (2005).
46. Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory, and the Law 142 (1997) (examining conflicts between legal and historiographic accounts of mass atrocity).
47. Avinash K. Dixit & Barry J. Nalebuff, Thinking Strategically 58-9 (1991) (defining the quoted term and its place within game theory).
48. “The Henry Morris Lecture: What is the Point of International Criminal Justice?” 83 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 329, 343-63 (2008) (rejecting these purposes as excessively ambitious and often inconsistent with the more standard goals of criminal law).
49. Larry May, Aggression and Crimes Against Peace 68 (2008).
50. Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past 69-70 (1988).
51. Craig Etcheson, After the Killing Fields: Lessons from the Cambodian Genocide 84 (2005).
52. Leo Katz, Bad Acts and Guilty Minds 254 (1987).
53. Mark A. Drumbl, “Pluralizing International Criminal Justice,” 103 Mich. L. Rev. 1295, 1309 (2005) (“Recourse to generous-and at times somewhat vicarious-liability theories becomes eminently understandable insofar as these theories permit the [ad hoc international] tribunals to ascribe individual guilt in cases where violence has several, and often murky, organic sources”)
54. George P. Fletcher, “Collective Guilt and Collective Punishment,” 5 Theoretical Inquiries L. 163,168-9,173-4 (2004) (suggesting that collective guilt is a “plausible and sometimes healthy response to collective wrongdoing”).
55. Laurel E. Fletcher & Harvey M. Weinstein, “Violence and Social Repair: Rethinking the Contribution of Justice to Reconciliation,” 24 Hum. Rts. Q. 573,636 (2002).
56. Frederic Megret, “The Politics of International Criminal Justice,” 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 1261, 1282 (2002).
57. Mark A. Drumbl, “Sclerosis: Retributive Justice and the Rwandan Genocide,” 2 Punishment & Soc'y 287, 296-8 (2000).
58. Christopher R. Browning, Fateful Months: Essays on the Emergence of the Final Solution 7, 66-7 (1985);
59. Raul Hilberg, Perpetrators, Victims, Bystanders 25-6 (1992).
60. Robert Gellately & Ben Kiernan, “The Study of Mass Murder and Genocide,” in The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective 3,10-11 (Robert Gellately & Ben Kiernan, eds., 2003) (identifying differences between these two schools of thought);
61. Robert Gellately, Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany 199-203 (2001)
62. Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Ordinary Evil, and Hannah Arendt 36-9 (discussing conduct of German and Argentine soldiers during the Holocaust and the Argentine Dirty War);
63. Benjamin Valentino, Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century 47-8, 53-6 (2004) (noting Holocaust perpetrators often exceeded their orders or complied with violent orders without supervision).
64. John Lachs, Responsibility and the Individual in Modern Society 58 (1981).
65. David Ronfeldt & John Arquilla, “What Next for Networks and Netwars?” in Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy (David Ronfeldt & John Arquilla, eds., 2001), at 311.
66. Patrick Radden Keefe, “Can Network Theory Thwart Terrorists?” N.Y. Times, March 12, 2006.
67. J. Patrice McSherry, Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America xvii, 1-33 (2005).
68. Eric Schmitt, Mark Mazzetti & Jane Perlez, “Pakistan's Spies Aided Group Tied to Mumbai Siege,” N.Y. Times, Dec. 8, 2008, at Ai.
69. Michael Kenney, “From Pablo to Osama: Counter-terrorism Lessons from the War on Drugs,” Survival 187, 203
70. Lon L. Fuller, Legal Fictions 6-7 (1967).
71. Wayne R. LaFave, Criminal Law 597 (3d, ed. 2000).
72. Danner & Martinez., at 79 (observing “potential [of doctrine] to lapse into forms of guilt by association”).
73. Chantal Meloni, “Command Responsibility: Mode of Liability for the Crimes of Subordinates or Separate Offences of the Superior?” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 619 (2007);
74. Volker Nerlich, “Superior Responsibility under Article 28 ICC Statute: For What Exactly Is the Superior Held Responsible?” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 665 (2007);
75. Beatrice Bonafe, “Finding a Proper Role for Command Responsibility,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 599 (2007).
76. Mirjan Damaska, “The Shadow Side of Command Responsibility,” 49 Am. J. Comp. L. 455, 463-4 (2001).
77. Allison Marston Danner & Jenny S. Martinez, “Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law,” 93 Cal. L. Rev. 75,130 (2005).
78. Charles Perrow, Complex Organizations 145-76 (1972).
79. Max Weber, Theory of Social and Economic Organization 358-62 (A. R. Anderson & Talcott Parsons, trans., 1947).
80. Charles Lindholm, Charisma 30-31 (1990).
81. Mark J. Osiel, Obeying Orders: Atrocity, Military Discipline, and the Law of War 155-6, 234-5 (1999).
82. Geoffrey Robertson, “Keynote Address at Cornell Int'l Law Journal Symposium: Milosevic and Hussein on Trial” (Feb. 25, 2005).
83. Robert A. Dahl, “The Concept of Power,” in Political Power: A Reader in Theory and Research 79,80 (Roderick Bell et al., eds., 1969).
84. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish 162-70 (Alan Sheridan trans., 1979).
85. John Hagan, Justice in the Balkans: Prosecuting War Crimes in The Hague Tribunal 156,168 (2003).
86. Jon Elster, Closing the Books: Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective 143-5 (2004).
87. Joachim Vogel, “How to Determine Individual Criminal Responsibility in Systemic Contexts: Twelve Models,” Remarks at the Proceedings of the XIVth International Congress on Social Defence: Social Defence and Criminal Law for the Protection of Coming Generations, in View of the New Risks. 151 (May 17-19, 2002).
88. Matilde Bruera, “Autoria y Dominio de la Voluntad a Traves de los Aparatos Organizados de Poder,” in Nuevas Formulaciones en las Ciencias Penales 259, 261 (Carlos Julio Lascano, ed., 2001).
89. Jessica Stern, Terror in the Name of God 150-1 (2003).
90. David P. Chandler & Ben Kiernan, eds., (1983) (contending that power was concentrated at a regional rather than central level of government).
91. David Cohen, “Beyond Nuremberg: Individual Responsibility for War Crimes,” in Human Rights in Political Transitions, 53, 81-2 (Robert Post & Carla Hesse, eds., 1999).
92. Michale Duttwiler, “Liability for Omission in International Law,” 6 Int'l Crim. L. Rev. 1 (2006).
93. Mathieu Ngudjolo Chui, ICC-01/04-01/07, Pre-Trial Chamber I, Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, September 30, 2008, ff 485, at http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/ICC-01-04-01-07-717-ENG.pdf.
94. Mark Ebers, “Explaining Inter-Organizational Network Formation,” in The Formation of Inter-Organizational Networks 3, 5-15 (Mark Ebers, ed., 1997).
95. Rick Bragg, “Shaping Young Islamic Hearts and Hatreds,” N.Y. Times, Oct. 14, 2001
96. Allison Marston Danner & Jenny S. Martinez, “Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law,” 93 Cal. L. Rev. 75,107 (2005)
97. Jens David Ohlin, “Three Conceptual Problems with the Doctrine of Joint Criminal Enterprise,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 69 (2007);
98. Harmen van der Wilt, “Joint Criminal Enterprise: Possibilities and Limitations,” J. Int'l Crim. J. 92 (2007);
99. Antonio Cassese, “The Proper Limits of Individual Responsibility under the Doctrine of Joint Criminal Enterprise,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 109 (2007);
100. Katrina Gustafson “The Requirement of an ‘Express Agreement’ for Joint Criminal Enterprise Liability: A Critique of Brdanin,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 134 (2007);
101. Kai Ambos, “Joint Criminal Enterprise and Command Responsibility,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 159 (2007);
102. Elies van Sliedregt, “Joint Criminal Enterprise as a Pathway to Convicting Individuals for Genocide,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 184 (2007);
103. Kai Hamdorf, “The Concept of a Joint Criminal Enterprise and Domestic Modes of Liability for Parties to a Crime: A Comparison of British and English Law,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 208 (2007);
104. Mohamed E. Badar, ‘“Just Convict Everyone!”-Joint Perpetration: From TadiC to StakiC and Back Again,’ 6 Int'l Crim. L. Rev. 293 (2006).
105. Danner & Martinez, at 145 (arguing that the enterprise approach “allows the prosecution and judges to capture the seriousness of a leader's responsibility for the violent course of events”).
106. Stephen Rapp, Chief Prosecutor, Special Court for Sierra Leone, talk to students and faculty, College of Law, Univ. of Iowa, April 2008.
107. Paul Julian Weindling, Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent 66, 299 (2004).
108. Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10, at 985 (1951).
109. Richard J. Bonnie et al., Criminal Law 855-95 (2d, ed. 2004).
110. Marco Sassoli & Laura M. Olson, “The Judgment of the ICTY Appeals Chamber on the Merits in the Tadic Case,” 82 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 733, 749 (2000)
111. Edward M. Wise, “RICO and its Analogues: Some Comparative Considerations,” 27 Syracuse J. Int'l L. & Com. 303, 312 (2000)
112. Marcelo A. Sancinetti & Marcelo Ferrante, El Derecho Penal en la Proteccion de los Derechos Humanos 165-6 (Jose Luis Depalma, ed., 1999).
113. Charles Tilly, The Politics of Collective Violence 18 (2003). Tilly rejects the view here quoted.
114. John Searle, Mind, Language, and Society: Doing Philosophy in the Real World 119-20 (1999); see also Margaret Gilbert, On Social Facts 75 (1989).
115. James Gow, The Serbian Project and Its Adversaries: A Strategy of War Crimes 11 (2003).
116. Liesbeth Zegveld, Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law 1 (2002).
117. Allen O'Rourke, “Joint Criminal Enterprise and Brdanin: Misguided Over-Correction,” 47 Harv. Int'l L.J. 307 (2006).
118. Ronald S. Burt, Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition 30-49 (1992) (describing power availableto anyone occupying such a “structural hole” within social network).
119. Mark Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited,” 1 Soc. Theory 201, 220-8 (1983).
120. Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks 168-71 (2004) (describing the role of brokers in linking friendship cliques to broader jihadist organizations).
121. Paul Wood, “Gangster's Life of Serb Warlord,” BBC News, Jan. 15, 2000.
122. David Cohen, “Bureaucracy, Justice, and Collective Responsibility in the World War II War Crimes Trials,” 18 Rechtshistorisches J. 313, 324 (1999).
123. William Schabas, Dir., Irish Ctr. for Human Rights, Nat'l Univ. of Ir., correspondence with author (July 2005).
124. MarkOsiel, Obeying Orders: Atrocity, Military Discipline and The Law of War 187-93 (1999).
125. William Knepper & Dan Bailey, Liability of Corporate Officers and Directors 255 (1998);
126. Model Penal Code § 5.03(3) (2002); William LaFave, Criminal Law § 6.5(d)(2), at 595-7 (2000).
127. Holderman, “Reconciling RICO's Conspiracy and ‘Group’ Enterprise Concepts with Traditional Conspiracy Doctrine,” 52 U. Cin. L. Rev. 385, 402-3 (1983).
128. Danner & Martinez, at 105-06. Two Trial Chambers, however, have required that the defendant's contributions have been “significant.” Prosecutor v. SimiC et al., Case No. IT-95-9-T, f 159 (Oct. 17, 2003);
129. Interview with ICTY Defense Counsel, in The Hague, Neth. (Oct. 2003).R v Bow St. Metro. Stipendiary Magistrate, ex parte Pinochet (No. 3), [2000].
130. tanislaw Pomorski, “Conspiracy and Criminal Organization,” in The Nuremberg Trial and International Law 213, 229 (George Ginsburgs & V. N. Kudriavtsev, eds., 1990);
131. Richard Overy, “The Nuremberg Trials: International Law in the Making,” in From Nuremberg to The Hague 1,14-22 (Philippe Sands, ed., 2003).
132. Alexander D. Tripp, “Comment, Margins of the Mob: A Comparison of Reves v. Ernst & Young with Criminal Association Laws in Italy and France,” 20 Fordham Int'l L.J. 263, 265-6, 297-302 (1996)
133. Danner, Martinez, at 118-19.
134. Morgan Cloud, “Organized Crime, RICO, and the European Union,” 27 Syracuse J. Int'l L. & Com. 243, 245-6 (2000)
135. Del Ponte recounts her professional biography as an international prosecutor in Madame Prosecutor: Confrontations with Humanity's Worst Criminals and the Culture of Impunity (2009).
136. Richard P. Barrett & Laura E. Little, “Lessons of Yugoslav Rape Trials: A Role for Conspiracy Law in International Tribunals,” 88 Minn. L. Rev. 30, 56-8 (2003).
137. Wayne R. LaFave, Criminal Law 616 (4th ed. 2003) (arguing that “the vagueness stems from… the uncertainty over what is sufficient to constitute the agreement and what attendant mental state must be shown”).
138. Richard Cyert & James March, A Behavioral Theory of the Firm 31-5 (2d ed. 1992).
139. John Gardner, “Reasons for Teamwork,” 8 Legal. Theory 495, 499-502 (2002).
140. James Gobert & Maurice Punch, Rethinking Corporate Crime (2003).
141. Martha Huggins, Political Policing: The United States and Latin America 177 (1998).
142. Alexander Hinton, “Why Did You Kill?: The Cambodian Genocide and the Dark Side of Face and Honor,” 57 J. Asian Stud. 93,115-16 (1998).
143. Gerhard Weinberg, “The Allies and the Holocaust,” in The Holocaust and History 480, 488-9 (Michael Berenbaum & Andrew Peck, eds., 1998).
144. Guenael Mettraux, International Crimes and the ad hoc Tribunals 293 (2005).
145. Christos Mylonas, “review of Tom Gallagher's Balkans after the Cold War and James Gow's The Serbian Project and its Adversaries: A Strategy of War Crimes,” Survival, 185, 185-6 (Autumn 2004)
146. Diane Amann, “Group Mentality, Expressivism, and Genocide,” 2 Int'l Crim. L. Rev. 93,93-5 (2002).
147. Gerard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide 232 (1995).
148. Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing 472 (2005).
149. Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (1998).
150. Benjamin Valentino, Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century 41 (2004).
151. Larry May, Crimes against Humanity: A Normative Account 163 (2005).
152. Chris Stephen, Judgment Day: The Trial of Slobodan Milosevic 152-3, 209 (2004).
153. Mark J. Osiel, “Constructing Subversion in Argentina's Dirty War,” 75 Representations 119,140 (2001).
154. Kurt Jonassohn with Karin Solveig Bjornson, Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations in Comparative Perspective 231 (1998).
155. Richard A. Wilson, “Race, Ethnicity and Genocide at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda,” Unpublished manuscript, July 2007.
156. Emile Durkheim, Suicide 247-53 (George Simpson, ed., John A. Spaulding & George Simpson trans., 1951).
157. Serge Moscovici, The Age of the Crowd: A Historical Treatise on Mass Psychology 3815 (J. C. Whitehousetrans., 1985) (defending mass psychology's explanatory utility);
158. Stanley Tambiah, Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia 267-329 (1996)
159. Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, W. D. Halls, trans. 56 (1982).
160. Charles Lindholm, Charisma 33 (1990) (parsing Durkheim's notion of the crowd as embodying “the visceral experience of essential unity and similarity that stimulates collective effervescence”).
161. Helena Cobban, “The Legacies of Collective Violence: The Rwandan Genocide and the Limits of the Law,” Boston Rev., Apr.-May 2002 (describing the genocide as “the blood orgy of those terrifyingly irrational weeks”).
162. Jean Hatzfeld, Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak (2005).
163. Lars Waldorff, “Mass Justice for Mass Atrocity: Rethinking Local Justice as Transitional Justice,” 79 Temple. L. Rev. 1,131 (2006) (offering considerable evidence to this effect).
164. Kotteakos V. United States, 328 U.S. 750, 771-2 (1946).
165. William LaFave, Criminal Law § 6.5(d)(1), at 594-5 (3rd ed. 2000).
166. Antonio Cassese, “The Proper Limits of Individual Responsibility under the Doctrine of Joint Criminal Enterprise,” 5 J. Int'l Crim. J. 109,133 (2007)
167. Nicola Piacente, “Importance of the Joint Criminal Enterprise Doctrine for the ICTY Prosecutorial Policy,” 2 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 446, 453 (2004).
168. William A. Schabas, “Enforcing International Humanitarian Law: Catching the Accomplices,” 83 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 439, 450-1 (2001).
169. Schabas, id. At 439, 442-54.
170. Maurice Nyberg, “At Risk from Complicity with Crime,” Fin. Times, July 28,1998, at 15.
171. Judgment, Brdanin, f 428 (rejecting the criticism that joint enterprise doctrine entails “guilt by association”).
172. Benjamin & Steve Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror: Radical Islam's War against America 167-70 (2003).
173. Raymond Bonner & Don Van Natta, Jr., “Regional Terrorist Groups Pose Growing Threat,” Experts Warn, N.Y. Times, Feb. 8, 2004.
174. George Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law, 343-9 (1978).
175. Emmanouela Mylonaki, “The Manipulation of Organised Crime by Terrorists: Legal and Factual Perspectives,” 2 Int'l Crim. L. Rev. 213, 230 (2002).
176. Manuel Castells, End of Millennium 170 (1998).
177. Andrew B. Loewenstein, “Judicial Review and the Limits of Prosecutorial Discretion,” 38 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 351, 369-70 (2001).
178. Marco Fabri, “Theory versus Practice of Italian Criminal Justice Reform,” 77 Judicature 211, 213-14 (1994).
179. William Stuntz, “Reply: Criminal Law's Pathology,” 101 Mich. L. Rev. 828,830-1 (2002)
180. Luc C6te, “Reflections on the Exercise of Prosecutorial Discretion in International Criminal Law,” 3 J. of Int'l Crim. Just. 162 (2005).
181. Allison Marston Danner & Jenny S. Martinez, “Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law,” 93 Cal. L. Rev. 75,108,134-5 (2005)
182. Linda Engvall, “Extended Joint Criminal Enterprise in International Criminal Law,” Master's thesis, Faculty of Law, Univ. of Lund, June 2005, at 60.
183. Lon Fuller, Legal Fictions 49-92 (1967). Fictions may therefore be simply aform of reasoning by analogy and, to that extent, can be uncontroversial-at least in the common law world.
184. Kosovo Second Amended Milosevic Indictment, ff 5-23.
185. MarkJ. Osiel, Obeying Orders: Atrocity, Military Discipline, and the Law of War 132-3 (1999).
186. Susanne Jonas, Of Centaurs and Doves: Guatemala's Peace Process 154 (2000).
187. Hella Pick, Guilty Victim: Austria From the Holocaust to Haider, passim (2000)
188. Tristan Anne Borer, “A Taxonomy of Victims and Perpetrators: Human Rights and Reconciliation in South Africa,” 25 Human Rights Q. 1088,1098-9 (2003)
189. Leora Bilsky, Transformative Justice: Israeli Identity on Trial 19-84 (2004)
190. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice 23,137,162, 323 (1972).
191. John Harsanyi, “Cardinal Utility in Welfare Economics and in the Theory of Risk-Taking,” 61 J. Pol. Econ. 434, 434-5 (1953).
192. Louis Kaplow & Steven Shavell, “Any Non-Welfarist Method of Policy Assessment Violates the Pareto Principle,” 109 J. Pol. Econ. 281 (2001).
193. Richard Posner, “The Problems of Moral and Legal Theory,” 111 Harv. L. Rev. 1637,1694-8 (1998).
194. Policy” may here be contrasted to “principle,” as Dworkin employs the terms. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously 22-8, 90-100 (1977).
195. Miriam J. Aukerman, “Extraordinary Evil, Ordinary Crime: A Framework for Understanding Transitional Justice,” 15 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 39 (2002) (arguing that we should first identify the goals of transitional justice and then determine which paradigm-retribution, restorative justice, nonprosecutorial alternatives-will best meet those goals);
196. hristin Bell, Peace Agreements and Human Rights 288 (2000) (arguing that “transitional criminal justice is not partial merely because full justice is logistically or politically difficult. It is partial because this best serves the transition.”).
197. George Fletcher, “Hamdan Confronts the Military Commissions Act of 2006,” 45 Colum. J. Transnational L. 427, 444 (2007).
198. Eric Posner, “Justice within Limits,” N.Y. Times, Op.-Ed., Sept. 26, 2005.
199. Christopher Kutz, Complicity: Ethics and Law for a Collective Age 5 (2000).
200. Harmen G. van der Wilt, “Genocide, Complicity in Genocide andlnternational v. Domestic Jurisdiction,” 4 J. Int'l Crim. Justice 239 (2006);
201. Alexander K.A. Greenawalt, “Rethinking Genocidal Intent: The Case for a Knowledge-Based Interpretation,” 99 Colum. L. Rev. 2259 (1999) (showing the difficulties of prosecutorial efforts at “squeezing ambiguous fact patterns into the specific intent paradigm”);
202. Claus Kress, “The Darfur Report and Genocidal Intent,” 3 J. Int'l Crim. Justice 575 (2005).
203. Marlise Simons, “Genocide Court Ruled for Serbia without Seeing Full War Archive,” N.Y. Times, April 9, 2007.
204. lex Obote-Odora, “Complicity in Genocide as Understood through the ICTR Experience,” 22 Int'l Crim. L. Rev. 375 (2002)
205. Chile Eboe-Osuji, “ ‘Complicity in Genocide’ versus ‘Aiding and Abetting Genocide,’ ” 3 J. Int'l Crim. Justice 56 (2005).
206. KrstiC Appeal, f 268 (“Aiding and abetting is a form of responsibility which generally warrants a lower sentence than is appropriate to responsibility as a co-perpetrator.”).
207. Claus Roxin, Autoria y Dominio del Hecho en Derecho Penal 276-7 (Joaquin Cuello Contreras trans. 2000).
208. Stathis Kalyvas, The Logic of Violence in Civil War 14,103 (2006). “For the many people who are not naturally bloodthirsty and abhor direct involvement in violence, civil war offers irresistible opportunities to harm everyday enemies. It is this banality of violence… that gives civil wars a great deal of their appalling connotations.” Id. at 389. See also Kalyvas, ‘The Ontology of “Political Violence”: Action and Identity in Civil Wars,’ 1 Perspectives on Politics 475 (2003).
209. lies van Sliedregt, Professor of International Criminal Law, Free University of Amsterdam, correspondence with author, Nov. 2008.
210. Corte Suprema de Justicia, 30/12/1986, “Causa Originariamente Instruida por el Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas en Cumplimiento del Decreto 158/83 del Poder Ejecutivo Nacional/recurso extraordinario,” Fallos (1986-309-5,10-12, 23, 29-30) (Arg.).
211. Carlos Nino, Radical Evil on Trial 116 (1999) (describing how the prospect of more trials produced a backlash in moderate military opinion, favoring their curtailment).
212. C. Edwin Baker, Genocide, Press Freedom, and the Case of Hassan Ngeze 20-2 (Univ. of Pennsylvania Law Sch. Pub. Law and Legal Theory Research Paper Series, Paper No. 46, 2003).
213. Christine Jolls, Cass Sunstein, & Richard Thaler, “The Behavioral Approach to Law and Economics,” in Behavioral Law and Economics 50 (Cass Sunstein, ed., 2000) (noting that traditional “economic theory assumes… that the language of a media account or advertisement has no effect on behavior, holding the information content constant”).
214. Gregory S. Gordon, “A War of Media, Words, Newspapers, and Radio Stations: The ICTR Media Trial Verdict and a New Chapter in the International Law of Hate Speech,” 45 Va. J. Int'l L. 139,150-2 (2004).
215. Susan Brenner, “RICO, CCE, and Other Complex Crimes,” 2 Wm. &. 239, 303 (1993).
216. Enrique Garcia Vitor, “La Tesis del ‘Dominio del Hecho a Traves de los Aparatos Organi-zados de Poder,'” in Nuevas Formulaciones en las Ciencias 327,344-8 (Carlos Julio Lascano, ed., 2001).
217. Claus Roxin, “Straftaten im Rahmen Organisatorischer Machtapparate,” in Goltdammer's Archiv fur Strafrecht (1993).
218. Carlos Julio Lascano, “Teoria de los Aparatos Organizados de Poder y Delitos Empresariales,” in Nuevas Formulaciones en las Ciencias, at 353 (noting Roxin's many adherents).
219. Kai Ambos & Christoph Grammer, “Dominio del hecho por organizacion: La responsabilidad de la conduccion militar argentina por la muerte de Elisabeth Kasemann,” 12 Revista Penal 27 (2003);
220. Kai Ambos, Dominio del Hecho por Dominio de Voluntad en Virtud de Aparatos Organizados de Poder (Manuel Cancio Melia, trans., 1998).
221. Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, July 14, 2008, available at http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-Summary-20081704-ENG.pdf; Public Redacted Version of Prosecutor's Application under Art. 58 filed on July 14, 2008
222. Claus Roxin, AutorCa y Dominio del Hecho en Derecho Penal § 24, at 270 (Joaquin Cuello Contreras & Jose Luis Serrano Gonzalez de Murillo trans., 1998)
223. Luis Moreno-Ocampo, “Prosecutor's Statement on the Prosecutor's Application for a Warrant of Arrest under Article 58 Against Omar Hassan Al Bashir,” Office of the Prosecutor, ICC, The Hague, July 14, 2008.
224. Edgardo Alberto Donna, “El Concepto de Autoria y la Teorla de los Aparatos de Poder de Roxin,” in Nuevas Formulaciones, at 295, 309.
225. Claus Roxin, “Problemas de Autoria y Participation en la Criminalidad Organizada,” in Delincuencia Organizada: Aspectos Penales, Procesales y CriminolOgicos 196 (Juan Carlos Ferre Olive & Enrique Anarte Borrallo, eds., 1999).
226. John Lachs, Responsibility and the Individual in Modern Society 12-13, 58 (1981).
227. Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem 57, 289 (1962).
228. Roxin, “Problemas,”, at 196; Jerusalem Dist. Ct. (Dec. 12,1961) 36 ILR 236-37, f 197.
229. Max Horkheimer & Theodor W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment 201-2 (John Cumming trans., 1991) (1944);
230. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust 12-18 (1989); Omer Bartov, “Seeking the Roots of Modern Genocide: On the Macro-and Micro-history of Mass Murder,” in The Specter of Genocide:
231. Eric D. Weitz, “The Modernity of Genocide: War, Race, and Revolution in the Twentieth Century,” in The Specter of Genocide, at 53,54-5.
232. Max Weber, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology 196-244 (H.H. Gerth & C. Wright Mills, eds., trans., 1946).
233. Albert Breton & Ronald Wintrobe, “The Bureaucracy of Murder Revisited,” 94 J. Pol. Econ. 905, 906 (1986);
234. Christopher R. Browning, “The German Bureaucracy and the Holocaust,” in Genocide 145, 148 (Alex Grobman & Daniel Landes, eds., 1983) (“The Nazis’ mass murder of the European Jews was not only the technological achievement of an industrial society, but also the organizational achievement of a bureaucratic society.”).
235. Leo Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century 121 (1981).
236. William H. Whyte, Jr, The Organization Man 3 (1956). This view found later support in the experimental social psychology of the period, such as Stanley Milgram, Obedience to Authority (1974).
237. Benjamin Valentino, Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century 236 (2004); see also Robert D. Kaplan, Balkan Ghosts 22, 39-40 (1993).
238. Edward Kissi, “Genocide in Cambodia and Ethiopia,” in The Specter of Genocide, at 307, 315.
239. Lawrence Douglas, “The Shrunken Head of Buchenwald: Icons of Atrocity at Nuremberg,” Representations, at 39,40-3 (Summer 1998) (showing how Nuremberg prosecutors artfully depicted perpetrators’ motivations as regressively but reassuringly antimodern).
240. Michel Feher, “Terms of Reconciliation,” in Human Rights in Political Transitions, 325, 336-7 (Robert Post & Carla Hesse, eds., 1999) (rejecting the view that modern genocide is “primarily the expression of a primitive mentality that needs to be overcome”).
241. OmerBartov, Germany's War and the Holocaust 135 (2003). Bartov is here describing others’ views.
242. Richard Breitman, The Architect of Genocide 105-15 (1991); Christopher Browning, The Path to Genocide 86-92 (1992).
243. Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society 172-87 (1996) (celebrating informal networks as the emergent form of social organization, more efficient than bureaucracy for economic production and other activities).
244. Peter L. Bergen, Holy War, Inc.: Inside the Secret World of Osama bin Laden 195-220 (2001).
245. Mark Osiel, Obeying Orders: Atrocity, Military Discipline, & the Law of War 173-85 (1999) (discussing disparities between the goals of superiors and subordinates).
246. Charles Perrow, Complex Organizations 158-63 (1972).
247. Walter W. Powell & Laurel Smith-Doerr, “Networks and Economic Life,” in The Handbook of Economic Sociology 368, 380 (Neil J. Smelser & Richard Swedberg, eds., 1994).
248. Katanga, f 512, 516. The Peruvian court that convicted Fromer President Alberto Fujmori in April 2009 saw fit to dispense with the fungibility requirement entirely.
249. Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Ordinary Evil, and Hannah Arendt 86-7 (2001).
250. Mark Osiel, “Constructing Subversion in Argentina's Dirty War,” 75 Representations 119, 141 (Summer 2001).
251. Michael Newton & Casey Kuhlman, “Why Warlords Evade the Law (of Command Responsibility): A Plea for a More Appropriate Conception of Effective Control,” unpublished manuscript, 2009.
252. H.L.A. Hart & Tony Honore, Causation in The Law 389-94 (1959). This causal break would in turn usually require the defendant to be characterized as making only a “contribution,” hence, to be merely an accessory, rather than a principal/perpetrator.
253. Lon Fuller, Legal Fictions 6-7,49-92 (1931). As the Palsgraf dissent famously argued for U.S. law, ascribing causation always involves not only counterfactual speculation
254. Meredith Blake & Andrew Ashworth, “The Presumption of Innocence in English Criminal Law,” Crim. L. Rev. 306, 306 (1996) (showing empirically “the frequency with which offences triable in the Crown Court. place a legal burden of proof on the defendant,” generally with respect to a standard element of a cognizable defense).
255. Thomas Weigend, “Intent, Mistake of Law, and Co-Perpetration in the Lubanga Decision on Confirmation of Charges,” 6 J. of Int'l Crim. Justice 471, 486-87 (2008).
256. George Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law 88-90, 115-18 (1978).
257. Guenael Mettraux, International Crimes and the ad hoc Tribunals 297, 306-10 (2005); C.T. Fox, “Closing a Loophole in Accountability for War Crimes: Successor Commanders’ Duty to Punish Known Past Offenses,”
258. Daryl Robinson, “The Identity Crisis of International Criminal Law,” 21 Leiden J. Int'l L. 925, 949-52, 959-60 (2008).
259. Mirjan Damaska, “The Shadow Side of Command Responsibility,” 49 Amer. J. Comp. L. 455, 468-69 (2001)
260. Alex de Waal, “The ICC vs. Bashir: Debating Genocidal Intent,” Making Sense of Darfur, at http://www.ssrc.org/blogs/darfur/2009/02/10/the-icc-vs-bashir-debating-genocidal-intent/.
261. Ahmad Al Bashir, f 150 (March 4, 2009); see also ff 216-8, 233.
262. Jeremy Weinstein, Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence 350 (2007).
263. Jorge Videla, in particular, soon after credible accounts began to emerge, shortly following the military's 1976 coup d'etat
264. Jessberger & Geneuss, at 858; Kevin Jon Heller, “The Rome Statute in Comparative Perspective,” Legal Studies Res. Paper, No. 370, Melbourne Law School, 2009.
265. Rome Statute, Art. 25(3)(a). Alas, the disjunctive wording here-“or”-impedes current efforts legally to conceptualize at once the vertical and horizontal dimensions of mass atrocity.
266. John Hagan & Wenona Rymond-Richmond, in their Darfur and the Crime of Genocide (2008), sometimes conflate the two, even while offering data undoubtedly relevant to prosecution of Sudan's leaders.
267. MarkOsiel, The End of Reciprocity: Terror, Torture & The Law of War 60 (2009) (referencing scholars who employ the legal concept of a franchise-often as metaphor, sometimes more literally-in characterizing bin Laden's selective and conditional sponsorship of certain radical Islamist groups).
268. William Schabas, “State Policy as an Element of International Crimes,” 98 J. of Crim. L. & Criminology 953 (2008);
269. Claus Kress, “The Darfur Report and Genoci-dal Intent,” J. of Int'l Crim. Justice 562, 566-67 (July 2005);
270. Alicia Gil Gil, Derecho Penal International: Especial Consideration del Delito de Genocidio 259-65 (1999);
271. Hans Vest, Genozid Durch Organisatorische Machtapparate 104-25 (2002);
272. Kevin Jon Heller, “The Majority's Problematic Interpretation of Genocide's Contextual Element,” Opinio Juris, at http://opiniojuris.org/2009/03/06/the-majoritys-problematic-interpretation-of-genocides-contextual-element/.
273. Hector Olasolo, “A Note on the Evolution of the Legality Principle in International Criminal Law,” 18 Crim. L. Forum 301 (2007);
274. Daryl Robinson, “The Identity Crisis of International Criminal Law,” 21 Leiden J. Int'l L. 925, 925, 927, 930, 931, 958, 959, 961 (2008).
275. Damaska shares Robinson's concerns, insisting “on punctilious adherence to the culpability principle” and “on conventional mens rea requirements.” Mirjan Damaska, “What is the Point of International Criminal Justice?” 83 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 329, 354 (2008).
276. Mark Drumbl, Atrocity, Punishment and International Law 5, 35-41,123-28 (2007).
277. Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom 18,110,124,196-97, 396, 401, 404 (1986).
278. Shane Darcy, “An Effective Measure of Bringing Justice? The Joint Criminal Enterprise Doctrine of the ICTY,” 20 Amer. U. Int'l L. Rev. 153 (2005).
279. Alan Norrie, Crime, Reason and History, 20-31, 42-45, 87-89,105-07,130-32 (1993).
280. Glanville Williams, Criminal Law: The General Part (1953);
281. Kevin Jon Heller, “The Cognitive Psychology of Mens Rea,” 4-5, at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1155304.
282. John Henry Merryman, The Civil Law Tradition 36 (2007); Olasolo, at 302, contending that the nulla poena sine lege requirement, properly understood, ‘includes an additional formal safeguard whereby the prohibited acts and the penalties must be preestablished by norms that can be considered
283. Harmen van der Wilt, “Equal Standards? On the Dialectics Between National Jurisdictions and the International Criminal Court,” 8 Int'l Crim. L. Rev. 229, 268-69
284. Machteld Boot, Nullum Crimen Sine Lege and the Subject Matter Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (2002).
285. Jeorge Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law 394-96, 455-56, 491-97 (1978).
286. Michael Moore, Causation and Responsibility 249-53 (2009)
287. Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order 179-85 (1902);
288. George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self & Society 186-225 (1934).
289. Victor Tadros, Criminal Responsibility 5-6 (2005).
290. John Gardner, “Criminal Law and the Uses of Theory: A Reply to Laing,” 14 Oxford J. of Leg. Studies 217, 221 (1994).
291. Ronald Dworkin, A Matter of Principle 33-71, 267-92 (1985) (offering a since-influential distinction between moral principle and public policy).
292. Dan Kahan, “Ignorance of the Law is an Excuse-But Only for the Virtuous,” 96 Mich. L. Rev. 127 (1997);
293. Kahan & Martha Nussbaum, “Two Conceptions of Emotion in Criminal Law,” 96 Colum. L. Rev. 269,345-46,357-72 (1996);
294. Karen Huigens, Virtue and Inculpation,” 108 Harv. L. Rev. 1423 (1995);
295. Character, Choice and Moral Agency: The Relevance of Character to Our Moral Culpability Judgments Character, Purposes, and Criminal Responsibility
296. Michael Bayles, “Character, Purposes, and Criminal Responsibility,” 1 Law and Philosophy 5 (1982).
297. Admittedly, Kahan's observations would be highly questionable if taken to imply that during episodes of mass atrocity “common morality”
298. Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Ordinary Evil, and Hannah Arendt: Criminal Consciousness in Argentina's Dirty War 88-103 (2001);
299. Seth Mydans, “Trials in Cambodia Expose the Cogs in a Killing Machine,” N.Y. Times, March 10, 2009
300. Philip L. Reichel, “Civil Law Legal Traditions,” in 1 Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment 235 (David Levinson, ed., 2002).
301. Kahan discusses several such reasons for legislative delegation of this sort, in “Lenity,”, at 398-428.
302. Kahan's quotations are from a judicial opinion in which the court rejected a “mistake of law” defense/excuse. People v Marrero, 507 N.E.2d 1068,1071 (N.Y., 1987).
303. Kahan, “Lenity,”, at 345, 346; Brad Roth, “Coming to Terms with Ruthlessness: Sovereign Equality, Global Pluralism, and the Limits of International Criminal Justice,” manuscript, 2009
304. Kahan, “Lenity,”, at 404. To believe that high-level perpetrators of mass atrocity will seek to exploit such legal ambiguities ex ante, we must admittedly assume that they are rational actors.
305. Kai Ambos, “Remarks on the General Part of International Criminal Law,” 4 J. of Int'l Crim. Justice 660, 668 (2006)
306. Brad Roth, correspondence with author, March 2009.
307. Charles Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade After World War I 41,138-40,150-51, 443-50, 474-75 (1975).
308. Harvey Waterman, “Political Mobilization and the Case of Chile,” 13 Comp. Studies in Int'l Development 60 (2007);
309. Henry Landsberger & Tim McDaniel, “Hypermobilization in Chile, 1970-73,” 28 World Politics 502 (1976)
310. Marcia B. Hartwell, “The Role of Forgiveness in Reconstructing Society after Conflict,” J. Humanitarian Assistance, June 3, 2000.
311. Mahmood Mamdani, “Reconciliation without Justice,” S. Afr. Rev. Books, Nov.-Dec. 1996.
312. Lawrence H. Officer, “Exchange Rate between the United States Dollar and Forty Other Countries,” 1913-99 (2002), at http://eh.net/hmit/exchangerates/.
313. Martin Shaw, War and Genocide 150 (2003). In fact, however, regular army units in all three states regularly participated in mass killings of civilians.
314. Lutz Niethammer, Die Mitlauferfabrik: Die Entnazifizierung am Beispiel Bayerns 21-4,536652 (1982) (describing how de-nazification proceedings adopted strict evidentiary rules to classify all but the highest echelons as followers, thereby facilitating their reintegration into German society).
315. MarkOsiel, Mass Atrocity, Collective Memory, and the Law 247-248 (1997).
316. David Cohen, “Transitional Justice in Divided Germany after 1945,” at 41 (unpublished manuscript).
317. Judith Shklar, Legalism: Law, Morals, and Political Trials 145-7,155-6 (2d ed. 1986).
318. Camerer & Richard H. Thaler, “Anomalies: Ultimatums, Dictators, and Manners,” 9 J. Econ. Persp. 209, 214-6 (1995)
319. Daniel Simpson, “Milosevic Trial Leaves Most Serbs Cynical,” N.Y. Times, Aug. 9, 2002, at A8 (“Milosevic's popularity rocketed during the early weeks of the trial.”).
320. Berkeley War Crimes Studies Ctr., “War Crimes Center Issues Report on Sierra Leone Court” (May 5, 2005).
321. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century 231 (1991).
322. Jerry F. Hough et al., The 1996 Russian Presidential Election 53-4 (1996).
323. Christopher Drew & Tresha Mabile, “Desert Graves Yield Evidence to Try Hussein,” N.Y. Times, June 7, 2005.
324. Marlise Simons, “Two Face Trials at The Hague over Darfur Atrocities,” N.Y. Times, Feb. 28, 2007
325. Avinash K. Dixit & Barry J. Nalebuff, Thinking Strategically 19-21 (1991).
326. Nigel Eltringham, Accounting for Horror: Post-Genocide Debates in Rwanda 27-33 (2004).
327. lison Des Forges & Timothy Longman, “Legal Responses to Genocide in Rwanda,” in My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity 49, 58-62 (Eric Stover & Harvey M. Weinstein, eds., 2004);
328. Filip Reyntjens & Stef Van deginste, “Rwanda: An Atypical Transition,” in Roads to Reconciliation 101,115-16 (Elin Skaar et al., eds., 2005);
329. Filip Reyntjens, “Rwanda, Ten Years On: From Genocide to Dictatorship,” 103 Afr. Aff. 177 (2004).
330. Ulrich Garms & Katharina Peschke, “War Crimes Prosecutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-2002),” 4 J. Int'l Crim. Justice 258 (2006).
331. Dinka Corkalo et al., “Neighbors Again? Intercommunity Relations after Ethnic Cleansing,” in My Neighbor, at 143,148.
332. Mark A. Drumbl, “Collective Violence and Individual Punishment: The Criminality of Mass Atrocity,” 99 Nw. U. L. Rev. 539, 549-50 (2005)
333. Arturo Escobar, Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World 10-14, 52-3, 86-9 (1995).
334. David Cohen, Intended to Fail: The Trials before the Ad Hoc Human Rights Court in Jakarta at vi-ix, Int'l Ctr. for Transitional Justice, ed., 2003
335. Lars Waldorf, Dir., Human Rights Watch, Kigali, Rwanda Field Office, to author (June 10, 2005);
336. Philip B. Heymann, “Should Prosecutors Be Independent of the Executive in Prosecuting Government Abuses?” in Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the Judiciary 203, 211-13
337. Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and Genocide in Rwanda 233 (2001) (“The perpetrators of the genocide saw themselves as the true victims of an ongoing political drama, victims of yesterday who may yet be victims again.”)
338. Pierre Bourdieu, Pascalian Meditations 193 (Richard Nice trans., 2000).
339. Rogers Brubaker, “Ethnicity without Groups,” in Remaking Modernity 470, 478 (Julia Adams et al., eds., 2005).
340. Ruti Teitel, “Bringing the Messiah through the Law,” in Human Rights in Political Transitions: Gettysburg to Bosnia 177,183 (Carla Hesse & Robert Post, eds., 1999).
341. Human Rights Watch, “Peru: Special Prosecutor Faces Dismissal,” Human Rights News, May 5, 2005.
342. David Cohen, “The Legacy of Nuremberg: Models of Command Responsibility” 6-9 (2003) (unpublished manuscript).
343. Madeline Morris, “The Disturbing Democratic Defect of the International Criminal Court,” 12 Finnish Y.B. Int'l L. 109,112-13 (2001).
344. Ralph Henham, “The Philosophical Foundations of International Sentencing,” 1 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 64, 68-9, 81 (2003).
345. Eur J. Crime, Crim. L., & Crim. Just. 286 passim (2002) (arguing that global crimes must be tried before international rather than national tribunals in order to maintain legitimacy and efficacy);
346. Jane E. Stromseth, “Introduction: Goals and Challenges in the Pursuit of Accountability,” in Accountability for Atrocities: National and International Responses 1,4 (Jane E. Stromseth, ed., 2003)
347. Carsten Stahn, “United Nations Peace-Building, Amnesties and Alternative Forms of Justice: A Change in Practice?,” 84 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 191,191-202 (2002).
348. Richard Holbrooke, To End a War 106-8 (1998).
349. Rebekah Heacock “African Bloggers React to ICC Charges against Sudanese President al-Bashir,” at http://globalvoicesonline.org/2008/07/16/african-bloggers-reactions-to-charges-against-al-bashir
350. Jacqueline E. Ross, “Dilemmas of Undercover Policing in Germany: The Troubled Quest for Legitimacy,” 50 (Mar. 11, 2005) (unpublished manuscript).
351. Carla del Ponte, with Chuck Sudectic, Madame Prosecutor: Confrontations with Humanity's Worst Criminals and the Culture of Impunity (2009).
352. Hassan B. Jallow, “Prosecutorial Discretion and International Criminal Justice,” 3 J. Int'l Crim. Justice 145,154-8 (2005)
353. John R.W.D. Jones, “The Gamekeeper-Turned-Poacher's Tale,” 2 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 486, 493 (2004).
354. Dina Temple-Raston, Justice on the Grass 124 (2005) describing the presence of several thousand protestors when Chief Prosecutor Carla del Ponte sought to discuss prosecution of RPF
355. Jack Snyder & Leslie Vinjamuri, “Trials and Errors: Principle and Pragmatism in Strategies of International Justice,” Int'l Security, Winter 2003/04, at 5, 21-2, 27-8
356. Diane Orentlicher, Shrinking the Space for Denial: The Impact of the ICTY in Serbia, Open Society Institute (2008);
357. Ivan Orozco Abad, Sobre Los Limites de la Conciencia Humanitaria: Dilemas de la Pazy la Justicia en America Latina 256, 240-6 (2005).
358. Michael P. Scharf, Balkan Justice 98-100, 222-4 (1997).
359. Jose E. Alvarez, “Rush to Closure: Lessons of the TadiC Judgment,” 96 Mich. L. Rev. 2031, 2092 (1998) (“Emphasis on such persons tends to produce accounts of mass atrocities that provide more satisfactory explanations of their bureaucratization.”).
360. JohnR. W. D. Jones & Steven Powles, International Criminal Practice (3d, ed. 2003). Scholarly journals include the Journal of International Criminal Justice andthe International Criminal Justice Review, in addition to more specialized professional newsletters and loose-leaf services.
361. John McGinnis, “The Appropriate Hierarchy of Global Multilateralism and Customary International Law: The Example of the WTO,” 44 Va. J. Int'l L. 229, 243 (2003).
362. Ronald J. Gilson & Robert H. Mnookin, “Sharing among the Human Capitalists: An Economic Inquiry into the Corporate Law Firm and How Partners Split Profits,” 37 Stan. L. Rev. 313, 354-60 (1985).
363. Mark J. Osiel, “Lawyers as Monopolists, Aristocrats, and Entrepreneurs,” 103 Harv. L. Rev. 2009, 2051-3 (1990).
364. Gretchen Helmke, Court under Constraints: Judges, Generals, and Presidents in Argentina 154-7 (2005)
365. Rebecca Chavez, The Rule of Law in Nascent Democracies: Judicial Politics in Argentina 30-48 (2004).
366. Michael Barnett & Martha Finnemore, Rules for the World: International Organizations in Global Politics 156-73 (2004).
367. Beatrice Pouligny, The Forgotten Dimensions of “Justice” Programs: Cultural Meanings and Imperatives for Survivors of Violent Conflicts 3 (2005)
368. Brandon Hamber & Richard A. Wilson, “Symbolic Closure through Memory, Reparation and Revenge in Post-conflict Societies,” 1 J. Hum. Rts. 35 (2002) (describing reports of trauma counselors in postconflict societies).
369. Jacques Derrida, “To Forgive: The Unforgivable and the Imprescriptible,” in Questioning God 21, 25-6 (John D. Caputo et al., eds., 2001).
370. Stephen Holmes, “Why International Justice Limps,” 69 Soc. Res. 1055,1071 (2002).
371. Maximo Langer, “From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure,” 45 Harv. Int'l L.J. 1, 37 (2004)
372. Christian Ranheim, Internationalised Courts and Fair Trial Standards: The Case of East Timor 7-9, 14-16 (2005).
373. Vladimir Putin for the many war crimes of Russian armed forces in Chechnya. Antoine Garapon, “Three Challenges for International Criminal Justice,” 2 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 716, 717 (2004).
374. Clifford Geertz, Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics 227 (2000).
375. Daniel Rothenberg, “Burma's Democratic Transition,” Hum. Rts. Brief, Winter 2002, at 10,13.
376. Anne-Marie Slaughter & William Burke-White, “The Future of International Law Is Domestic,” 47 Harv. Int'l L.J. 327 (2006);
377. Harmen van der Wilt, “Equal Standards? On the Dialectics between National Jurisdictions and the International Criminal Court,” 8 Int'l Crim. L. Rev. 229 (2008).
378. Allison Danner, “When Courts Make Law: How the International Criminal Tribunals Recast the Laws of War,” 59 Vand. L. Rev. 1, 61 (2006).
379. Victor Peskin, “Courting Rwanda: The Promises and Pitfalls of the ICTR Outreach Programme,” 3 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 950, 951 (2005).
380. Eliot Freidson, Professionalism: The Third Logic 202 (2001).
381. Yves Dezalay & Bryant G. Garth, Dealing in Virtue: International Commercial Arbitration and the Construction of a Transnational Legal Order 18-62 (1996).
382. Nina H.B. Jorgensen, The Responsibility of States for International Crimes 280 (2000).
383. Christine Bell, Peace Agreements and Human Rights 264 (2001).
384. Geoffrey Robertson, Crimes against Humanity 267 (1999).
385. Francis M. Deng, “Frontiers of Sovereignty: A Framework of Protection, Assistance, and Development for the Internally Disabled,” 8 Leiden J. Int'l L. 249, 272 (1995).
386. Diane Orentlicher, “Whose Justice? Reconciling Universal Jurisdiction with Democratic Principles,” 92 Geo. L.J. 1057,1132-3 (2004).
387. llison Marston Danner & Jenny S. Martinez, “Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility, and the Development of International Criminal Law,” 93 Cal. L. Rev. 75, 132-42 (2005);
388. Steven Powles, “Joint Criminal Enterprise: Criminal Liability by Prosecutorial Ingenuity and Judicial Creativity?” 2 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 606, 614-19 (2004).
389. Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism 49-52, 74,104 (1977) (analyzing professionalization as a collective “project” by entrepreneurs within an occupational group)
390. Ryan Goodman, “Human Rights Treaties, Invalid Reservations, and State Consent,” 96 Am. J. Int'l L. 531,541 (2002).
391. Human Rights Watch, Croatia: Conviction Spotlights Justice Failings (2004).
392. Mark Osiel, Mass Atrocity, Ordinary Evil, and Hannah Arendt 15-24 (2001).
393. Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order 101 (2004) (lauding a global process of professional socialization through which judges come to feel “tied together not only by the awareness of foreign courts and decisions but active transjudicial dialogue on common problems ranging from privacy to the death penalty”).
394. William Burke-White, “Proactive Complementarity: The International Criminal Court in the Rome System of Justice,” 49 Harv. Int'l L. J. 53 (2008);
395. Carsten Stahn, “Complementarity: A Tale of Two Notions,” 19 Crim. L. Forum 87 (2008).
396. Rudi Rizki, judge and professor of law, Padjajaran University, in Bilbao, Spain, July 2005, interview with author.
397. E. Ivicevic, “The Implementing Criminal Law Concerning Criminal Command Responsibility,” in Responsibility for War Crimes: Croatian Perspectives, Selected Issues (Ivo Josipovic, ed., 121, 2005).
398. Kai Ambos, “Individual Criminal Responsibility, Article 25 Rome Statute,” in Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Otto Triffterer, ed. 743,770a-770c 2008).
399. Andre Nollkaemper & Janne Nijman, eds. 2007; Nollkaemper, Domestic Courts and the Rule of International Law (2008).
400. Eugene Kontorovich, “Inefficient Custom in International Law,” 48 William & Mary L. Rev. 859 (2006) (observing that efficient customary rules emerge only when there is frequent interaction and side-switching between all pertinent parties on the particular issue).
401. Santiago O'Donnell, “Latin America Extends the Definition of Genocide,” Int'l Justice Tribune, Nov. 5, 2007
402. Christopher Hall, Director, International Justice Project, Amnesty International, Marie Curie Lecture, Grotius Centre, Leiden University, Nov. 2008.
403. Kenneth Anderson, “Secular Eschatologies and Class Interests of the Internationalized New Class,” in Religion and Human Rights 107, 113-15 (Carrie Gustafson et al., eds., 1999)
404. William LaFave, Criminal Law594-602 (2003).
405. David Cohen, “The Legacy of Nuremberg: Models of Command Responsibility” 5-11 (unpublished manuscript); see also David Cohen, “Transitional Justice in Divided Germany after 1945,” 3-13 (unpublished manuscript).
406. Gregory S. Gordon, “A War of Media, Words, Newspapers, and Radio Stations: The ICTR Media Trial Verdict and a New Chapter in the International Law of Hate Speech,” 45 Va. J. Int'l L. 139,179-83 (2004)
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