Liability for omission in international criminal law

International Criminal Law Review

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-61

  Duttwiler, Michael ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 35248832154     PISSN: 1567536X     EISSN: 15718123     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157181206777066745     Document Type: Article

References (387)

1. UN doc. A/56/10(2001), 279.
2. Cf. Arts 1, 6 ICTYSt (SC Res. 827(1993))
3. annex; Arts 1, 7 ICTRSt (SC Res. 955(1994)), annex;
4. Art. 25(1) ICCSt (UN doc. A/CONF. 183/9).
5. International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg), Judgment and Sentences of 1 October 1946, reprinted in 41 American Journal of International Law (1947), 172-333, at 221.
6. A. Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 201.
7. See e.g. M. Seplúveda, The Nature of Obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2003), 138 et seq.
8. ICTY, Judgment, Mucić et al. (IT-96-21), Trial Chamber, 16 November 1998, para. 343.
9. See e.g. I. Bantekas, 'The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility', 93 American Journal of International Law (1999) 573-595.
10. They will be used as subsidiary means for the determination of a rule of law in the sense of Art. 38(1) (d) ICJSt.
11. G.-F. Güntge, Begehen durch Unterlassen (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1995), 18 et seq.
12. M. Moore, Act and Crime. The Philosophy of Action and its Implications for Criminal Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 28.
13. W. R. La Fave and A. W. Scott, Substantive Criminal Law, Volume 1 (St. Paul: West Publ., 1986), 282 et seq.
14. P. H. Robinson, 'Criminal liability for omissions: a brief summary and critique of the law in the United States', 55 Revue Internationale de Droit Pénal (1984) 633-651, at 634.
15. G. P. Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law (Boston: Little, Brown & Comp., 1978), 611.
16. H.-H. Jescheck and T. Weigend, Lehrbuch des Strafrechts. Allgemeiner Teil, 5th edition (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1996), 600.
17. H.-H. Jescheck, commentary ad para. 13, in B. Jähnke, H. W. Laufhütte and W. Odersky (eds), Strafgesetzbuch, Leipziger Kommentar (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003) 48-86, at 53.
18. P. R. Glazebrook, 'Criminal Omissions: The duty requirement in offences against the person', 76 Law Quarterly Review (1961) 386-411, at 386 et seq.
19. A. P. Simester and G. R. Sullivan, Criminal Law. Theory and Doctrine (Oxford: Hart, 2003), 73 et seq.
20. A. Leavens, 'A Causation Approach to Criminal Omissions', 76 California Law Review (1988) 547-591, at 562 et seq.
21. W. Stree, commentary ad para. 13, in A. Schönke and H. Schröder (eds), Strafgesetzbuch, Kommentar (München: Beck, 2001) 201-228, at 226.
22. See the overview provided in J. Brammsen, 'Tun oder Unterlassen? Die Bestimmung der strafrechtlichen Verhaltensformen', 149 Goltdammer's Archiv für Strafrecht (2002) 193-212, at 194 et seq.
23. Art. 85(4) (b) API.
24. See Art. 2 (b) of Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 277.
25. K. Weltz, Die Unterlassungshaftung im Völkerstrafrecht. Eine rechtsvergleichende Untersuchung des französischen, US-amerikanischen und deutschen Rechts (Freiburg im Breisgau: ed. iuscrim, 2004), 212.
26. Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 UNTS 32 (GC I);
27. Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of the Armed Forces at Sea, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 UNTS 85 (GC II);
28. Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 UNTS 135 (GC III);
29. Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 UNTS 287 (GC IV);
30. Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 Aug. 1949, relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts, 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3 (AP I);
31. Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 Aug. 1949, relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts, 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 609 (AP II).
32. J. Pictet, commentary ad art. 12, in idem (ed.), The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949:
33. commentary, Vol. I (Geneva: ICRC, 1952-1960) 133-142, at 134.
34. Art. 8(2) (a) (vi) ICCSt.
35. Arts 130 GC III and 147 GC IV
36. See the enumeration in K. Dörmann, Elements of War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 101.
37. Arts 104 GC III, 71(2)
38. GC IV, 75(4) (a) AP I.
39. Arts 99, 105 GC III, 72
40. 74 GC IV, 75(4) (a), (g) AP I.
41. Art. 8(2) (b) (xxiii) ICCSt.
42. Cf. Arts 23 GC III, 28
43. GC IV and 51(7) AP I.
44. Arts 19(2) GC I, 23
45. GC III, 58 (a) AP I.
46. Art. 8(2) (b) (xxv) ICCSt.
47. Cf. Arts 54 AP I, 14 AP II.
48. C. Pilloud, Y. Sandoz, C. Swinarski and B. Zimmermann (eds), Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949
49. (Geneva: IRCR, 1987)
50. ad Art. 14 AP II, para. 4800.
51. Art. 85(4) AP I.
52. Arts 12(2) GC I, 12(2) GC II.
53. Art. 130 GC III.
54. Arts 11(1), (4) AP I, 5(2) (e) AP II.
55. Pictet (ed.), supra note 36, Vol. I, ad Art. 50
56. GC I, 371;
57. Vol. II, ad Art. 51 GC II, 267;
58. Vol. III, ad Art. 130 GC III, 626 et seq.;
59. Vol. IV, ad Art. 147 GC IV, 597.
60. 78 UNTS 277.
61. See e.g. ICTY, Judgment, Kordic and Cerkez (IT-95-14/2), Trial Chamber, 26 February 2001, para. 236.
62. Because it is 'in violation of fundamental rules of international law', cf. Art. 7(1) (e) ICCSt.
63. Art. 7(2) (e) Rome Statute.
64. 1015 UNTS 243.
65. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment, GA Res. 39/46, 10 December (1984).
66. N. Rodley, 'The Definition (s) of Torture in International Law', 55 Current Legal Problems (2002) 467-493, at 484.
67. Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, 9 December 1985, OEA/ser. A/42, 67 OASTS, reprinted in 25 International Legal Materials (1986) 519-526, at 519.
68. 754 UNTS 73.
69. R. H. Miller, 'The Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity', 65 American Journal of International Law (1971) 476-501, at 494.
70. C. Pilloud, Y. Sandoz, C. Swinarski and B. Zimmermann (eds), supra note 50, ad art. 86 AP I, para. 3526.
71. The same conclusion, for different reasons, reaches Weltz, supra note 33, 228 et seq.
72. H. S. Levie, Terrorism in War, The Law of War Crimes (New York: Oceana Publications, 1993), 135 et seq., and 179 et seq.
73. C. Kress, 'Zur Methode der Rechtsfindung im Allgemeinen Teil des Völkerstrafrechts', 111 Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft (1999) 597-623, at 604.
74. Cf. also A. Nollkaemper, 'Decisions of National Courts as Sources of International Law: An Analysis of the Practice of the ICTY', in G. Boas and W. Schabas (eds), International Criminal Law - Developments in the Case Law of the ICTY (Leiden: M. Nijhoff, 2003) 277-296, at 281 et seq.
75. ICTY, Judgment, Erdemović (IT-96-22), Appeals Chamber, 7 October 1997, Joint Separate Opinion of Judge McDonald and Judge Vohrah, para. 50.
76. United States Military Commission in Salzburg, US v. Alois Grisel, mentioned in Levie, supra note 78, 327.
77. British Military Court in Wuppertal, in re Killinger and Others, 3 December 1945, reported in United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Vol. III (London: HMSO, 1947-1949), 67.
78. British Military Court in Brunswick, Trial of Heinrich Gerike and Seven Others (Velpke Children's Home Case), 3 April 1946
79. reported in UNWCC, Law Reports on Trials of War Criminals, Vol. VII (London: HMSO, 1947-1949), 76.
80. British Military Court at Helmstedt, Trial of Georg Tyrolt and Others (Rühen Children's Home Trial), 24 June 1946
81. cited in UNWCC, Law Reports on Trials of War Criminals, Vol. VII (London: HMSO, 1947-1949), 81.
82. United States Military Commission at Yokohama, Trial of Hiroshi Fujii, 1946, mentioned in Levie, supra note 78, 327.
83. United States Military Commission at Yokohama, Trial of Hajime Tamura, undated, mentioned in Levie, supra note 78, 327 (at note 161).
84. United Kingdom Military Tribunal at Singapore, Trial of Sadaichi Gozawa, 1 February 1946, reported in Levie, supra note 78, 173 et seq.
85. Netherlands Indies, Temporary Court Martial at Batavia, in re Sone Kenitji, 14 August 1946, 13 International Law Reports 299.
86. Netherlands Indies Temporary Court Martial at Batavia, in re Shuichi Kondo, 29 October 1946, 13 International Law Reports 399.
87. United States Military Commission in Shanghai, Trial of Shigeru Sawada and Others, April 1946, reported in Levie, supra note 78, 358 et seq.
88. United States Military Commission at Yokohama, Trial of Nobuo Ito, undated, reported in Levie, supra note 78, 359.
89. Australian Military Court in Rabaul, Trial of Captain Eitaro Shinohara and Two Others, 1 April 1946
90. wreported in UNWCC, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Vol. V (London: HMSO, 1947-1949), 32.
91. Reprinted in Levie, supra note 78, 313.
92. United States Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, in re von Leeb and Others (High Command Trial), 28 October 1948, reported in UNWCC, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Vol. XII (London: HMSO, 1947-1949), 1.
93. British Military Court in Essen, Trial of Erich Heyer and six Others (Essen Lynching case), 22 December 1945
94. reported in UNWCC, Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, Vol. I (London: HMSO, 1947-1949), 88.
95. United Kingdom, Military Court in Hamburg, Trial of Helmuth von Ruchteschell, 1947, 13 Annual Digest and Reports of Public International Law Cases 247.
96. Available online at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/imt10.htm (visited 15 April 2005).
97. Holland, Special Court of Cassation, Second Chamber, in re Zuhlke, 6 December 1948, 15 International Law Reports 415, 499.
98. United States Military Commission at Yokohama, Trial of Toshio Tashiro, undated, mentioned in Levie, supra note 78, 454 et seq.
99. United States Military Commission at Yokohama, Trial of Junsaburu Toshino, May 1947, mentioned in Levie, supra note 78, 168.
100. Netherlands East Indies, Temporary Court Martial in Macassar, in re Koshiro Tanabe, 5 February 1947, 14 International Law Reports 210.
101. Germany, Oberster Gerichtshof für die Britische Zone in Strafsachen, Strafsenat, in re H., StS 33/48, 22 February 1949
102. reprinted in Entscheidungen des Obersten Gerichtshofes für die Britische Zone in Strafsachen, Vol. 1 (Leipzig: Walter de Gruyter, 1948), 316 et seq.
103. http://www.iccnow.org/resourcestools/ratimptoolkit/nationalregionaltools / legislationdebates.html (visited 15 April 2005).
104. http://web.amnesty.org/pages/icc-implementation-eng (visited 15 April 2005).
105. Available at http://www.iuscrim.mpg.de/forsch/legaltext/vstgbleng.pdf (visited 15 April 2005).
106. A. Verdross, Die Quellen des universellen Völkerrechts. Eine Einführung (Freiburg: Rombach, 1973), 130.
107. B. Cheng, General principles of law as applied by international courts and tribunals (Cambridge: Grotius Publ., 1987), 20.
108. W. Weiss, 'Allgemeine Rechtsgrundsätze des Völkerrechts', 39 Archiv des Völkerrechts (2001) 394-431, at 412.
109. H. Thirlway, 'The law and procedure of the international court of justice 1960-1989 (Part Two) ', 61 British Yearbook of International Law (1991) 1-134, at 112.
110. A. Verdross, 'Les principes généraux de droit dans le système des sources du droit international public', in Institut universitaire de hautes études internationales (HEI), Receuil d'études de droit international en hommage à Paul Guggenheim (Genève: HEI, 1968) 521-530, at 523 et seq.
111. For the methodology of comparative law, see K. Zweigert and H. Kötz, Introduction to Comparative Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 32 et seq.
112. ICJ, International Status of South-West Africa (1950)
113. ICJ Reports (1950) 128, at 148 (Separate Opinion of Judge McNair).
114. C. Bassiouni, 'A functional approach to "general principles of international law"', 11 Michigan Journal of International Law (1990) 768-818, at 789.
115. See e.g. the separate opinion of Judge Tanaka in ICJ, South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa) (1966), ICJ Reports (1966) 6, at 294.
116. M. Sørensen, 'Principes de droit international public', 101 II Receuil des Cours (1960) 1-250, at 20.
117. ICJ, North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic) (1969), ICJ Reports (1969) 3, at 132 (Separate Opinion Judge Ammoun).
118. See only H. Waldock, 'General Course on Public International Law', 106 II Recueil des Cours (1962) 1-251, at 66.
119. H. Mosler, 'To what extent does the variety of legal systems of the world influence the application of the general principles of law within the meaning of article 38(1) (c) of the Statute of the international court of justice', in T. M. C. Asser Instituut (ed.), International Law and The Grotian Heritage (The Hague: T. M. C. Asser Instituut, 1985) 173-185, at 175.
120. UN doc. S/25704(1993), para. 58.
121. SC Res. 827(1993), annex, art. 28.
122. SC Res. 955(1994), annex, art. 27.
123. Art. 23, available at http://www.sc-sl.org/scsl-statute.html (visited 15 April 2005).
124. Art. 21(1) (c) ICCSt, supra note 2.
125. Erdemovic (Appeals Chamber), supra note 81, paras 57 et seq.
126. Icty, Judgment, Furundzija (IT-95-17/1), Trial Chamber, 10 December 1998, para. 180.
127. R. David and J. E. C. Brierly, Major legal systems in the world today (3rd edition, London: Stevens, 1985).
128. L. Moreillon, L'infraction par omission (Genève: Droz, 1993), 49.
129. House of Lords, R v. Miller, [1983] 2 A. C. 161, 174 et seq.
130. A. Ashworth, Principles of Criminal Law (4th edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 111.
131. J. C. Smith and B. Hogan, Criminal Law (10th edition, London: Butterworths LexisNexis, 2002), 61.
132. A. Ashworth, 'The Scope of Criminal Liability for Omissions', 105 Law Quarterly Review (1989) 424-459, at 437 et seq.
133. J. Herring, Criminal Law (3rd edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 41.
134. Court of Appeal, R v. Dytham, [1979] Q. B. 722.
135. House of Lords, R v. Sheppard and Another, [1981] A. C. 394.
136. The Queen v. Instan, [1893] 1 Q. B. 450.
137. Court of Appeal, R v. Stone/v. Dobinson, [1977] Q. B. 354.
138. House of Lords, R v. Miller, [1983] 2 A. C. 161.
139. F. B. McCarthy, 'Crimes of Omission in Pennsylvania', 68 Temple Law Review (1995) 633-672, at 641 et seq. (Pubitemid 126080018)
140. American Law Institute, supra note 170, 213 et seq.
141. A. W. Mewett and M. Manning, Mewett & Manning on Criminal Law (3rd edition, Toronto: Butterworths, 1995), 132 et seq.
142. P. Gillies, Criminal Law (4th edition, Sydney: LBC Information Services, 1997), 37 et seq.
143. S. E. Edeko and E. Unomah, Nigerian Criminal Law (Benin City: Tide Publishers, 2003), 1.
144. D. Nsereko, 'Uganda', in L. Dupont and C. Fijnaut, International Encyclopaedia of Laws, Criminal Law, Vol. 4 (Deventer: Kluwer, 1993-) 1-130, at 83.
145. M. A. Khan, An exhaustive commentary on the Pakistan Penal Code (XLV of 1860) (Lahore: Khyber Law Publishers, 2002), 19 et seq.
146. A. C. Simon, Mallal's Penal Law (Kuala Lumpur: Malayan Law Journal, 2002), 42 et seq.
147. H. Tröndle and T. Fischer, Strafgesetzbuch und Nebengesetze (52th edition, München: Verlag C. H. Beck, 2004), 93.
148. B. Schmidt-Küntzel, Die Unterlassungsdelikte im französischen Code Pénal unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der unechten Unterlassungsdelikte (Freiburg im Breisgau: Dissertation, 1971), 48.
149. Cited in G. Stefani, G. Levasseur and B. Bouloc, Droit pénal général (17th edition, Paris: Dalloz, 2000), 201.
150. R. Merle and A. Vitu, Traité de droit criminel. Problèmes généraux de la science criminelle. Droit pénal général (7th edition, Paris: Cujas, 1997), 611.
151. J. Pradel and A. Varinard, Les grands arrêts du droit pénal général (3rd edition, Paris: Dalloz, 2001), 338 et seq.
152. G. Levasseur, A. Chavanne, J. Montreuil and B. Bouloc, Droit pénal général et procédure pénale (13th edition, Paris: Sirey, 1999), 63.
153. J. Vogel, 'Elemente der Straftat: Bemerkungen zur französischen Straftatlehre und zur Straftatlehre des common law', 145 Goltdammer's Archiv für Strafrecht (1998) 127-150, at 132.
154. C. Mayerhofer (ed.), Das Österreichische Strafrecht, Erster Teil, Strafgesetzbuch (5th edition, Wien: Verlag Österreich, 2000), 40 et seq.
155. J. Rehberg and A. Donatsch, Strafrecht I, Verbrechenslehre (7th edition, Zürich: Schulthess, 2001), 255.
156. K. Seelmann, commentary ad art. 1, in M. A. Niggli and H. Wiprächtiger (eds), Basler Kommentar, Strafgesetzbuch I (Basel: Helbing & Lichtenhahn, 2004), 17-38, at 25 et seq.
157. G. Mourullo and A. J. Barreiro (eds), Comentarios al Codigo Penal (Madrid: Ed. Civitas, 1997), ad art. 11.
158. Art. 10(2) CC Portugal.
159. J. de F. Dias, 'Les délits d'omission dans le droit pénal portugais', 55 Revue Internationale de Droit Pénal (1984) 845-863, at 854 et seq.
160. F. Mantovani, Principi di diritto penale (Padova: CEDAM, 2002), 74 et seq.
161. J. Remmelink, Inleiding tot de studie van het Nederlandse strafrecht (15th edition, Deventer: Gouda Quint, 1996), 118 et seq.
162. L. B. Langsted, V. Greve and P. Garde, Criminal Law in Denmark (Copenhagen: DJøF Publ., 1998), §87.
163. N. Jareborg, 'Criminal Liability for Omissions', 55 Revue International de Droit Pénal (1984) 937-964, at 949 et seq.
164. H. Palmen, 'Crimes of Omission and the Principle of Legality', 55 Revue International de Droit Pénal (1984) 653-665, at 655 et seq.
165. Art. 2 CC Poland.
166. N. B. Lolis and G. Mangakis, The Greek Penal Code (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1973), 4.
167. Art. 14 CC Greece.
168. Art. 30 CC Serbia and Montenegro.
169. J. Bustos Ramirez and M. Valenzuela Bejas, Le système pénal des pays de l'Amérique Latine (Paris: A. Pedone, 1983), 14.
170. Art. 13(2) CC Brazil.
171. Art. 25 CC Colombia.
172. Art. 18 CC Costa Rica.
173. Art. 12 CC Ecuador.
174. Arts 19, 20 CC El Salvador.
175. Art. 18 CC Guatemala.
176. Art. 7 CC Mexico.
177. Art. 25 CC Nicaragua.
178. Art. 17 CC Panama.
179. Art. 15 CC Paraguay.
180. Art. 13 CC Peru.
181. Art. 3 CC Uruguay.
182. Arts 1, 2 CC Chile.
183. Art. 8. 1 CC Cuba.
184. Art. 61 CC Venezuela.
185. Art. 13 CC Honduras.
186. A. Etcheberry, Derecho Penal, Tomo primero, Parte general (3rd edition, Santiago de Chile: Editorial Jurídica de Chile, 1998), 198 et seq.
187. See e.g. for Chile S. P. Lifschitz, Derecho Penal (Santiago de Chile: Editorial Jurídica ConoSur, 1997), 241 et seq.
188. for Peru F. Villavicencio Terreros, Cádigo penal comentado (3rd edition 2001, 1st reprint Lima: Grijley, 2002), 77 et seq.
189. for Mexico M. A. Cortes Ibarra, Derecho Penal (Parte General) (5th edition, México D. F.: Cardenas, 2001), 181 et seq.
190. for Brazil D. E. de Jesus, Cádigo Penal Anotado (5th edition, São Paulo: Saraiva, 1995), 33.
191. M. Forstner, der Allgemeine Teil des ägyptischen Strafrechts (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1986), 15, 68.
192. C. Hennau and J. Verhaegen, Droit pénal général (3rd edition, Bruxelles: Bruylant, 2003), 156.
193. The congolese criminal code stands very clearly in the Belgian heritage and is silent as to a general norm on liability for omission: reprinted in L. Kabinda Ngoy, K. Kaba Kashala, N. Iyela et al. (eds), Les codes Larcier: République démocratique du Congo. Tome II. Droit pénal (Bruxelles: Larcier, 2003), 1 et seq.
194. H.-H. Jescheck, 'Islamisches und westliches Strafrecht. Gemeinsames und Gegensätze', in T. Vogler (ed.), Hans-Heinrich Jescheck. Beiträge zum Strafrecht: 1980-1998 (Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 1998), 269-280, at 270.
195. Art. 2 of the Iranian Law on Islamic Punishments, art. 7 CC Yemen, sec. 63 (ii) of the Zamfara, sec. 67(2) of the Kaduna, and sec. 63(2) of the Kano State Sharī'a Penal Code Laws.
196. Oudah Shaheed, Criminal Law of Islam, Vol. I (New Delhi: International Islamic Publ., 1991), 72.
197. H. Bleuchot, Droit Musulman, Essai d'approche anthropologique, Tome II: Fondements, culte, droit public et mixte (Aix-en-Provence: Presses universitaires d'Aix-Marseille, 2002), 446.
198. A. Elashhab, The Criminal Liability in Law and Islamic Law (Tripoli: The world islamic gall society, 1994), 13 et seq.
199. A. F. Bahnassi, La responsabilité criminelle dans la doctrine et la jurisprudence musulmanes (Cairo: le Conseil supérieur des affaires islamiques, 1969), 40.
200. I. Dobinson, 'Criminal Law', in W. Chenguang and Z. Xianchu (eds), Introduction to Chinese Law (Hong Kong et al.: Sweet and Maxwell Asia, 1997), 107-128, at 113 et seq.
201. M. Zhou and S. Wang, 'China', in L. Dupont and C. Fijnaut, International Encyclopaedia of Laws, Criminal Law, Vol. 2 (Deventer: Kluwer, 1993-) 1-218, at 67.
202. P. Kichyun Ryu, 'Introduction', in G. O. W. Mueller (ed.), The Korean Criminal Code (New York: Sweet and Maxwell, 1960), 1-29, at 4 et seq., 16.
203. Art. 18 CC South Korea.
204. A. Petchsiri, Eastern Importation of Western Criminal Law: Thailand as a Case Study (Littleton [Colorado]: F. B. Rothman, 1987), 44.
205. S. Dando, The Criminal Law of Japan: The General Part, translated by B. J. George (Littleton [Colorado]: F. B. Rothman, 1997), 58 et seq.
206. Art. 59(5) CC Thailand.
207. Art. 14(2) CC Russian Federation.
208. L. L. Kruglikova, Praktikum po ugolovnomu pravu (Moskva: Izd-vo BEK, 1997), 57.
209. Art. 9 CC Armenia.
210. Art. 25 CC Azerbaijan.
211. Art. 7 CC Belarus.
212. Art. 9 CC Kazakhstan.
213. Art. 8(1) CC Kyrgystan.
214. Art. 14(1) CC Moldova.
215. Art. 17(1) CC Tajikistan.
216. Art. 10 CC Turkmenistan.
217. Art. 11 CC Ukraine.
218. Art. 14 CC Uzbekistan.
219. Art. 8(3) CC Georgia.
220. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 334;
221. ICTR, Judgment, Musema (ICTR-96-13-A), Trial Chamber, 27 January 2000, para. 123;
222. ICTY, Judgment, Blaskic (IT-95-14), Trial Chamber, 3 March 2000, para. 271;
223. ICTR, Judgment, Bagilishema (ICTR-95-1), Trial Chamber, 7 June 2001, para. 29. (see fn. 19);
224. ICTY, Judgment, Stakic (IT-97-24), Trial Chamber, 31 July 2003, ara. 439;
225. ICTY, Judgment, Simic et al. (IT-95-9), Trial Chamber, 17 October 2003, para. 162;
226. ICTR, Judgment, Ntagerura et al. (ICTR-97-63), Trial Chamber, 25 February 2004, para. 659.
227. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 1013;
228. ICTR, Judgment, Bagambiki (ICTR-97-63), Trial Chamber, 25 February 2004, para. 659.
229. ICTY, Judgment, Tadic (IT-94-1), Appeals Chamber, 15 July 1999, para. 188;
230. ICTY, Judgment, Kunarac et al. (IT-96-23&23/1), Trial Chamber, 22 February 2001, para. 391;
231. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 376;
232. ICTY, Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33), Trial Chamber, 2 August 2001, para. 601;
233. ICTY, Judgment, Kvocka et al. (IT-98-30/1), Trial Chamber, 2 November y2001, paras 243, 250-1;
234. ICTY, Judgment, Naletilic and Martinovic (IT-98-34), Trial Chamber, 31 March 2003, para. 62;
235. Stakic (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 439;
236. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 137.
237. Blaškić (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, paras 270, 280;
238. Kordic and Čerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 387;
239. Naletilic and Martinović (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 60;
240. ICTY, Judgment, Galic (IT-98-29), Trial Chamber, 5 December 2003, para. 168;
241. ICTR, Judgment, Kajelijeli (ICTR-98-44A-T), Trial Chamber, 1 December 2003, para. 762;
242. ICTR, Judgment, Kamuhanda (ICTR-95-54A-T), Trial Chamber, 22 January 2004, para. 593.
243. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 162;
244. Blaskic (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 271, 284;
245. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 389;
246. Kunarac et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 391;
247. ICTY, Judgment, Krnojelac (IT-97-25), Trial Chamber, 15 March 2002, paras 88, 171;
248. Galic (Trial Chamber), supra note 310, para. 168;
249. Kvocka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 256;
250. ICTY, Judgment, Vasiljevic (IT-98-32), Trial Chamber, 29 November 2002, para. 70;
251. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 63;
252. Kajelijeli (Trial Chamber), supra note 310, para. 766;
253. Kamuhanda (Trial Chamber), supra note 310, para. 597.
254. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 424;
255. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 229.
256. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 494.
257. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 543;
258. Blaškić (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 154;
259. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 256;
260. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 246;
261. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 74;
262. ICTY, Judgment, Blaskić (IT-95-14), Appeals Chamber, 29 July 2004, para. 665.
263. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 511;
264. Blaskić (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 156;
265. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 245;
266. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 339.
267. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 521.
268. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 1145.
269. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 442;
270. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, paras 229, 233;
271. Krstic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 485 in conjunction with para. 543;
272. Kvočka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 132;
273. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 324;
274. Vasiljevic (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 205;
275. Stakic (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 584;
276. ICTY, Judgment, Češić (IT-95-10/1), Trial Chamber, 11 March 2004, para. 34.
277. Kordić and Čerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 257 et seq.
278. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 494;
279. Furundzija (Trial Chamber), supra note 148, para. 162;
280. ICTY, Judgment, Furundzija (IT-95-17/1), Appeals Chamber, 21 July 2000, para. 111;
281. Kunarac et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 497;
282. Kvocka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 141;
283. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 179;
284. ICTY, Judgment, Kunarac et al. (IT-96-23&23/1), Appeals Chamber, 12 June 2002, para. 142.
285. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 552;
286. ICTY, Judgment, Jelisić (IT-95-10), Trial Chamber, 14 December 1999, para. 41;
287. Blaskić (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 186;
288. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, paras 265 et seq.;
289. Kvocka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 159;
290. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 130;
291. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 246;
292. Simić et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 74;
293. Ntagerura et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 765;
294. Blaskić (Appeals Chamber), supra note 314, para. 595.
295. ICTY, Judgment, Aleksovski (IT-95-14/1), Trial Chamber, 25 June 1999, para. 55;
296. ICTY, Judgment, Aleksovski (IT-95-14/1), Appeals Chamber, 24 March 2000, para. 26;
297. Kunarac et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 514;
298. Kvocka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 167;
299. Kunarac et al. (Appeals Chamber), supra note 320, para. 163.
300. Kordić and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 315 (proposal by Prosecutor, not objected).
301. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 261.
302. ICTR, Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR-96-4-T), Trial Chamber, 2 September 1998, para. 589;
303. ICTR, Judgment, Kayeshema et al. (ICTR-95-1-T), Trial Chamber, 21 May 1999, para. 140;
304. ICTR, Judgment, Rutaganda (ICTR-96-3-T), Trial Chamber, 6 December 1999, para. 80;
305. ICTY, Judgment, Kupreskic et al. (IT-95-16), Trial Chamber, 14 January 2000, para. 560;
306. Musema (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 215;
307. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 236;
308. Bagilishema (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 84;
309. Krstic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 485;
310. Kvocka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 132;
311. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 324;
312. Vasiljević (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 205;
313. Galic (Trial Chamber), supra note 310, para. 150;
314. ICTY, Judgment, Nikolić (IT-94-2), Trial Chamber, 18 December 2003, para. 112;
315. Cesic (Trial Chamber), supra note 318, para. 34.
316. Akayesu (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 592;
317. Kayeshema et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 144;
318. Rutaganda (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 83;
319. Musema (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 218;
320. Bagilishema (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 88;
321. Krstic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 492;
322. Vasiljević (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 229;
323. Stakic (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 634 (proposal by the Prosecutor, not objected).
324. Kunarac et al. (Appeals Chamber), supra note 320, para. 253.
325. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 115;
326. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 64.
327. Kvocka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 141;
328. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 179;
329. Stakic (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 750;
330. ICTY, Sentencing Judgment, Simic (IT-95-9/2), Trial Chamber, 17 October 2002, para. 34;
331. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 79;
332. Nikolic (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 114.
333. Kupreskic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 572;
334. Kordic and Cerkez (Trial Chamber), supra note 59, para. 189;
335. Kvocka et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 184;
336. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 431;
337. Vasiljević (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 244;
338. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 634;
339. Stakić (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 732;
340. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, paras 47 et seq.;
341. ICTY, Sentencing Judgment, Banovic (IT-02-65/1), Trial Chamber, 28 October 2003, para. 10;
342. Nikolic (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 108;
343. Blaskic (Appeals Chamber), supra note 314, para. 131.
344. Kayeshema et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 151;
345. Musema (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 232;
346. Blaskic (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 240;
347. Bagilishema (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 92;
348. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 130;
349. Vasiljević (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, para. 234;
350. Naletilic and Martinovic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 247;
351. Simic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 307, para. 74;
352. Kajelijeli (Trial Chamber), supra note 310, para. 932;
353. Galic (Trial Chamber), supra note 310, para. 152.
354. Akayesu (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, paras 6, 492 et seq.;
355. Kayeshema et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 325, para. 90.
356. Krstic (Trial Chamber), supra note 309, para. 485 in conjunction with para. 543.
357. Art. 108 GC IV The defense has contended that family members were allowed to visit the prison and bring the internees food and clothing: Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 1084.
358. Art. 127 GC IV
359. Art. 132(2) GC IV provides for this possibility in the case of particulary vulnerable classes of civilian internees. Arguably, internees who cannot be provided with subsistence means belong to this group.
360. Art. 132(1) GC IV
361. Mucic et al. (Trial Chamber), supra note 6, para. 1145.
362. Krnojelac (Trial Chamber), supra note 311, paras 128 et seq.
363. Art. 38(1) (g) ICJSt.
364. C. Bassiouni, A Draft International Criminal Code and Draft Statute for an International Tribunal (Dordrecht et al.: M. Nijhoff, 1987), 92.
365. UN doc. A/51/10, 21.
366. Art. 33 (d) of the draft, reprinted in Association Internationale de Droit Pénal (AIDP) et al. (eds), Draft Statute for an International Criminal Court (Siracusa-Draft) (Siracusa and Freiburg im Breisgau, 1995), 44. Also available at http://www.iuscrim.mpg.de/forsch/straf/referate/sach/hispint/ siracusa.pdf (visited 15 April 2005).
367. Art. 88(5) of the draft, reprinted in K. Ambos, der Allgemeine Teil des Völkerstrafrechts. Ansätze einer Dogmatisierung (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2002), 945.
368. UN doc. A/CONF.183/2/Add.1, 54 et seq.
369. UN doc. A/CONF.183/C.l/WG. GP/L.1, 2.
370. C. Pilloud, Y. Sandoz, C. Swinarski and B. Zimmermann (eds), supra note 50, ad art. 86 AP I, para. 3537.
371. UN doc. A/51/22 (Supplement No. 22A) (1996), 90 et seq., Article G.
372. UN doc. A/CONF.183/C.l/WG. GP/L.l.
373. UN doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/WG. GP/L.4.
374. UN doc. A/CONF.183/C.1/WG. GP/L.4/Add.1.
375. R. Clark, 'Subjektive Merkmale im Völkerstrafrecht', 114 Zeitschrift für die gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft (2002) 372-402, at 380.
376. P. Saland, 'International Criminal Law Principles', in R. Lee (ed.), The International Criminal Court. The Making of the Rome Statute (The Hague: Kluwer, 1999) 189-216, at 212.
377. A. Eser, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility', in A Cassese, P. Gaeta and J. Jones (eds), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Volume I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 767-822, at 819.
378. K. Ambos, 'Individual criminal responsibility (article 25) ', in O. Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1999) 475-492, at 492.
379. W. Schabas, 'General Principles of Criminal Law in the International Criminal Court Statute (Part III) ', European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice (1998/1994) 400-428, at 412.
380. L. Sadat, The International Criminal Court and the Transformation of International Law (New York: Transnational Publ., 2002), 193, 197.
381. R. Cryer, 'General principles of liability in international criminal law', in D. McGoldrick, P. Rowe and E. Donnelly (eds), The permanent International Criminal Court: legal and policy issues (Oxford: Hart, 2004) 233-262, at 236 et seq.
382. G. Werle, Völkerstrafrecht (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), 170.
383. D. K. Piragoff, 'Mental element (article 30) ', in O. Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1999) 527-535, at 532.
384. Which is codified in Art. 22 ICCSt.
385. A. Pellet, 'Applicable Law', in A. Cassese, P. Gaeta and J. Jones (eds), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary. Volume I (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 1051-1084, at 1058.
386. See the CC reprinted in 35 Journal Officiel de la République centrafricaine (1994, special no. 'Code pénal') 1-69.
387. See http://www.icc-cpi.int/cases.html (visited 15 April 2005).