The manipulation of organised crime by terrorists: Legal and factual perspectives

International Criminal Law Review

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2002, Pages 213-235

  Mylonaki, Emmanouela ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 34248070278     PISSN: 1567536X     EISSN: 15718123     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157181202401057169     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. See also G. A. Res. 50/186 (20 December 1995).
2. UN Doc. A/49/748 (23 November 1994).
3. Resolution of the UN Commission for the Prevention of Crime and Criminal Justice, 9th Cairo Congress on the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Offenders, UN Doc. A/CONF.169/16 (12 May 1995), p. 17;
4. see also 10th Vienna Congress, UN Doc. A/CONF.187/4/Rev. 3 (15 April 2000), p. 4, adopting the "Vienna Declaration on Crime and Justice".
5. See I. Bantekas et al., International Criminal Law, (Cavendish, 2001), pp. 230, 249-50.
6. See C. Kegley, International Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls (St. Martin's Press, 1990), pp. 1-6.
7. See A. Evans, J. Murphy, Legal Aspects of International Terrorism, (Rowman-Allanhed, 1978), pp. 12-20;
8. T. M. Frank, B. B. Lockwood, Preliminary Thoughts Towards an International Convention on Terrorism, 68 American Journal of International Law (1974) 69.
9. Whereas in piracy jure gentium this is an essential ingredient. See Art. 101 (a), 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 21 International Legal Materials (1982) 1261.
10. 19 LNOJ (1938) 23.
11. See A. Cassesse, The International Community's Legal Response to Terrorism, (1989) 38 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (1989) 589, at p. 591.
12. Arts. 5, 9 and 11, 1998 Terrorist Bombings Convention, 37 International Legal Materials (1998) 247;
13. and Arts. 6, 7, 11, 13-14, 2000 Terrorist Financing Convention, 39 International Legal Materials (2000) 270.
14. See, The EU Arrest Warrant: Curbing Crime and Sovereignty, The Economist (15 December 2001), p. 34;
15. S. C. Res. 1368 (12 September 2001)
16. calling for cooperation and global effort to combat terrorism, as well as S. C. Res. 1373 (28 September 2001), which inter alia, established the Counter-Terrorism Committee to monitor the terms of that resolution; the tragic events of September 11 gave rise to hasty domestic legislation, such as the 2001 UK Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act, which received royal assent on 14 December 2001.
17. 2 International Legal Materials (1963) 1042.
18. 860 UNTS 105.
19. 974 UNTS 177.
20. 15 International Legal Materials (1976) 1272.
21. See generally G. Schwarzenberger, Terrorists, Hijackers, Guerrillas and Mercenaries, 24 Current Legal Problems (1971) 257.
22. See G. A. Res. 3114 (14 December 1974).
23. See G. A. Res. 2625 (24 October 1970);
24. see also G. A. Res. 3103 (12 December 1973).
25. 1125 UNTS 3.
26. See R. Gorelik, The 1974 Diplomatic Conference on Humanitarian Law, 69 American Journal of International Law (1975) 77.
27. See C. Pilloud, et al., Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, (Nijhoff, 1987), pp. 41-56.
28. R. Boyes, E. Wright, Drugs Money Linked to Kosovo Rebels, The [London] Times (24 March 1999).
29. See .
30. G. A. Res. 51/210 (17 December 1996)
31. affirmed further by G. A. Res. 53/108 (8 December 1998).
32. UN Doc. A/C.6/53/l.4, Annex I (1998).
33. 39 International Legal Materials (2000) 270;
34. see V. Morris, A. Pronto, The Work of the Sixth Committee at the fifty-fourth session of the UN General Assembly, 94 American Journal of International Law (2000) 582, p. 585;
35. see also EC Council Recommendation of 9 December 1999 on Co-operation in Combating the Financing of Terrorist Groups (O. J. C 373, 23/12/1999).
36. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee established by G. A. Res. 51/210(1996)
37. GAOR 54th Session, UN Doc. A/54/37/Supp. No. 37 (5 May 1999), p. 3.
38. 18 International Legal Materials (1979) 1422.
39. Report of the Secretary-General, "Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism", UN Doc. A/54/301 (3 September 1999), p. 8.
40. S. C. Res. 1373 (28 September 2001).
41. See for example, Report Submitted by Lebanon, UN Doc. S/2001/1201 (13 December 2001)
42. and Syria, UN Doc. S/2001/1204 (14 December 2001).
43. G. A., Ninth UN Congress, Discussion Guide (Vienna, 1993)
44. UN Doc. A/CONF.169/P. M.1, (27 July 1993), p. 8.
45. See "Naples Political Declaration and Global Action Plan Against Transnational Organised Crime", reprinted in 1 Transnational Organised Crime (1995), pp. 118-127.
46. The OECD's 1997 Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Officials in International Business Transactions, 37 International Legal Materials (1998) 1, although not directed at organised crime is nonetheless indirectly applicable and cognisant of the links between transnational organised crime and corruption.
47. See also L. H. Brown, The Extraterritorial Reach of the U. S. Government's Campaign Against International Bribery, (1999) 22 Hastings International & Comparative Law Review (1992) 407.
48. See generally, A. Schmid, The Links between Transnational Organised Crime and Terrorist Crimes, 2 Transational Organised Crime (1996), 40.
49. Draft United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, UN Doc. A/AC.254;
50. Draft Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, UN Doc. A/AC.254/L.230/Add.1. (27 July 2000).
51. See to this effect the United States comments on the scope of the UN Convention on Transnational Organised Crime that the Convention should not expressly apply to terrorism, but it should not exempt terrorists who commit organised crime offences. UN General Assembly, First session, UN Doc. A/AC.254/5 (19 Dec. 1998).
52. Draft UN Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, UN Doc. A/AC.254/4/Rev. 2. (12 April 1999).
53. "Organised Crime UK Threat Assessment", Report published by NCIS (2000). Available on .
54. In November 2000, the UN adopted the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, UN Doc. A/55/383 (2 November 2000). The Protocol applies with regard to cases of trafficking involving duress and a transnational aspect (movement of people across borders or exploitation within a country by a transnational organised crime group), and is intended to prevent and combat trafficking, facilitate international co-operation, as well as provide certain measures of protection and assistance to victims.
55. See generally, G. Stessens, Money Laundering: A New International Law Enforcement Model, (Cambridge University Press, 2000).
56. J. A. Inciardi, The War on Drugs II: The Continuing Epic of Heroin, Cocaine, Crack, Crime, and Public Money, (Mayfield Publishing, 1991), pp. 45-50.
57. "US Crack-down on Nigerian Mail Fraud", BBC (11 November 1998).
58. United Nations, World Summit for Social Development, Crime Goes Global, Copenhagen, 6-12 March 1995, (UN Department of Public Information, UN Sales Number DPI/1518/SOC/CON-95-00292, January 1995), p. 4.
59. See M. Elliot, Global Mafia, Newsweek, Special Report, (13 December 1993), pp. 12-18.
60. See J. M. Martin, Multinational Crime: Terrorism, Espionage, Drug and Arms Trafficking, (Sage, 1992), p. 114.
61. ECOSOC Res. 1998/14 (28 July 1998).
62. Similarly, G. A. Res. 53/114 (9 December 1998).
63. See Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, UN Doc. A/55/383 (2 November 2000).
64. See Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, where Spain suggested that there is a strong connection between money laundering and terrorism. Third session, (28 April-3 May 1999), UN Doc. A/AC.254/5/Add.5 (24 March 1999).
65. See Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, Eighth session, UN General Assembly A/AC.254/4/Rev. 7 (3 February 2000).
66. See Revised Draft United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, Ninth session, UN Doc. A/AC.254/4/Rev. 8 (7 April 2000).
67. See Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Organised Crime, Tenth session, UN Doc. A/AC.254/5/Add.26 (11 July 2000), where Algeria, Egypt and Turkey proposed that organised crime should include acts of terrorism and kidnapping, including kidnapping for ransom.
68. Naples Political Declaration and Global Action Plan against Organised Transnational Crime. UN Doc. A/49/748 (23 November 1994).
69. See also Draft UN Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, First session, (19-29 January 1999), UN Doc. A/AC.254/4 (15 December 1998), where terrorist acts were regarded as part of organised crime.
70. See also Second session of the Ad Hoc Committee, (8-12 March 1999), UN Doc. A/AC.254/4/Rev. 1 (10 February 1999), where some delegations opined that the Convention should endeavour to cover the emerging links between terrorism and organised crime.
71. The Ad Hoc Committee's notes on Art. 3 (scope of application) emphasised "with deep concern the growing links between transnational organised crime and terrorist crimes", taking account the UN Charter and relevant General Assembly Resolutions. UN Doc. A/55/383/Add 1 (3 November 2000), p. 2.
72. See P. A. Lupsha, The Realities and Myths of Narco-Terrorism: Cuba, Drugs, and Secret Wars, Paper prepared for the US Institute of Peace, Conference on Low-Intensity Conflict, (Miami, 5-6 January 1990), p. 1.
73. Operative paragraph 4 of S. C. Res. 1373 (28 September 2001), noted with concern the close connection between "international terrorism and transnational organised crime, illicit drugs, money laundering, illegal arms, trafficking, and illegal movement of nuclear, chemical, biological and other potentially deadly material".
74. 1988 UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Substances, reprinted in 28 International Legal Materials (1989) 497.
75. Report of the INCB (1992), para. 5, available at .
76. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, (14-25 June 1993), General Assembly, UN Doc. A/CONF.157/23(1993).
77. G. A. Res. 49/60 (9 December 1994).
78. See Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, First Session, UN Doc. A/AC.254/5 (19 December 1998).
79. See also The Final Communiqué of the Council of Europe, 2nd Pan-European Ministerial Conference (4 February 1994) underlines the fact that "considering the continuous increase in and the spread of drug trafficking incidents, the involvement of violent organisations in such activities constitutes a serious threat to the contemporary society and thus it is vital for the security forces to combat terrorism effectively".
80. See D. Brown, Colombian Rebels Free Briton Held for Two Years, The Guardian, (7 July 2001), p. 1.
81. 18 International Legal Materials (1979) 1460.
82. See Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organised Crime, First session, UN Doc. A/AC.254/5 (19 December 1998).
83. See Ad Hoc Committee, UN Doc. A/AC. 254/5/Add.3. (8 February 1999), pp. 7, 8.
84. See generally, W. Wilson, Criminal Law, (Longman, 1998), pp. 189-94.
85. Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1-A, Appeals Judgment (15 July 1999), paras. 185-193.
86. Prosecutor v. Brdanin et al., Case No. IT-99-36, Decision on the Form of the Indictment (26 June 2001), para. 30.