-
1
-
-
5244224819
-
-
[1980] A.C. 402 at 436
-
[1980] A.C. 402 at 436.
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
5244317021
-
-
(1946) L.T. 306 at 307
-
(1946) L.T. 306 at 307.
-
-
-
-
3
-
-
5244313789
-
-
[1935] A.C. 462 at 481
-
[1935] A.C. 462 at 481.
-
-
-
-
5
-
-
5244340960
-
-
note
-
The impact of the European Convention on Human Rights is discussed in part B below, n.23.
-
-
-
-
7
-
-
5244305580
-
-
Crim.L.R. 587
-
For analysis, see I. Dennis, "Instrumental Protection, Human Right or Functional Necessity? Reassessing the Privilege against Self-Incrimination" (1995) 54 Camb.L.J. 342; J. D. Jackson, "Interpreting the Silence Provisions: the Northern Ireland Cases" [1995] Crim.L.R. 587; R. Pattenden, "Inferences from Silence" [1995] Crim.L.R. 602; P. Mirfield, "Two Side-Effects of Sections 34 to 37 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994" [1995] Crim.L.R. 612.
-
(1995)
Interpreting the Silence Provisions: The Northern Ireland Cases
-
-
Jackson, J.D.1
-
8
-
-
5244233448
-
-
Crim.L.R. 602
-
For analysis, see I. Dennis, "Instrumental Protection, Human Right or Functional Necessity? Reassessing the Privilege against Self-Incrimination" (1995) 54 Camb.L.J. 342; J. D. Jackson, "Interpreting the Silence Provisions: the Northern Ireland Cases" [1995] Crim.L.R. 587; R. Pattenden, "Inferences from Silence" [1995] Crim.L.R. 602; P. Mirfield, "Two Side-Effects of Sections 34 to 37 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994" [1995] Crim.L.R. 612.
-
(1995)
Inferences from Silence
-
-
Pattenden, R.1
-
9
-
-
5244220993
-
-
Crim.L.R. 612
-
For analysis, see I. Dennis, "Instrumental Protection, Human Right or Functional Necessity? Reassessing the Privilege against Self-Incrimination" (1995) 54 Camb.L.J. 342; J. D. Jackson, "Interpreting the Silence Provisions: the Northern Ireland Cases" [1995] Crim.L.R. 587; R. Pattenden, "Inferences from Silence" [1995] Crim.L.R. 602; P. Mirfield, "Two Side-Effects of Sections 34 to 37 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994" [1995] Crim.L.R. 612.
-
(1995)
Two Side-Effects of Sections 34 to 37 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994
-
-
Mirfield, P.1
-
10
-
-
5244220994
-
-
note
-
JUSTICE, Breaking the Rules (1980), report of a committee chaired by Paul Sieghart.
-
-
-
-
11
-
-
5244279996
-
-
note
-
ibid. p. 15; they also stated that many offences created by statutory instrument under various statutes were not set out in Stone.
-
-
-
-
12
-
-
5244313788
-
-
note
-
We also omitted a small number of offences for which Archbold gave no details, our view being that they were rarely invoked.
-
-
-
-
13
-
-
5244285996
-
-
note
-
For other offences that gave rise to this problem, see e.g. the offence of impeding the investigation of terrorist offences contrary to s.17(2) of the Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989; and the offence created by s.330 of the Companies Act 1985.
-
-
-
-
14
-
-
3042899187
-
-
For elaboration of the distinction, see Cross and Tapper on Evidence (8th ed., 1995), p. 121 and Andrews and Hirst, Criminal Evidence (2nd ed., 1992), Chap. 3.
-
(1995)
Cross and Tapper on Evidence 8th Ed.
, pp. 121
-
-
-
15
-
-
3042946907
-
-
Chap. 3
-
For elaboration of the distinction, see Cross and Tapper on Evidence (8th ed., 1995), p. 121 and Andrews and Hirst, Criminal Evidence (2nd ed., 1992), Chap. 3.
-
(1992)
Criminal Evidence 2nd Ed.
-
-
Andrews1
Hirst2
-
16
-
-
5244272404
-
-
Prevention of Crime Act 1953, s.1
-
Prevention of Crime Act 1953, s.1.
-
-
-
-
17
-
-
5244243216
-
-
Eleventh Report, Evidence (General), Cmnd. 4991 of 1972, para. 140
-
Eleventh Report, Evidence (General), Cmnd. 4991 of 1972, para. 140.
-
-
-
-
18
-
-
5244374555
-
Offence and Defence
-
I. Dennis (ed.)
-
This approach also meant that we did not have to struggle with the controversial distinction between offence elements and defence elements: see, e.g. K. Campbell, "Offence and Defence" in I. Dennis (ed.), Criminal Law and Justice (1987).
-
(1987)
Criminal Law and Justice
-
-
Campbell, K.1
-
19
-
-
5244339945
-
-
note
-
Other examples of legislative ambiguity include s.6(1) of the Hallmarking Act 1973 and s. 11(5) of the Aviation Security Act 1982.
-
-
-
-
20
-
-
5244379486
-
-
note
-
The decision of the Northern Ireland Court of Appeal in Fegan [1972] N.I. 80 construes "to show" as meaning "to prove", and this was adopted in Attorney-General's Reference (No. 2 of 1983) (1984) 78 Cr.App.R. 183, on s.4 of the Explosive Substances Act 1883.
-
-
-
-
21
-
-
5244374556
-
-
[1975] Q.B. 27
-
[1975] Q.B. 27.
-
-
-
-
22
-
-
5244303808
-
-
[1987] A.C. 352, on which see the articles by Mirfield [1988] Crim.L.R. 19, Birch ibid. 221, and Mirfield ibid. 233
-
[1987] A.C. 352, on which see the articles by Mirfield [1988] Crim.L.R. 19, Birch ibid. 221, and Mirfield ibid. 233.
-
-
-
-
24
-
-
5244300057
-
-
note
-
This example is strengthened by the second part of subsection (2), which states that the possession of a sketch, plan, pass word, etc., "shall be deemed" to be for a purpose prejudicial to the State "unless the contrary is proved" - an example of a rebuttable presumption.
-
-
-
-
25
-
-
5244357553
-
-
note
-
This adds together columns (4), (5), (6), (7), and (8) of the Table, making 219 offences out of the total of 540 = 40 per cent.
-
-
-
-
27
-
-
5244264942
-
-
[1995] Crim.L.R. 783
-
[1995] Crim.L.R. 783.
-
-
-
-
28
-
-
5244292071
-
-
note
-
Op. cit. (above, n.14), para. 140. The committee allowed for two small exceptions (para. 141), which are not material here.
-
-
-
-
29
-
-
5244262106
-
-
note
-
Among the other reasons mentioned were respect for the Woolmington principle itself, consistency with the general common law position, and removal of the need for complicated directions to the jury on differing standards of proof.
-
-
-
-
30
-
-
5244329805
-
-
Law Com. No. 177, clause 13; for commentary
-
Law Com. No. 177, A Criminal Code for England and Wales (1989), clause 13; for commentary, see Vol. 2, p. 184.
-
(1989)
A Criminal Code for England and Wales
, vol.2
, pp. 184
-
-
-
31
-
-
5244253266
-
-
Law Com. No. 218, Legislating the Criminal Code: Offences against the Person and General Principles (1993), para. 33.5. See also A.-G. for Hong Kong v. Lee Kwong-Kut [1993] A.C. 951
-
Law Com. No. 218, Legislating the Criminal Code: Offences against the Person and General Principles (1993), para. 33.5. See also A.-G. for Hong Kong v. Lee Kwong-Kut [1993] A.C. 951.
-
-
-
-
33
-
-
0004315817
-
-
There is a separate argument that strict liability may be justified for corporate defendants in respect of possibly harmful activities in which they choose to engage (see, e.g. Ashworth, Principles of Criminal Law (2nd ed., 1995), pp.155-167). However, many of the strict liability offences in our survey may be committed by individuals.
-
(1995)
Principles of Criminal Law 2nd Ed.
, pp. 155-167
-
-
Ashworth1
|