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Volumn 2, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 93-143

Group mentality, expressivism, and genocide

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EID: 34247444781     PISSN: 1567536X     EISSN: 15718123     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157181202400454709     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (70)

References (372)
  • 1
    • 0039512608 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. II, December 9, 1948, entered into force January 12, 1951, hereinafter Genocide Convention or Convention. The Convention lists the following as acts that may constitute genocide: "killing members of the group"; "causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group"; "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part"; "imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group"; and "forcibly transferring children of the group to another group". Id., art. II a - e
    • Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. II, December 9, 1948, entered into force January 12, 1951, 78 U. N. T. S. 277 [hereinafter Genocide Convention or Convention]. The Convention lists the following as acts that may constitute genocide: "[k]illing members of the group"; "[c]ausing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group"; "[d]eliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part"; "[i]mposing measures intended to prevent births within the group"; and "[f]orcibly transferring children of the group to another group". Id., art. II (a) - (e).
    • U. N. T. S. , vol.78 , pp. 277
  • 3
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    • Forgetting the policies and practices of the past: Impunity in cambodia
    • 25 summer/fall
    • Stephen P. Marks, "Forgetting the Policies and Practices of the Past: Impunity in Cambodia", 17 Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 17, 25 (summer/fall 1994).
    • (1994) Fletcher Forum of World Affairs , vol.17 , pp. 17
    • Marks, S.P.1
  • 5
    • 55449129025 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Problems of international codification - Were the atrocities in cambodia and kosovo genocide?
    • 290, hereinafter Schabas, "Codification"
    • William A. Schabas, "Problems of International Codification - Were the Atrocities in Cambodia and Kosovo Genocide?", 35 New England Law Review 287, 290(2001) [hereinafter Schabas, "Codification"]
    • (2001) New England Law Review , vol.35 , pp. 287
    • Schabas, W.A.1
  • 6
    • 80355149558 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International law and cambodian genocide: The sounds of silence
    • stating that argument that any member of a national group is protected, made in, e.g., improperly encompasses all mass killing, "and in effect deprives the distinct concept of genocide of any real meaning"
    • (stating that argument that any member of a national group is protected, made in, e.g., Hurst Hannum, "International Law and Cambodian Genocide: The Sounds of Silence", 11 Human Rights Quarterly 82(1998), improperly encompasses all mass killing, "and in effect deprives the distinct concept of genocide of any real meaning").
    • (1998) Human Rights Quarterly , vol.11 , pp. 82
    • Hannum, H.1
  • 7
    • 84856850836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Akayesu, September 2, available at, visited October 28, hereinafter Akayesu Trial Judgement
    • See Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4, Trial Chamber I, Judgement (September 2, 1998), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited October 28, 2001) [hereinafter Akayesu Trial Judgement].
    • (1998) Case No. ICTR-96-4, Trial Chamber I, Judgement
  • 8
    • 84856910462 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Kayishema, May 21, available at, visited September 26, hereinafter Kayishema Trial Judgement
    • See Prosecutor v. Kayishema, Case No. ICTR-95-1-T, Trial Chamber II, Judgement (May 21, 1999), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited September 26, 2001) [hereinafter Kayishema Trial Judgement].
    • (1999) Case No. ICTR-95-1-t, Trial Chamber II, Judgement
  • 9
    • 84856852921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Krstić, August 2, available at, visited September 26, hereinafter Krstić Trial Judgement, 2001
    • Prosecutor v. Krstić, Case No. IT-98-33, Trial Chamber I, Judgement, para. 556 (August 2, 2001), available at http://www.un.org/icty/ krstic/TrialC1/judgement/index.htm (visited September 26, 2001) [hereinafter Krstić Trial Judgement].
    • (2001) Case No. IT-98-33, Trial Chamber I, Judgement , pp. 556
  • 10
    • 84856890122 scopus 로고
    • The genocide convention and state rights
    • mentioning "the massacre of Bartholomew's Night and others committed in periods between religious wars, the Armenian massacres and those of our own day", 501
    • See e.g., Arthur K. Kuhn, "The Genocide Convention and State Rights", 43 American Journal of International Law 498, 501(1949) (mentioning "the massacre of Bartholomew's Night and others committed in periods between religious wars, the Armenian massacres and those of our own day");
    • (1949) American Journal of International Law , vol.43 , pp. 498
    • Kuhn, A.K.1
  • 11
    • 53149133275 scopus 로고
    • The united nations convention on genocide
    • 741, citing, as examples of genocide, "the destruction of Carthage by the Romans, the extermination of the Indians in North America, pogroms in Czarist Russia, the Armenian massacres in Imperial Turkey"
    • Josef L. Kunz, "The United Nations Convention on Genocide", 43 American Journal of International Law 738, 741(1949) (citing, as examples of genocide, "the destruction of Carthage by the Romans, the extermination of the Indians in North America, pogroms in Czarist Russia, the Armenian massacres in Imperial Turkey");
    • (1949) American Journal of International Law , vol.43 , pp. 738
    • Kunz, J.L.1
  • 12
    • 25144443929 scopus 로고
    • Genocide
    • 227, hereinafter Lemkin, "Genocide" pointing to "the destruction of Carthage; that of religious groups in the wars of Islam and the Crusades; the massacres of the Albigenses and the Waldenses; and more recently, the massacre of the Armenians"
    • Raphael Lemkin, "Genocide", 15 American Scholar 227, 227(1946) [hereinafter Lemkin, "Genocide"] (pointing to "the destruction of Carthage; that of religious groups in the wars of Islam and the Crusades; the massacres of the Albigenses and the Waldenses; and more recently, the massacre of the Armenians").
    • (1946) American Scholar , vol.15 , pp. 227
    • Lemkin, R.1
  • 13
    • 0346037791 scopus 로고
    • Genocide as a crime under international law
    • 146, hereinafter Lemkin, "International Crime" quoting draft proposed at Fifth International Conference for the Unification of Penal Law in 1933 in Madrid
    • Raphael Lemkin, "Genocide As a Crime Under International Law", 41 American Journal of International Law 145, 146 n. 3(1947) [hereinafter Lemkin, "International Crime"] (quoting draft proposed at Fifth International Conference for the Unification of Penal Law in 1933 in Madrid);
    • (1947) American Journal of International Law , vol.41 , Issue.3 , pp. 145
    • Lemkin, R.1
  • 14
    • 34548424416 scopus 로고
    • linking proposal to his concern about "alarming increase of barbarity with the advent of Hitler" hereinafter Lemkin, Axis Rule
    • see also Raphaël Lemkin, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (1944), p. xiii (linking proposal to his concern about "alarming increase of barbarity with the advent of Hitler") [hereinafter Lemkin, Axis Rule].
    • (1944) Axis Rule in Occupied Europe
    • Raphaël Lemkin1
  • 15
    • 84870403417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8
    • See Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at xi.
    • Axis Rule
    • Lemkin1
  • 16
    • 84856878861 scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, quoting, draft
    • See Lemkin, "International Crime", supra note 8, at 146 n. 3 (quoting 1933 draft).
    • (1933) International Crime , Issue.3 , pp. 146
    • Lemkin1
  • 17
    • 84870403417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, stating that Nazi crimes "are not simply a result of the ill-will of individual members but are mainly an essential part of the program of their activities and even of their world outlook"
    • See Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at x (stating that Nazi crimes "are not simply a result of the ill-will of individual members but are mainly an essential part of the program of their activities and even of their world outlook");
    • Axis Rule
    • Lemkin1
  • 18
    • 84856945068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, stating that individual victims of genocide "are selected for destruction only because they belong to these groups"
    • Lemkin, "International Crime", supra note 8, at 147 (stating that individual victims of genocide "are selected for destruction only because they belong to these groups").
    • International Crime , pp. 147
    • Lemkin1
  • 19
    • 84870403417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, at xiv decrying German "master-race mythology"
    • See Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at xiv (decrying German "master-race mythology");
    • Axis Rule
    • Lemkin1
  • 20
    • 0003596402 scopus 로고
    • quoting opposition in, n., to "Germanization" of Poles, on ground that they were "people of an alien race, expressing its alien thoughts in the German language, compromising the height and the dignity of our own nationality by its own inferiority", Reynal & Hitchcock Ed
    • (quoting opposition in Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (Reynal & Hitchcock ed., 1939), p. 590 n., to "Germanization" of Poles, on ground that they were "people of an alien race, expressing its alien thoughts in the German language, compromising the height and the dignity of our own nationality by its own inferiority");
    • (1939) Mein Kampf , pp. 590
    • Hitler, A.1
  • 22
    • 84856943960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 7, pointing out that Nazis also targeted Gypsies for annihilation
    • Lemkin, "Genocide", supra note 7, at 227 (pointing out that Nazis also targeted Gypsies for annihilation).
    • Genocide , pp. 227
    • Lemkin1
  • 23
    • 84870403417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • upra note 8
    • See e.g., Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at xiii
    • Axis Rule
    • Lemkin1
  • 24
    • 84856826599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • using the modifiers "national, religious, and ethnic" to describe his broader 1933 proposal; id. at 91, 93 calling for protection of individuals belonging to "a national, religious, or racial group";, supra note 7, referring to "the destruction of entire nations, and ethnic and religious groups"
    • (using the modifiers "national, religious, and ethnic" to describe his broader 1933 proposal); id. at 91, 93 (calling for protection of individuals belonging to "a national, religious, or racial group"); Lemkin, "Genocide", supra note 7, at 227 (referring to "the destruction of entire nations, and ethnic and religious groups");
    • Genocide , pp. 227
    • Lemkin1
  • 25
    • 84870403417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, "race, tribe"
    • Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at 79 ("race, tribe");
    • Axis Rule , pp. 79
    • Lemkin1
  • 26
    • 84856945068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, "race, nation or tribe"
    • Lemkin, "International Crime", supra note 8, at 147 ("race, nation or tribe");
    • International Crime , pp. 147
    • Lemkin1
  • 27
    • 84856943960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 7, "race, clan"
    • Lemkin, "Genocide", supra note 7, at 228 ("race, clan").
    • Genocide , pp. 228
    • Lemkin1
  • 28
    • 84870403417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, referring to Nazi ideology of German superiority as "racial theory"
    • See Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at x-xi (referring to Nazi ideology of German superiority as "racial theory");
    • Axis Rule
    • Lemkin1
  • 29
    • 84856821408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • id, quoting Hitler's reference to Polish '"race"'
    • id. at 82 (quoting Hitler's reference to Polish '"race"');
  • 30
    • 85109730111 scopus 로고
    • United States v. Goering, Judgement Int'l Mil. Tribunal, 1946, reprinted in, 126, hereinafter Goering Judgement referring to testimony at trial regarding "the Slav race"
    • United States v. Goering, Judgement (Int'l Mil. Tribunal, 1946), reprinted in 6 F. R. D. 69, 126(1946) [hereinafter Goering Judgement] (referring to testimony at trial regarding "the Slav race");
    • (1946) F. R. D. , vol.6 , pp. 69
  • 32
    • 0345265863 scopus 로고
    • reprinted in, 100, 106, 120, discussing Nazi documents referring to German and Jewish races hereinafter Jackson Statement
    • reprinted in Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, vol. 2(1948), 98, 100, 106, 120 (discussing Nazi documents referring to German and Jewish races) [hereinafter Jackson Statement].
    • (1948) Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal , vol.2 , pp. 98
  • 33
    • 84856812783 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Accord vivian grosswald curran, "fear of formalism: Indications from the fascist period in france and germany of judicial methodology's impact on substantive law"
    • forthcoming 2001-02 stating that "German fascist law and legal theory used the term 'race' as synonymous with 'species', rather than in the traditional meaning of 'race', thus laying the ground through rhetorical devices for the conceptual relegation of Jews to non-human status"
    • Accord Vivian Grosswald Curran, "Fear of Formalism: Indications from the Fascist Period in France and Germany of Judicial Methodology's Impact on Substantive Law", 35 Cornell International Law Journal (forthcoming 2001-02) (stating that "German fascist law and legal theory used the term 'race' as synonymous with 'species', rather than in the traditional meaning of 'race', thus laying the ground through rhetorical devices for the conceptual relegation of Jews to non-human status")
    • Cornell International Law Journal , vol.35
  • 35
    • 84856912964 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8
    • Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at 79 n. 1.
    • Axis Rule , Issue.1 , pp. 79
    • Lemkin1
  • 39
    • 84856943960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 7, "mass obliteration of nationhoods"
    • Lemkin, "Genocide", supra note 7, at 227 ("mass obliteration of nationhoods").
    • Genocide , pp. 227
    • Lemkin1
  • 40
    • 84856826600 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, deeming "denationalization" inadequate to describe "destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group", the first phase of genocide, because it sometimes referred only to deprivation of citizenship, and did not connote either the use of biological means of destruction or the imposition of the oppressor's "national pattern"
    • Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, at 79-80 (deeming " denationalization" inadequate to describe "destruction of the national pattern of the oppressed group", the first phase of genocide, because it sometimes referred only to deprivation of citizenship, and did not connote either the use of biological means of destruction or the imposition of the oppressor's "national pattern").
    • Axis Rule , pp. 79-80
    • Lemkin1
  • 42
    • 84856826601 scopus 로고
    • 3d Sess., 63d mtg., declaring that political groups were not sufficiently homogeneous or stable
    • UN GAOR 6th Comm., 3d Sess., 63d mtg., at 6(1948) (declaring that political groups were not sufficiently homogeneous or stable);
    • (1948) UN GAOR 6th Comm. , pp. 6
  • 43
    • 84856904096 scopus 로고
    • UN ESCOR, Sess, UN Doc. E/SR. 794, reporting assertion by Polish representative that including political groups would have diluting effect marked by "mutability and lack of distinguishing characteristics did not lend themselves to definition"
    • UN ESCOR, Sess. 7, 218th mtg. at 12, UN Doc. E/SR. 794(1948) (reporting assertion by Polish representative that including political groups would have diluting effect marked by "mutability and lack of distinguishing characteristics did not lend themselves to definition").
    • (1948) 218th Mtg , vol.7 , pp. 12
  • 44
    • 0009396034 scopus 로고
    • discussing Soviet role
    • See Leo Kuper, Genocide (1981), pp. 24-28 (discussing Soviet role);
    • (1981) Genocide , pp. 24-28
    • Kuper, L.1
  • 45
    • 84856836223 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Under deconstruction: International criminal law in a postmodern world
    • 369, hereinafter Amann, "Deconstruction" same
    • Diane Marie Amann, "Under Deconstruction: International Criminal Law in a Postmodern World", 3 Green Bag 2d 369, 369 & n. 3(2000) [hereinafter Amann, "Deconstruction"] (same).
    • (2000) Green Bag 2d , vol.3 , Issue.3 , pp. 369
    • Amann, D.M.1
  • 46
    • 0003633042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 114-15, 120, 123-24, 127, 130, 134-40, 145, 147-48 hereinafter Schabas, Genocide
    • see e.g., William A. Schabas, Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes (2000), pp. 105-08, 114-15, 120, 123-24, 127, 130, 134-40, 145, 147-48 [hereinafter Schabas, Genocide];
    • (2000) Genocide in International Law: The Crime of Crimes , pp. 105-108
    • Schabas, W.A.1
  • 47
    • 0041336490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The crime of political genocide: Repairing the genocide convention's blind spot
    • 2262-69
    • Beth van Schaack, "The Crime of Political Genocide: Repairing the Genocide Convention's Blind Spot" 106 Yale Law Journal 2259, 2262-69(1997);
    • (1997) Yale Law Journal , vol.106 , pp. 2259
    • Van Schaack, B.1
  • 48
    • 84856826603 scopus 로고
    • 1948-49 U. N. Y. B. at 953-62;
    • (1948) U. N. Y. B. , pp. 953-962
  • 49
    • 84856943964 scopus 로고
    • U. N. Y. B. at 597-98.
    • (1947) U. N. Y. B. , pp. 597-598
  • 50
    • 53149133275 scopus 로고
    • The genocide convention
    • American Bar Association opposed U. S. ratification for decades, in part because of the omission of political groups. See, 732-34, The ABA changed its position in 1976; the United States ratified the Convention twelve years later
    • The American Bar Association opposed U. S. ratification for decades, in part because of the omission of political groups. See George A. Finch, "The Genocide Convention", 43 American Journal of International Law 732, 732-34(1949). The ABA changed its position in 1976; the United States ratified the Convention twelve years later.
    • (1949) American Journal of International Law , vol.43 , pp. 732
    • Finch, G.A.1
  • 51
    • 84856856626 scopus 로고
    • Genocide: The convention, domestic laws, and state responsibility
    • See "Genocide: The Convention, Domestic Laws, and State Responsibility", American Society of International Law Proceedings 314(1989);
    • (1989) American Society of International Law Proceedings , pp. 314
  • 52
    • 84927456756 scopus 로고
    • The intent to destroy groups in the genocide convention: The proposed U. S. understanding
    • 369, Curiously, soon after conclusion of the Convention, a supportive article published in the United States, then grappling with how to address lynchings in the South, pretermitted racial groups
    • Lawrence J. Le Blanc, "The Intent to Destroy Groups in the Genocide Convention: The Proposed U. S. Understanding", 78 American Journal of International Law 369, 369(1984). Curiously, soon after conclusion of the Convention, a supportive article published in the United States, then grappling with how to address lynchings in the South, pretermitted racial groups.
    • (1984) American Journal of International Law , vol.78 , pp. 369
    • Le Blanc, L.J.1
  • 54
    • 84856943963 scopus 로고
    • UN ESCOR
    • UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416, opining that to include political and other groups could impair further ratification and is unnecessary in light of other human rights instruments
    • UN ESCOR, 31st Sess., 120, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416(1978) (opining that to include political and other groups could impair further ratification and is unnecessary in light of other human rights instruments)
    • (1978) 31st Sess. , pp. 120
  • 56
    • 84856826604 scopus 로고
    • UN ESCOR
    • UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6, hereinafter Whitaker Report calling for further consideration of enlarging definition to include cultural genocide and ecocide, and suggesting optional protocol adding political and other groups to enumeration in Convention's definition
    • UN ESCOR, 38th Sess., 37, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/6(1985) [hereinafter Whitaker Report] (calling for further consideration of enlarging definition to include cultural genocide and ecocide, and suggesting optional protocol adding political and other groups to enumeration in Convention's definition).
    • (1985) 38th Sess. , pp. 37
  • 57
    • 84856925869 scopus 로고
    • maintaining that genocide protects "any human collectivity", and criticizing Convention for shutting out political, economic, social, and cultural groups
    • See Pieter N. Drost, The Crime of State: Genocide, vol. II (1959), p. 125 (maintaining that genocide protects "any human collectivity", and criticizing Convention for shutting out political, economic, social, and cultural groups);
    • (1959) The Crime of State: Genocide , vol.2 , pp. 125
    • Drost, P.N.1
  • 58
    • 0038015101 scopus 로고
    • Redefining genocide
    • George J. Andreopoulos ed., criticizing result for excluding victims of Soviets, the mentally handicapped and homosexuals in Nazi Germany, and Khmers in Cambodia
    • Frank Chalk, "Redefining Genocide", in Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions (George J. Andreopoulos ed., 1994), p. 50 (criticizing result for excluding victims of Soviets, the mentally handicapped and homosexuals in Nazi Germany, and Khmers in Cambodia);
    • (1994) Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions , pp. 50
    • Chalk, F.1
  • 59
    • 0042839225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide: Fifty years later
    • arguing that Convention should be interpreted or altered to include "political groups and possibly women, homosexuals, and economic and professional classes", 464
    • Matthew Lippmann, "The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide: Fifty Years Later", 15 Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law 415, 464(1998) (arguing that Convention should be interpreted or altered to include "political groups and possibly women, homosexuals, and economic and professional classes");
    • (1998) Arizona Journal of International and Comparative Law , vol.15 , pp. 415
    • Lippmann, M.1
  • 60
    • 84856821419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • accord, supra note 32, para. 31 approving view that Convention definition covers '"auto-genocide"' in Cambodia. By the principle of legality, judicial enunciations of elements of a crime must arise out of interpretation of the terms of the pertinent penal statute; accordingly, this article does not address the contention that customary international law protects political groups against genocide. See van Schaack, supra note 30, at 2272-91
    • accord Whitaker Report, supra note 32, at 16, para. 31 (approving view that Convention definition covers '"auto-genocide"' in Cambodia). By the principle of legality, judicial enunciations of elements of a crime must arise out of interpretation of the terms of the pertinent penal statute; accordingly, this article does not address the contention that customary international law protects political groups against genocide. See van Schaack, supra note 30, at 2272-91.
    • Report , pp. 16
    • Whitaker1
  • 61
    • 84924091599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, citing Bangladesh, Panama, Costa Rica, Peru, Slovenia, and Lithuania
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 141-42 (citing Bangladesh, Panama, Costa Rica, Peru, Slovenia, and Lithuania);
    • Genocide , pp. 141-142
    • Schabas1
  • 63
    • 84856836240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • reporting on Colombia's addition of political groups in 2000 law. Some states initially included other groups, then reverted to the Convention definition
    • (Mireille Delmas-Marty ed., 2001), p. 281 (reporting on Colombia's addition of political groups in 2000 law). Some states initially included other groups, then reverted to the Convention definition.
    • (2001) Mireille Delmas-marty , pp. 281
  • 64
    • 84924091599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, discussing social groups in Spain and Portugal
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 146 (discussing social groups in Spain and Portugal);
    • Genocide , pp. 146
    • Schabas1
  • 65
    • 84856836239 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Audiencia Nacional, Spain, Crim. Ch., 1st Sec. en banc, Appeal 173/98, Crim. Inv. 1/98, Cent. Ct. Inv. No. 6 November 5, 1998, unofficial English translation reprinted in The Pinochet Papers Reed Brody & Michael Ratner eds., 101-04
    • See Order Affirming Spain's Jurisdiction to Take Cognizance of the Crimes of Genocide and Terrorism Committed During the Chilean Dictatorship (Audiencia Nacional, Spain, Crim. Ch., 1st Sec.) (en banc), Appeal 173/98, Crim. Inv. 1/98, Cent. Ct. Inv. No. 6 (November 5, 1998), unofficial English translation reprinted in The Pinochet Papers (Reed Brody & Michael Ratner eds., 2000), pp. 95, 101-04.
    • (2000) Order Affirming Spain's Jurisdiction to Take Cognizance of the Crimes of Genocide and Terrorism Committed During the Chilean Dictatorship , pp. 95
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    • 33748141317 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • María del carmen márquez carrasco & Joaquín alcaide fernandez, "international decisions: In re pinochet
    • In contrast, French cases did not contend that Pinochet had committed genocide, 693
    • see also María del Carmen Márquez Carrasco & Joaquín Alcaide Fernandez, "International Decisions: In re Pinochet", 93 American Journal of International Law 690, 693(1999). In contrast, French cases did not contend that Pinochet had committed genocide.
    • (1999) American Journal of International Law , vol.93 , pp. 690
  • 67
    • 84898103530 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International decisions: Order of november 2, 1998
    • 697-98
    • See Brigitte Stern, "International Decisions: Order of November 2, 1998", 93 American Journal of International Law 696, 697-98(1999).
    • (1999) American Journal of International Law , vol.93 , pp. 696
    • Stern, B.1
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    • Statute of the international criminal tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
    • See Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, art. 4, S. C. Res. 827
    • S. C. Res. , vol.4 , pp. 827
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    • reprinted in, hereinafter ICTY Statute
    • reprinted in 32 I. L. M. 1159(1993) [hereinafter ICTY Statute];
    • (1993) I. L. M. , vol.32 , pp. 1159
  • 71
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    • Statute of the international criminal tribunal for Rwanda
    • Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, art. 2, S. C. Res. 955
    • S. C. Res. , vol.2 , pp. 955
  • 73
    • 84856946385 scopus 로고
    • reprinted in, hereinafter ICTR Statute
    • reprinted in 33 I. L. M. 1598(1994) [hereinafter ICTR Statute];
    • (1994) I. L. M. , vol.33 , pp. 1598
  • 75
    • 0040303172 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • reprinted in, hereinafter ICC Statute
    • reprinted in 37 I. L. M. 999(1998) [hereinafter ICC Statute].
    • (1998) I. L. M. , vol.37 , pp. 999
  • 76
    • 84923718212 scopus 로고
    • alleging in indictment that defendants "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide - viz., the extermination of racial and national groups, - against the civilian populations of certain occupied territories in order to destroy particular races and classes of people, and national, racial or religious groups, particularly Jews, Poles, Gypsies and others"
    • Compare Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, vol. 1(1947), pp. 43-44 (alleging in indictment that defendants "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide - viz., the extermination of racial and national groups, - against the civilian populations of certain occupied territories in order to destroy particular races and classes of people, and national, racial or religious groups, particularly Jews, Poles, Gypsies and others")
    • (1947) Compare Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal , vol.1 , pp. 43-44
  • 77
    • 0345755453 scopus 로고
    • Agreement for the prosecution and punishment of the major war criminals of the european axis powers and charter of the international military tribunal
    • with, art. 6, August 8
    • with Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis Powers and Charter of the International Military Tribunal, art. 6, August 8, 1945, 59 Stat. 1544
    • (1945) Stat , vol.59 , pp. 1544
  • 78
    • 84923650315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • authorizing tribunal to adjudicate crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity
    • U. N. T. S. 279 (authorizing tribunal to adjudicate crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity).
    • U. N. T. S. , vol.82 , pp. 279
  • 79
    • 84856865268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For accounts of this history see, supra note 4, 172
    • For accounts of this history see Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, paras. 78-129, 172;
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement , pp. 78-129
  • 80
    • 84856868917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 5, 273-313. In addition to those who were attacked "because they were identified as Tutsis", victims included some "moderate Hutu", attacked "because they were considered to be sympathetic to Tutsis and opposed to Hutu extremism or were related to Tutsis by marriage
    • Kayishema Trial Judgement, supra note 5, paras. 31-54, 273-313. In addition to those who were attacked "because they were identified as Tutsis", victims included some "moderate Hutu", attacked "because they were considered to be sympathetic to Tutsis and opposed to Hutu extremism or were related to Tutsis by marriage".
    • Kayishema Trial Judgement , pp. 31-54
  • 81
    • 84856945025 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Serushago v. Prosecutor, April 6, available, at, visited June 14, 2001
    • Serushago v. Prosecutor, Case No. ICTR-98-39-A, Appeals Chamber, Reasons for Judgement, para. 19 (April 6, 2000), available at http://www.ictr.org/ (visited June 14, 2001);
    • (2000) Case No. ICTR-98-39-a, Appeals Chamber, Reasons for Judgement , pp. 19
  • 82
    • 84856945027 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Akayesu
    • supra note 4, 159, 163 mentioning attacks on moderate Hutu
    • see Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, paras. 122 n. 57, 159, 163 (mentioning attacks on moderate Hutu).
    • Trial Judgement , Issue.57 , pp. 122
  • 83
    • 84856868914 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 4, quoting Genocide Convention, supra note 1, art. II
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, para. 510 (quoting Genocide Convention, supra note 1, art. II;
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement , pp. 510
  • 84
    • 77955013573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 36, art, Composing Trial Chamber I were Presiding Judge Laïty Kama and Judges Lennart Aspegren and Navanethem Pillay
    • ICTR Statute, supra note 36, art. 2). Composing Trial Chamber I were Presiding Judge Laïty Kama and Judges Lennart Aspegren and Navanethem Pillay.
    • ICTR Statute , pp. 2
  • 87
  • 88
    • 84856836251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Musema, January 27, available at, visited June 19, hereinafter Musema Trial Judgement
    • Prosecutor v. Musema, Case No. ICTR-93-13, Trial Chamber I, Judgement and Sentence, para. 162 (January 27, 2000), available at http://www.ictr.org/ (visited June 19, 2001) [hereinafter Musema Trial Judgement];
    • (2000) Case No. ICTR-93-13, Trial Chamber I, Judgement and Sentence , pp. 162
  • 89
    • 84856863695 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Rutaganda, December 6, available at, visited September 26, hereinafter Rutaganda Trial Judgement
    • Prosecutor v. Rutaganda, Case No. ICTR-96-3, Trial Chamber I, Judgement and Sentence, para. 57 (December 6, 1999), available at http://www.ictr.org/ (visited September 26, 2001) [hereinafter Rutaganda Trial Judgement].
    • (1999) Case No. ICTR-96-3, Trial Chamber I, Judgement and Sentence , pp. 57
  • 94
    • 84856920742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Prosecutor v. Sikirica, September 3, available at, visited September 26, hereinafter Sikirica Acquittal Judgement ruling, in opinion joined by Presiding Judge Patrick Robinson and Judges Richard May and Mohamed Fassi Fihri, that prosecution had not adduced sufficient evidence of intent to destroy, in part, group as such, 2001
    • See Prosecutor v. Sikirica, Case No. IT-95-8, Trial Chamber III, Judgement on Defence Motions to Acquit (September 3, 2001), available at http://www.un.org/icty/sikirica/judgement/index-e.htm (visited September 26, 2001) [hereinafter Sikirica Acquittal Judgement] (ruling, in opinion joined by Presiding Judge Patrick Robinson and Judges Richard May and Mohamed Fassi Fihri, that prosecution had not adduced sufficient evidence of intent to destroy, in part, group as such);
    • (2001) Case No. IT-95-8, Trial Chamber III, Judgement on Defence Motions to Acquit
  • 95
    • 84856814063 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Jelisić, December 14, available at, visited June 14, hereinafter Jelisić Trial Judgement looking at "context" to determine defendant s state of mind, in opinion joined by Presiding Judge Claude Jorda and Judges Fouad Riad and Almiro Rodrigues
    • Prosecutor v. Jelisić, Case No. IT-95-10, Trial Chamber I, Judgement, paras. 73-77 (December 14, 1999), available at http://www.un.org/ icty/brcko/trialc1/judgement/(visited June 14, 2001) [hereinafter Jelisić Trial Judgement] (looking at "context" to determine defendant s state of mind, in opinion joined by Presiding Judge Claude Jorda and Judges Fouad Riad and Almiro Rodrigues);
    • (1999) Case No. IT-95-10, Trial Chamber I, Judgement , pp. 73-77
  • 96
    • 84856859501 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Bagilishema, & n. 62 June 7, available at, visited October 24, hereinafter Bagilishema Trial Judgement echoing, in opinion by Presiding Judge Erik Møse and Judges Asoka de Zoysa Gunawardana and Mehmet Güney, rejection of any "accepted definition", yet noting that Akayesu supplied "indicative definitions", and affirming that each concept "must be assessed in the light of a particular political, social, historical, and cultural context"
    • Prosecutor v. Bagilishema, Case No. ICTR-95-1A-T, Trial Chamber I, Judgement, para. 65 & n. 62 (June 7, 2000), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited October 24, 2001) [hereinafter Bagilishema Trial Judgement] (echoing, in opinion by Presiding Judge Erik Møse and Judges Asoka de Zoysa Gunawardana and Mehmet Güney, rejection of any "accepted definition", yet noting that Akayesu supplied "indicative definitions", and affirming that each concept "must be assessed in the light of a particular political, social, historical, and cultural context").
    • (2000) Case No. ICTR-95-1A-t, Trial Chamber I, Judgement , pp. 65
  • 97
    • 84856868918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Procureur c. Jelisic, Decision orale 19 octobre, available at, visited October 28, 2001, hereinafter Jelisic Oral Decision
    • See Procureur c. Jelisic, Affaire No. IT-95-10, la Chambre I de premiere instance, Decision orale (19 octobre 1999), available at http://www.un.org/icty/ brcko/trialc1/judgement/jel-tj991019f.htm (visited October 28, 2001) [hereinafter Jelisic Oral Decision].
    • (1999) Affaire No. IT-95-10, la Chambre I de Premiere Instance
  • 98
    • 84856904094 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An Appeals Chamber reversed the acquittal but declined to remand. See Prosecutor v. Jelisic, July 5, available at, visited September 30, 2001 hereinafter Jelisic Appeal Judgement, discussed infra text accompanying notes 170-77. At the time this article was written, there were no appellate rulings in the other cases
    • An Appeals Chamber reversed the acquittal but declined to remand. See Prosecutor v. Jelisic, Case No. IT-95-10, Appeals Chamber, Judgement (July 5, 2001), available at http://www.un.org/icty/brcko/appeal/judgement/index.htm (visited September 30, 2001) [hereinafter Jelisic Appeal Judgement], discussed infra text accompanying notes 170-77. At the time this article was written, there were no appellate rulings in the other cases.
    • (2001) Case No. IT-95-10, Appeals Chamber, Judgement
  • 99
    • 84856868915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Only one opinion repeated Akayesu's reference to objective indicators of group identity, supra note 58
    • Only one opinion repeated Akayesu's reference to objective indicators of group identity. Rutaganda Trial Judgement, supra note 58, para. 374
    • Rutaganda Trial Judgement , pp. 374
  • 100
    • 84856865268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing, supra note 4, and referring to evidence such as ethnic identity cards, laws, and customs. The others nonetheless accorded some relevance to objective considerations
    • (citing Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, para. 170, and referring to evidence such as ethnic identity cards, laws, and customs). The others nonetheless accorded some relevance to objective considerations.
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement , pp. 170
  • 101
    • 84856868932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, 70 stating that "objective determination of a religious group still remains possible", and accepting statistics regarding number of "Muslim" victims
    • See Jelisic Trial Judgement, supra note 61, paras. 62-64, 70 (stating that "objective determination of a religious group still remains possible", and accepting statistics regarding number of "Muslim" victims);
    • Jelisic Trial Judgement , pp. 62-64
  • 102
    • 84856868922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, declaring that "membership of the targeted group must be an objective feature of the society in question"
    • Bagilishema Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 65 (declaring that "membership of the targeted group must be an objective feature of the society in question");
    • Bagilishema Trial Judgement , pp. 65
  • 104
    • 84856868921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Separate and Dissenting Opinion of Judge, referring to "consequences of carrying an identity card indicating a Tutsi ethnicity"
    • Separate and Dissenting Opinion of Judge Mehmet Güney, para. 98 (referring to "consequences of carrying an identity card indicating a Tutsi ethnicity");
    • Mehmet Güney , pp. 98
  • 105
    • 84856836263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 58, retaining support for relevance of objective evidence of "relatively stable and permanent groups"
    • Musema Trial Judgement, supra note 58, para. 162 (retaining support for relevance of objective evidence of "relatively stable and permanent groups").
    • Musema Trial Judgement , pp. 162
  • 106
    • 84856845829 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, 61-85 noting prosecution emphasis on "objective context" regarding mens rea, and looking at statistics like census figures to decide question of intent to destroy group "in part" and "as such"
    • Accord Sikirica Acquittal Judgement, supra note 61, paras. 43, 61-85 (noting prosecution emphasis on "objective context" regarding mens rea, and looking at statistics like census figures to decide question of intent to destroy group "in part" and "as such").
    • Accord Sikirica Acquittal Judgement , pp. 43
  • 107
  • 110
    • 84856868932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, further stating, somewhat surprisingly, that membership in a religious group, an affiliation that not infrequently is altered or abandoned, still may be determined objectively. Rather than declare an objective inquiry dangerous, the panel in Bagilishema simply suggested that whether a defendant possessed the mens rea for genocide could be established without demonstrating existence of a group '"as a scientifically objective fact".
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 70 (further stating, somewhat surprisingly, that membership in a religious group, an affiliation that not infrequently is altered or abandoned, still may be determined objectively). Rather than declare an objective inquiry dangerous, the panel in Bagilishema simply suggested that whether a defendant possessed the mens rea for genocide could be established without demonstrating existence of a group '"as a scientifically objective fact".
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement , pp. 70
  • 113
    • 84856868936 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61
    • See e.g., Jelisić Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 70 & n. 95
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement , Issue.95 , pp. 70
  • 114
    • 84856868917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • stating relevance of "the stigmatization of a group as a distinct national, ethnical or racial unit by the community", and approving reference to" self-identification" in, supra note 5
    • (stating relevance of "the stigmatization of a group as a distinct national, ethnical or racial unit by the community", and approving reference to" self-identification" in Kayishema Trial Judgement, supra note 5, para. 98).
    • Kayishema Trial Judgement , pp. 98
  • 116
    • 84856868932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • quoting, supra note 61, phrases issue as " 'whether a targeted population constitutes a national, ethnical or racial group in the eyes of the alleged perpetrators' "
    • (quoting Jelisić Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 70, phrases issue as " 'whether a targeted population constitutes a national, ethnical or racial group in the eyes of the alleged perpetrators' ");
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement , pp. 70
  • 117
    • 84856868922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, reasoning that "if a victim was perceived by a perpetrator as belonging to a protected group, the victim could be considered by the Chamber as a member of the protected group"
    • Bagilishema Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 65 (reasoning that "if a victim was perceived by a perpetrator as belonging to a protected group, the victim could be considered by the Chamber as a member of the protected group");
    • Bagilishema Trial Judgement , pp. 65
  • 118
    • 84856868932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, stating in addition that it is "more appropriate to evaluate the status of a national, ethnical or racial group from the point of view of those persons who wish to single that group out from the rest of the community"
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 70 (stating in addition that it is "more appropriate to evaluate the status of a national, ethnical or racial group from the point of view of those persons who wish to single that group out from the rest of the community").
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement , pp. 70
  • 119
    • 84856868922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, 117, 122, 128, 133, 236, 259, 266, 343, 346, 930 describing Tutsi-Hutu conflict in ethnic terms
    • Bagilishema Trial Judgement, supra note 61, paras. 113, 117, 122, 128, 133, 236, 259, 266, 343, 346, 930 (describing Tutsi-Hutu conflict in ethnic terms);
    • Bagilishema Trial Judgement , pp. 113
  • 120
    • 84856836263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 58, writing of genocide against "the Tutsi ethnic group"
    • Musema Trial Judgement, supra note 58, para. 935 (writing of genocide against "the Tutsi ethnic group");
    • Musema Trial Judgement , pp. 935
  • 121
    • 84856868915 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 58, referring to requisite intent to destroy "a particular group"
    • Rutaganda Trial Judgement, supra note 58, para. 59 (referring to requisite intent to destroy "a particular group");
    • Rutaganda Trial Judgement , pp. 59
  • 122
    • 84856845836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, citing indictment
    • Sikirica Acquittal Judgement, supra note 61, para. 63 (citing indictment).
    • Sikirica Acquittal Judgement , pp. 63
  • 123
    • 84856868932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, writing that indictment alleged intent " 'to destroy a substantial or significant part of the Bosnian Muslim people as a national, ethnic, or religious group' "
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 3 (writing that indictment alleged intent " 'to destroy a substantial or significant part of the Bosnian Muslim people as a national, ethnic, or religious group' ");
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement , pp. 3
  • 126
    • 0342896938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • European convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms
    • quoting, inter alia, art. 14, November 4, 1950, guaranteeing enjoyment of enumerated rights "without discrimination on any ground such as... association with a national minority"
    • (quoting, inter alia, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 14, November 4, 1950, 213 U. N. T. S. 222 (guaranteeing enjoyment of enumerated rights "without discrimination on any ground such as... association with a national minority");
    • U. N. T. S. , vol.213 , pp. 222
  • 127
    • 84856836265 scopus 로고
    • International covenant on civil and political rights
    • UN Doc. A/6316
    • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 27, G. A. Res. 2200, UN GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, at 49, UN Doc. A/6316(1966)
    • (1966) G. A. Res. 2200, UN GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16 , vol.27 , pp. 49
  • 128
    • 0039733897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • reprinted in, hereinafter ICCPR extending right to enjoy culture to "ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities"
    • reprinted in 999 U. N. T. S. 171 [hereinafter ICCPR] (extending right to enjoy culture to "ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities");
    • U. N. T. S. , vol.999 , pp. 171
  • 129
    • 84856926121 scopus 로고
    • European commission for democracy through law
    • defining national minority as "group which is smaller in number than the rest of a population of a State, whose members, who are nationals of that State, have ethnical, religious or linguistic features different from those of the rest of the population, and are guided by the will to safeguard their culture, traditions, religion or language"
    • European Commission for Democracy through Law, The Protection of Minorities (1994), p. 12 (defining national minority as "group which is smaller in number than the rest of a population of a State, whose members, who are nationals of that State, have ethnical, religious or linguistic features different from those of the rest of the population, and are guided by the will to safeguard their culture, traditions, religion or language")).
    • (1994) The Protection of Minorities , pp. 12
  • 130
    • 84856888487 scopus 로고
    • quoting, Study on the Rights of the Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/384/Rev. 1, stating that UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities "decided, in 1950, to replace the word 'racial' by the word 'ethnic' in all references to minority groups described by their ethnic origin"
    • (quoting Francesco Capotorti, Study on the Rights of the Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, para. 197, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/384/Rev. 1(1979) (stating that UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities "decided, in 1950, to replace the word 'racial' by the word 'ethnic' in all references to minority groups described by their ethnic origin");
    • (1979) Francesco Capotorti , pp. 197
  • 131
    • 0344517489 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination
    • art. 1, defining racial discrimination as "any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin"
    • International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, art. 1, 660 U. N. T. S. 195 (defining racial discrimination as "any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin")).
    • U. N. T. S. , vol.660 , pp. 195
  • 132
    • 84856877856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • citing, Petren, Sweden
    • (citing UN Doc. A/C.6/SR. 73 (Petren, Sweden);
    • UN Doc. A/C.6/SR , pp. 73
  • 133
    • 84856877856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Petren, Sweden
    • UN Doc. A/C.6/SR. 74 (Petren, Sweden)).
    • UN Doc. A/C.6/SR , pp. 74
  • 135
    • 84856912963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 6, quoting treatise description of Convention preparatory works with regard to interrelation of genocide and crimes against humanity. A member of the Krstic panel also had cited the book in a decision issued a month earlier
    • See Krstic Trial Judgement, supra note 6, para. 682 n. 1455 (quoting treatise description of Convention preparatory works with regard to interrelation of genocide and crimes against humanity). A member of the Krstic panel also had cited the book in a decision issued a month earlier.
    • Krstic Trial Judgement , Issue.1455 , pp. 682
  • 136
    • 84856945041 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, Partial Dissenting Opinion of Judge Wald
    • See Jelisic Appeal Judgement, supra note 61, Partial Dissenting Opinion of Judge Wald, para. 2 n. 1.
    • Jelisic Appeal Judgement , Issue.1 , pp. 2
  • 137
    • 84856845839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, 116-17, 122 referring to definitions of "racial discrimination" in international convention and to definitions relating to minority groups in European human instruments and in international covenant with supra notes 81-82 and accompanying text
    • Compare Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 113-14, 116-17, 122 (referring to definitions of "racial discrimination" in international convention and to definitions relating to minority groups in European human instruments and in international covenant) with supra notes 81-82 and accompanying text.
    • Compare Schabas, Genocide , pp. 113-114
  • 138
    • 84856836267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, &, stating that drafters "agreed to add the term 'ethnical' so as to ensure that the term 'national' would not be confused with 'political'," and citing Swedish representative with supra note 83 and accompanying text
    • Compare Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 112 & n. 69 (stating that drafters "agreed to add the term 'ethnical' so as to ensure that the term 'national' would not be confused with 'political'," and citing Swedish representative) with supra note 83 and accompanying text.
    • Compare Schabas, Genocide , Issue.69 , pp. 112
  • 139
    • 84924091599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, 131
    • Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 127, 131.
    • Genocide , pp. 127
    • Schabas1
  • 140
    • 84856836268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compare Prosecutor v. Blaaki, March 3, available at, visited January 21, 2002 hereinafter Blašakić Trial Judgement forty-five-year sentence for crimes against humanity and war crimes with Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, para. 727 forty-six-year sentence for genocide, persecution, and war crimes. The most severe punishment an international tribunal may levy is life in prison
    • Compare Prosecutor v. Blaaki, Case No. IT-95-14, Trial Chamber I, Judgement, IS VI (March 3, 2000), available at http://www.un.org/icty/blaskic/ trialc1/judgement/index.htm (visited January 21, 2002) [hereinafter Blašakić Trial Judgement] (forty-five-year sentence for crimes against humanity and war crimes) with Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, para. 727 (forty-six-year sentence for genocide, persecution, and war crimes). The most severe punishment an international tribunal may levy is life in prison.
    • (2000) Case No. IT-95-14, Trial Chamber I, Judgement, IS , vol.6
  • 141
    • 84896336321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 36, limiting possible penalty to imprisonment; ICTR Statute, supra note 36, art. 23 same
    • See ICTY Statute, supra note 36, art. 24 (limiting possible penalty to imprisonment); ICTR Statute, supra note 36, art. 23 (same);
    • ICTY Statute , pp. 24
  • 142
    • 52649113731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • accord, supra note 36, 1 b authorizing court to impose sentence of life "when justified by the extreme gravity of the crime and the individual circumstances of the convicted person"
    • accord ICC Statute, supra note 36, art. 77(1) (b) (authorizing court to impose sentence of life "when justified by the extreme gravity of the crime and the individual circumstances of the convicted person").
    • ICC Statute , pp. 77
  • 143
    • 84856941376 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The atrocities in cambodia and kosovo: Observations on the codification of genocide
    • 303
    • See Jason Abrams, "The Atrocities in Cambodia and Kosovo: Observations on the Codification of Genocide", 35 New England Law Review 303, 303(2001).
    • (2001) New England Law Review , vol.35 , pp. 303
    • Abrams, J.1
  • 144
    • 84937183060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A critical view of the proposed international criminal court
    • 144-45, fall, arguing that "enforcement tools of municipal positive law" may be more worthwhile than international criminal adjudication. This critique presumes the availability, immediately or at an acceptable point in the future, of an adequate domestic criminal justice system. The role of international criminal adjudication when there is no such system exceeds the purview of the instant article
    • See e.g., Alfred P. Rubin, "A Critical View of the Proposed International Criminal Court", 23 Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 139, 144-45 (fall 1999) (arguing that "enforcement tools of municipal positive law" may be more worthwhile than international criminal adjudication). This critique presumes the availability, immediately or at an acceptable point in the future, of an adequate domestic criminal justice system. The role of international criminal adjudication when there is no such system exceeds the purview of the instant article.
    • (1999) Fletcher Forum of World Affairs , vol.23 , pp. 139
    • Rubin, A.P.1
  • 145
    • 84856845840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • defining murder as "the unlawful killing of a human being, or a fetus, with malice aforethought" with Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, paras. 478-500 examining at length whether, as matter of law, killings constituted crime against humanity of murder as extermination
    • Compare California Penal Code § 187(2001) (defining murder as "the unlawful killing of a human being, or a fetus, with malice aforethought") with Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, paras. 478-500 (examining at length whether, as matter of law, killings constituted crime against humanity of murder as extermination).
    • (2001) Compare California Penal Code , pp. 187
  • 146
    • 30944461917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alien tort claims act
    • See Alien Tort Claims Act, 28 U. S. C. A. IS 1350(2001)
    • (2001) U. S. C. A. IS , vol.28 , pp. 1350
  • 147
    • 30944461917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Torture victim protection act
    • note
    • and Torture Victim Protection Act, 28 U. S. C. A. ǧ 1350 note (2001)
    • (2001) U. S. C. A. , vol.28 , pp. 1350
  • 148
    • 0347048208 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Criminal procedure in france
    • U. S. statutes authorizing victims to seek civil damages;, in
    • (U. S. statutes authorizing victims to seek civil damages; Richard Vogler, "Criminal Procedure in France", in Comparative Criminal Procedure
    • Comparative Criminal Procedure
    • Vogler, R.1
  • 149
    • 84856836270 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • describing French version of partie civile process by which victims may join criminal litigation. This may change once the ICC is in operation, because its statute authorizes both awards for reparations and interventions by victims' legal representatives
    • (John Hatchard, Barbara Huber & Richard Vogler eds., 1996), pp. 25-27 (describing French version of partie civile process by which victims may join criminal litigation). This may change once the ICC is in operation, because its statute authorizes both awards for reparations and interventions by victims' legal representatives.
    • (1996) , pp. 25-27
    • Hatchard, J.1    Huber, B.2    Vogler, R.3
  • 150
    • 84856945044 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 36, arts
    • ICC Statute, supra note 36, arts. 68(3), 75.
    • ICC Statute , vol.68 , Issue.3 , pp. 75
  • 151
    • 0038417864 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sentencing by international tribunals: A human rights approach
    • 464
    • William A. Schabas, "Sentencing by International Tribunals: A Human Rights Approach", 7 Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 461, 464(1997)
    • (1997) Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law , vol.7 , pp. 461
    • Schabas, W.A.1
  • 152
    • 84856916393 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • quoting, e.g., supra note 81, art, "The penitentiary system shall comprise treatment of prisoners the essential aim of which shall be their reformation and social rehabilitation. ". This goal is most acute in the case of very young offenders
    • (quoting, e.g., ICCPR, supra note 81, art. 10(3) ("The penitentiary system shall comprise treatment of prisoners the essential aim of which shall be their reformation and social rehabilitation. ")). This goal is most acute in the case of very young offenders.
    • ICCPR , vol.10 , Issue.3
  • 153
    • 0347828132 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Calling children to account: The proposal for a juvenile chamber in the special court for sierra leone
    • See generally, forthcoming
    • See generally Diane Marie Amann, "Calling Children to Account: The Proposal for a Juvenile Chamber in the Special Court for Sierra Leone", 29 Pepperdine Law Review (forthcoming 2001).
    • (2001) Pepperdine Law Review , vol.29
    • Amann, D.M.1
  • 154
    • 84856929878 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Kambanda, Trial Chamber, Judgement and Sentence, September 4, available at, visited June 14, 2001 hereinafter Kambanda Trial Judgement
    • Prosecutor v. Kambanda, Case No. ICTR 97-23-S, Trial Chamber, Judgement and Sentence, para. 28 (September 4, 1998), available at http://www.ictr.org/ (visited June 14, 2001) [hereinafter Kambanda Trial Judgement].
    • (1998) Case No. ICTR 97-23-s , pp. 28
  • 155
    • 84856935321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a similar ICTY statement, see e.g., Prosecutor v. Furundžija, December 10, available at, visited September 26, 2001, hereinafter Furundžija Trial Judgement identifying, as "two important functions of the punishment" it would impose, "retribution", defined as "punitur quia peccatur the individual must be punished because he broke the law ", and "deterrence", defined as "punitur ne peccatur he must be punished so that he and others will no longer break the law "
    • For a similar ICTY statement, see e.g., Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Case No. IT-95-17/1-T, Trial Chamber II, Judgement, para. 288 (December 10, 1998), available at http://www.un.org/icty/furundzija/trialc2/judgement/index. htm (visited September 26, 2001) [hereinafter Furundžija Trial Judgement] (identifying, as "two important functions of the punishment" it would impose, "retribution", defined as "punitur quia peccatur (the individual must be punished because he broke the law) ", and "deterrence", defined as "punitur ne peccatur (he must be punished so that he and others will no longer break the law) ").
    • (1998) Case No. IT-95-17/1-t, Trial Chamber II, Judgement , pp. 288
  • 156
    • 84856850154 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For ICTY acknowledgements of this factor, see e.g., Prosecutor v. Kunarac, February 22, available at, visited September 26, "Considerations of fairness to the accused and judicial economy, however, outweigh the wish to have each and every crime committed during a war brought to light and adjudged in whatever way that is something which this International Tribunal simply cannot do.", 2001
    • For ICTY acknowledgements of this factor, see e.g., Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Case No. IT-96-23-T, Trial Chamber II, Judgement, para. 850 (February 22, 2001), available at http://www.un.org/icty/foca/trialc2/judgement/index.htm (visited September 26, 2001) ("Considerations of fairness to the accused and judicial economy, however, outweigh the wish to have each and every crime committed during a war brought to light and adjudged in whatever way that is something which this International Tribunal simply cannot do.");
    • (2001) Case No. IT-96-23-t, Trial Chamber II, Judgement , pp. 850
  • 157
    • 84856887239 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • February 20, available at, visited June 14, hereinafter Delalić Appeal Judgement stating that in ICTY as "in many criminal justice systems", prosecution "has finite financial and human resources and cannot realistically be expected to prosecute every offender which may fall within the strict terms of its jurisdiction"; therefore, it must "make decisions as to the nature of the crimes and the offenders to be prosecuted". On the operation of this factor at Nürnberg, 2001
    • Prosecutor v. Delalić, Case No. IT-96-21-T, Appeals Chamber, Judgement, para. 602 (February 20, 2001), available at http://www.un.org/icty/ celebici/appeal/judgement/index.htm (visited June 14, 2001) [hereinafter Delalić Appeal Judgement] (stating that in ICTY as "in many criminal justice systems", prosecution "has finite financial and human resources and cannot realistically be expected to prosecute every offender which may fall within the strict terms of its jurisdiction"; therefore, it must "make decisions as to the nature of the crimes and the offenders to be prosecuted"). On the operation of this factor at Nürnberg
    • (2001) Case No. IT-96-21-t, Appeals Chamber, Judgement , pp. 602
    • Delalic, P.V.1
  • 158
    • 0041427325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Assessing international criminal adjudication of human rights atrocities
    • forthcoming
    • see Diane Marie Amann, "Assessing International Criminal Adjudication of Human Rights Atrocities", Third World Legal Studies (forthcoming 2001)
    • (2001) Third World Legal Studies
    • Amann, D.M.1
  • 160
    • 84856943385 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ex-yougoslavie: Les lenteurs de la justice internationale
    • January 17, commenting on ICTYs new phase of trying leaders like former Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, former Bosnian Serb President Biljana Plavšić, and former speaker of Bosnian Serb Assembly, Momcilo Krajisnik
    • See Alain Franco, "Ex-Yougoslavie: les lenteurs de la justice internationale", Le Monde, January 17, 2002, at 19 (commenting on ICTYs new phase of trying leaders like former Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, former Bosnian Serb President Biljana Plavšić, and former speaker of Bosnian Serb Assembly, Momcilo Krajisnik).
    • (2002) Le Monde , pp. 19
    • Franco, A.1
  • 161
    • 84856916397 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UN tribunal finds bosnian serb guilty
    • first ICTY proceeding involved a single defendant who held no military commission. See, May 8, describing first defendant, Duško Tadic, as "police reservist". Recently the ICTY appointed a panel to review whether the case of the defendant, who had been sentenced in 2000, more than four years after the ICTY initiated proceedings against him, ought to be reopened on account of attorney misconduct
    • The first ICTY proceeding involved a single defendant who held no military commission. See Charles Trueheart, "UN Tribunal Finds Bosnian Serb Guilty", Washington Post, May 8, 1997, at A20 (describing first defendant, Duško Tadic, as "police reservist"). Recently the ICTY appointed a panel to review whether the case of the defendant, who had been sentenced in 2000, more than four years after the ICTY initiated proceedings against him, ought to be reopened on account of attorney misconduct.
    • (1997) Washington Post
    • Trueheart, C.1
  • 162
    • 84856836278 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • War crimes court mulls re-opening dusko tadic case
    • October 31, available at 2001 WL 25051535. Although proceedings before the ICTR also have been protracted, from the outset defendants included former government officials. See e.g., Kambanda Trial Judgement, supra note 101, para. 35 prime minister
    • See "War crimes court mulls re-opening Dusko Tadic case", Agence France-Presse, October 31, 2001, available at 2001 WL 25051535. Although proceedings before the ICTR also have been protracted, from the outset defendants included former government officials. See e.g., Kambanda Trial Judgement, supra note 101, para. 35 (prime minister);
    • (2001) Agence France-presse
  • 163
    • 84856868917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 5, prefect
    • Kayishema Trial Judgement, supra note 5, para. 9 (prefect).
    • Kayishema Trial Judgement , pp. 9
  • 164
    • 0003653010 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • setting forth both internal and external problems
    • See e.g., Martha Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness (1998), pp. 40-46 (setting forth both internal and external problems);
    • (1998) Between Vengeance and Forgiveness , pp. 40-46
    • Minow, M.1
  • 165
    • 84856845844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 102 discussing both concepts
    • Amann, "Adjudication", supra note 102 (discussing both concepts);
    • Adjudication
    • Amann1
  • 166
    • 3142753044 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International guidelines against impunity: Facilitating accountability
    • 30-31, writing of constraints that block "full accountability"
    • Madeline H. Morris, "International Guidelines Against Impunity: Facilitating Accountability", 59 Law and Contemporary Problems 29, 30-31(1996) (writing of constraints that block "full accountability");
    • (1996) Law and Contemporary Problems , vol.59 , pp. 29
    • Morris, M.H.1
  • 167
    • 84856818185 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The role of the ICTY in the development of international criminal adjudication
    • 457, stating that selection of Balkan conflict and not others "casts a shadow upon the principle of the sovereign equality of all states"
    • Ivan Šimonovic, "The Role of the ICTY in the Development of International Criminal Adjudication", 23 Fordham International Law Journal 440, 457(1999) (stating that selection of Balkan conflict and not others "casts a shadow upon the principle of the sovereign equality of all states").
    • (1999) Fordham International Law Journal , vol.23 , pp. 440
    • Šimonovic, I.1
  • 168
    • 0003603080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • stating that out of "at least 100, 000 perpetrators of the Holocaust", by 1948 "only 3, 500 Germans had been tried not just for murdering Jews but for other war crimes, too "
    • See Gary Jonathan Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance (2000), p. 300 (stating that out of "at least 100, 000 perpetrators of the Holocaust", by 1948 "only 3, 500 Germans had been tried (not just for murdering Jews but for other war crimes, too) ").
    • (2000) Stay the Hand of Vengeance , pp. 300
    • Bass, G.J.1
  • 169
    • 2542452461 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Expressive theories of law: A general restatement
    • drawing on sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and psychology
    • See e.g., Elizabeth S. Anderson & Richard H. Pildes, "Expressive Theories of Law: A General Restatement", 148 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1503(2000) (drawing on sociology, anthropology, philosophy, and psychology);
    • (2000) University of Pennsylvania Law Review , vol.148 , pp. 1503
    • Anderson, E.S.1    Pildes, R.H.2
  • 170
    • 0030163278 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The theory of market modernization of law
    • 159-60, referring to Durkheimian sociology in analysis based in law and economics theory
    • Robert D. Cooter, "The Theory of Market Modernization of Law", 16 International Review of Law and Economics 141, 159-60(1996) (referring to Durkheimian sociology in analysis based in law and economics theory);
    • (1996) International Review of Law and Economics , vol.16 , pp. 141
    • Cooter, R.D.1
  • 171
    • 33750159669 scopus 로고
    • The regulation of social meaning
    • 951-52, writing of "semiotic content" of actions
    • Lawrence Lessig, "The Regulation of Social Meaning", 62 University of Chicago Law Review 943, 951-52(1995) (writing of "semiotic content" of actions).
    • (1995) University of Chicago Law Review , vol.62 , pp. 943
    • Lessig, L.1
  • 172
    • 3042561341 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Three effects of social norms on law: Expression, deterrence, and internalization
    • 10-11, hereinafter Cooter, "Effects" explaining "expressive effect" of ordinance requiring owners to clean up after dogs. For the sake of simplicity, the term "expressivists" is used here to refer to scholars who write, from various perspectives, about expressivism
    • Robert D. Cooter, "Three Effects of Social Norms on Law: Expression, Deterrence, and Internalization", 79 Oregon Law Review 1, 10-11(2000) [hereinafter Cooter, "Effects"] (explaining "expressive effect" of ordinance requiring owners to clean up after dogs). For the sake of simplicity, the term "expressivists" is used here to refer to scholars who write, from various perspectives, about expressivism.
    • (2000) Oregon Law Review , vol.79 , pp. 1
    • Cooter, R.D.1
  • 173
    • 0348199090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the expressive function of law
    • Cass R. Sunstein, "On the Expressive Function of Law", 144 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 2021, 2021(1996) (Pubitemid 126408773)
    • (1996) University of Pennsylvania Law Review , vol.144 , Issue.5 , pp. 2021
    • Sunstein, C.R.1
  • 175
    • 0001695934 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The origins, development, and regulation of norms
    • 355-57, 391, positing that desire for esteem gives rise to norms, and that shaping or regulating norms is key function of law
    • Richard H. McAdams, "The Origins, Development, and Regulation of Norms", 96 Michigan Law Review 338, 355-57, 391(1997) (positing that desire for esteem gives rise to norms, and that shaping or regulating norms is key function of law);
    • (1997) Michigan Law Review , vol.96 , pp. 338
    • McAdams, R.H.1
  • 176
    • 84856945053 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 109, 2038 showing how adoption laws "reaffirm existing norms"
    • Sunstein, "Function", supra note 109, at 2030, 2038 (showing how adoption laws "reaffir[m] existing norms").
    • Function , pp. 2030
    • Sunstein1
  • 177
    • 84856945053 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 109, 2050 referring to "social meaning", and asserting that "meaning of legal statements is a function of social norms, not of the speaker's intention"
    • Sunstein, "Function", supra note 109, at 2030, 2050 (referring to "social meaning", and asserting that "meaning of legal statements is a function of social norms, not of the speaker's intention").
    • Function , pp. 2030
    • Sunstein1
  • 178
    • 23044518161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Expressive theories of law: A skeptical overview
    • 1375, "In short, the genuine expressivist claims that linguistic meaning is an irreducible moral factor."
    • See e.g., Matthew D. Adler, "Expressive Theories of Law: A Skeptical Overview", 148 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1363, 1375(2000) ("In short, the genuine expressivist claims that linguistic meaning is an irreducible moral factor.").
    • (2000) University of Pennsylvania Law Review , vol.148 , pp. 1363
    • Adler, M.D.1
  • 179
    • 84856945053 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 109, stating that social meaning limns "legitimate or permissible content of law"
    • Sunstein, "Function", supra note 109, at 2050 (stating that social meaning limns "legitimate or permissible content of law").
    • Function , pp. 2050
    • Sunstein1
  • 180
    • 0345884686 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The secret ambition of deterrence
    • 491
    • Dan M. Kahan, "The Secret Ambition of Deterrence", 113 Harvard Law Review 413, 491(1999)
    • (1999) Harvard Law Review , vol.113 , pp. 413
    • Kahan, D.M.1
  • 181
    • 84856845853 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • hereinafter, stating that "expressivist rhetoric" allows "organizing against bad norms". On societal dynamism
    • [hereinafter Kahan, "Ambition"] (stating that "[e]xpressivist rhetoric" allows "organizing against bad norms"). On societal dynamism
    • Ambition
    • Kahan1
  • 182
    • 84856845853 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra, "Social norms are not static."
    • Kahan, "Ambition", supra, at 486 ("Social norms are not static.");
    • Ambition , pp. 486
    • Kahan1
  • 183
    • 0346044952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Social norms and social roles
    • Cass R. Sunstein, "Social Norms and Social Roles", 96 Columbia Law Review 903, 912, 929-30(1996) (showing that societal norms undergo constant change). (Pubitemid 126406323)
    • (1996) Columbia Law Review , vol.96 , Issue.4 , pp. 903
    • Sunstein, C.R.1
  • 184
    • 84856845853 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 115, 491-92 indicating that expressivist focus may aid progressive reformers, while overemphasis on deterrence may impede that goal
    • Kahan, "Ambition", supra note 115, at 487, 491-92 (indicating that expressivist focus may aid progressive reformers, while overemphasis on deterrence may impede that goal);
    • Ambition , pp. 487
    • Kahan1
  • 185
    • 84856945048 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 109, 2045-48 describing interest of expressivism in consequences. Expressivism further may reflect a recognition that consequences, which lie at the heart of deterrence theories, are hard to quantify. Surely if the degree to which a deed deterred wrongdoing could be shown, policymakers ought to rely on that data in deciding how to act. But consistent and reliable data are not available. This unsettled empirical record justifies treating presumed deterrence value as one factor, along with the expressive component and the desire for retribution, that a policymaker ought to consider
    • Sunstein, "Function", supra note 109, at 2024 n. 15, 2045-48 (describing interest of expressivism in consequences). Expressivism further may reflect a recognition that consequences, which lie at the heart of deterrence theories, are hard to quantify. Surely if the degree to which a deed deterred wrongdoing could be shown, policymakers ought to rely on that data in deciding how to act. But consistent and reliable data are not available. This unsettled empirical record justifies treating presumed deterrence value as one factor, along with the expressive component and the desire for retribution, that a policymaker ought to consider.
    • Function , Issue.15 , pp. 2024
    • Sunstein1
  • 186
    • 0347569386 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • What Do Alternative Sanctions Mean?
    • Dan M. Kahan, "What Do Alternative Sanctions Mean?", 63 University of Chicago Law Review 591, 593(1996) (Pubitemid 126408719)
    • (1996) University of Chicago Law Review , vol.63 , Issue.2 , pp. 591
    • Kahan, D.M.1
  • 187
    • 84856845850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • hereinafter, "Punishment is not just a way to make offenders suffer; it is a special social convention that signifies moral condemnation. "
    • [hereinafter Kahan, "Sanctions"] ("Punishment is not just a way to make offenders suffer; it is a special social convention that signifies moral condemnation. ").
    • Sanctions
    • Kahan1
  • 188
    • 0347740446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Why does the criminal law care what the layperson thinks is just? Coercive versus normative crime control
    • 1868-69
    • Paul H. Robinson, "Why Does the Criminal Law Care What the Layperson Thinks Is Just? Coercive Versus Normative Crime Control", 86 Virginia Law Review 1839, 1868-69(2000).
    • (2000) Virginia Law Review , vol.86 , pp. 1839
    • Robinson, P.H.1
  • 189
    • 0034553547 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federalizing hate crimes: Symbolic politics, expressive law, or tool for criminal enforcement?
    • 1265-72, positing that passage of criminal law without expectation of enforcement endangers efficacy and legitimacy of criminal justice system
    • See also Sara Sun Beale, "Federalizing Hate Crimes: Symbolic Politics, Expressive Law, or Tool for Criminal Enforcement?", 80 Boston University Law Review 1227, 1265-72(2000) (positing that passage of criminal law without expectation of enforcement endangers efficacy and legitimacy of criminal justice system);
    • (2000) Boston University Law Review , vol.80 , pp. 1227
    • Beale, S.S.1
  • 190
    • 84856845851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 119, remarking that "action" of appropriate punishment "speaks louder than words" of denunciation alone
    • Kahan, "Sanctions", supra note 119, at 600-01 (remarking that "action" of appropriate punishment "speaks louder than words" of denunciation alone).
    • Sanctions , pp. 600-601
    • Kahan1
  • 191
    • 0347710448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Constructing a hierarchy of crimes in international criminal law sentencing
    • For a recent exception, see generally Allison Marston Danner, "Constructing a Hierarchy of Crimes in International Criminal Law Sentencing", 87 Virginia Law Review 415(2001). (Pubitemid 33656647)
    • (2001) Virginia Law Review , vol.87 , Issue.3 , pp. 415
    • Danner, A.M.1
  • 192
    • 0030555016 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judging the security council
    • 28-37, analyzing "expressive mode" of judicial review by International Court of Justice in cases involving international crime
    • Accord José E. Alvarez, "Judging the Security Council", 90 American Journal of International Law 1, 28-37(1996) (analyzing "expressive mode" of judicial review by International Court of Justice in cases involving international crime);
    • (1996) American Journal of International Law , vol.90 , pp. 1
    • José Alvarez, A.E.1
  • 193
    • 84856922263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The international criminal court: A budget of paradoxes
    • 266-68 & n. 32, discussing ICC's "symbolic" value and recognizing potential of expressivist inquiry
    • Edward M. Wise, "The International Criminal Court: A Budget of Paradoxes", 8 Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 261, 266-68 & n. 32(2000) (discussing ICC's "symbolic" value and recognizing potential of expressivist inquiry).
    • (2000) Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law , vol.8 , pp. 261
    • Wise, E.M.1
  • 194
    • 84856945054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 18
    • Jackson Statement, supra note 18, at 99.
    • Jackson Statement , pp. 99
  • 195
    • 84856890080 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • accord, supra note 106, stating that "what Jackson had in mind was something more spectacularly public, with access to new documents and with high-level men in the dock giving testimony"
    • accord Bass, supra note 106, at 303 (stating that "what Jackson had in mind was something more spectacularly public, with access to new documents and with high-level men in the dock giving testimony").
    • Bass , pp. 303
  • 196
    • 84856845854 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Goering judgement
    • supra note 18, reprinted in
    • Goering Judgement, supra note 18, reprinted in 6 F. R. D. at 130-31.
    • F. R. D. , vol.6 , pp. 130-131
  • 197
    • 84856916403 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • reprinted in 6 F. R. D. at 146-47.
    • F. R. D. , vol.6 , pp. 146-147
  • 200
    • 84856916402 scopus 로고
    • Principles of international law recognized in the charter of the nürnberg tribunal and in the judgement of the tribunal, adopted by UN international law commission
    • August 2, 1950, para. 99, UN Doc. A/1316
    • E.g., Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgement of the Tribunal, adopted by UN International Law Commission, August 2, 1950, 5 UN GAOR, Supp. No. 12, at 11-14, para. 99, UN Doc. A/1316(1950);
    • (1950) UN GAOR, Supp. No. 12 , vol.5 , pp. 11-14
  • 201
    • 84856844742 scopus 로고
    • Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances, art, December 16
    • Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearances, art. 4(1), December 16, 1992, GA Res. 133
    • (1992) GA Res. , vol.4 , Issue.1 , pp. 133
  • 202
    • 84856945055 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sess., Supp. 49, UN Doc. A/RES/47/133
    • UN GAOR, 47 Sess., Supp. 49 at 207, UN Doc. A/RES/47/133.
    • UN GAOR , vol.47 , pp. 207
  • 203
    • 0040968872 scopus 로고
    • multi-volume treatise envisioning law of an ICC
    • E.g., Benjamin Ferencz, An International Criminal Court (1980) (multi-volume treatise envisioning law of an ICC);
    • (1980) An International Criminal Court
    • Ferencz, B.1
  • 204
    • 84856836286 scopus 로고
    • International criminal law
    • three-volume treatise detailing scope of international criminal law and means of enforcement; Restatement Third of Foreign Relations Law of the United States § 404 1986 setting forth universally condemned offenses
    • International Criminal Law (M. Cherif Bassiouni ed., 1986) (three-volume treatise detailing scope of international criminal law and means of enforcement); Restatement (Third) of Foreign Relations Law of the United States § 404(1986) (setting forth universally condemned offenses).
    • (1986) M. Cherif Bassiouni
  • 205
    • 84856845855 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 108, describing instances in which norms were obeyed even though violations were not punished, in part because of "informal enforcement" by others who had internalized norm
    • See Cooter, "Effects", supra note 108, at 10-11 (describing instances in which norms were obeyed even though violations were not punished, in part because of "informal enforcement" by others who had internalized norm);
    • Effects , pp. 10-11
    • Cooter1
  • 206
    • 0043209923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Expressive law and economics
    • Robert Cooter, "Expressive Law and Economics", 27 Journal of Legal Studies 585, 595(1998) (restating role of informal enforcement, and concluding that "[i]n reality, a combination of expression and coercion accounts for the effectiveness of many laws"). (Pubitemid 128429245)
    • (1998) Journal of Legal Studies , vol.27 , Issue.2 PART II , pp. 585
    • Cooter, R.1
  • 207
    • 84897545128 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Regina v. Bartle H. L. March 24, 1999, reprinted in
    • See Regina v. Bartle (H. L. March 24, 1999), reprinted in 38 I. L. M. 581(1999).
    • (1999) I. L. M. , vol.38 , pp. 581
  • 209
    • 84856836289 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Erdemovic, November 29, available at, visited February 20, 2001
    • Prosecutor v. Erdemovic, Case No. IT-96-22, Trial Chamber I, Sentencing Judgement, para. 65 (November 29, 1996), available at http://www.un.org/ erdemovic/trialc/judgement/erd-tsj961129e.htm (visited February 20, 2001).
    • (1996) Case No. IT-96-22, Trial Chamber I, Sentencing Judgement , pp. 65
  • 210
    • 84856885752 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nouvel acte d'accusation du TPIY contre slobodan miloševic
    • This aspect has not been lost on the media. See e.g., October 11, observing that more than half the sixty-two-page indictment lists victims of ethnic cleansing in Croatia
    • This aspect has not been lost on the media. See e.g., Alain Franco, "Nouvel acte d'accusation du TPIY contre Slobodan Miloševic", Le Monde, October 11, 2001, at 8 (observing that more than half the sixty-two-page indictment lists victims of ethnic cleansing in Croatia);
    • (2001) Le Monde , pp. 8
    • Franco, A.1
  • 211
    • 84856834793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Les bourreaux du camp bosniaque d'omarska condamnes par le tribunal pour l'ex-yougoslavie
    • November 6, stating that announcement of verdict evoked at length horrors that both men and women detainees had suffered
    • Alain Franco, "Les bourreaux du camp bosniaque d'Omarska condamnes par le Tribunal pour l'ex-Yougoslavie", Le Monde, November 6, 2001, at 9 (stating that announcement of verdict evoked at length horrors that both men and women detainees had suffered);
    • (2001) Le Monde , pp. 9
    • Franco, A.1
  • 212
    • 84856913320 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • noting that Krstic trial lasted sixteen months, during which prosecutors set out to provide the most thorough historical record yet of the atrocities
    • Marlise Simons, "Tribunal in The Hague Finds Bosnia Serb Guilty of Genocide, New York Times, August 3, 2001, at A1 (noting that Krstic trial lasted sixteen months, during which prosecutors set out to provide the most thorough historical record yet of the atrocities).
    • (2001) Tribunal in the Hague Finds Bosnia Serb Guilty of Genocide, New York Times, August , vol.3
    • Simons, M.1
  • 213
    • 84856836287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compare Jackson Statement, supra note 18 & accompanying text, with Trial Transcript, Prosecutor v. Miloševic, February 12, available at, visited February 18, 2002 hereinafter Del Ponte Statement stating that although "it may be tempting to generalise when dealing with the conduct of leaders at the highest level... that must be avoided", and "stressing again that the accused is brought before you to answer for his own actions and for his personal involvement in the crimes alleged against him". Despite this avoidance, also characteristic of tribunal opinions, reporters have found symbolic value in ICTY cases
    • Compare Jackson Statement, supra note 18 & accompanying text, with Trial Transcript, Prosecutor v. Miloševic, Case No. IT-02-54, at 3-4 (February 12, 2002), available at http://www.un.org/icty/latest/index.htm (visited February 18, 2002) [hereinafter Del Ponte Statement] (stating that although "[i]t may be tempting to generalise when dealing with the conduct of leaders at the highest level... that must be avoided", and "stressing] again that the accused is brought before you to answer for his own actions and for his personal involvement in the crimes alleged against him"). Despite this avoidance, also characteristic of tribunal opinions, reporters have found symbolic value in ICTY cases.
    • (2002) Case No. IT-02-54 , pp. 3-4
  • 214
    • 84856945062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Justice internationale
    • August, stating that Krstic conviction "has a considerable symbolic impact", both because of its status as the first such verdict in Europe since the Holocaust and because "the drama of Srebrenica" was an emblem of ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia
    • See "Justice internationale", Le Monde, August 4, 2001, at 11 (stating that Krstic conviction "has a considerable symbolic impact", both because of its status as the first such verdict in Europe since the Holocaust and because "the drama of Srebrenica" was an emblem of ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia).
    • (2001) Le Monde , vol.4 , pp. 11
  • 215
    • 84926511314 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 136, acknowledging that Miloševic "may prove to be the most significant trial that this institution will ever undertake", and adding "that this trial will make history, and we would do well to approach our task in the light of history"
    • E.g., Del Ponte Statement, supra note 136, at 8 (acknowledging that Miloševic "may prove to be the most significant trial that this institution will ever undertake", and adding "that this trial will make history, and we would do well to approach our task in the light of history").
    • Statement , pp. 8
    • Ponte, D.1
  • 216
    • 84856811153 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Milošević And the beginning of honesty
    • Accord, June 30, predicting primary importance of Milošević trial will be "to educate Serbs about the crimes", and thus begin Serbia's "reckoning with history"
    • Accord Peter Maass, "Milošević and the Beginning of Honesty", New York Times, June 30, 2001, at A15 (predicting primary importance of Milošević trial will be "to educate Serbs about the crimes", and thus begin Serbia's "reckoning with history").
    • (2001) New York Times
    • Maass, P.1
  • 217
    • 84856868938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 6, setting out record adduced at trial, 5-477
    • See Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, paras. 2, 5-477 (setting out record adduced at trial).
    • Krstić Trial Judgement , pp. 2
  • 218
    • 84856937400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Erdemović, October 7, Joint Separate Opinion of McDonald and Vohrah, JJ., available at, visited February 8, 2002
    • Prosecutor v. Erdemović, Case No. IT-96-22, Appeals Chamber, Judgement, para 75 (October 7, 1997) (Joint Separate Opinion of McDonald and Vohrah, JJ.), available at http://www.un.org/icty/erdemovic/appeal/judgement/ erd-asojmcd971007e.htm (visited February 8, 2002).
    • (1997) Case No. IT-96-22, Appeals Chamber, Judgement , pp. 75
  • 219
    • 84856940166 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release in Prosecutor v. Kvocka, CC/P. I. S./631e, November 2, available at, visited January 9, 2002
    • Press Release in Prosecutor v. Kvocka, Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, CC/P. I. S./631e, November 2, 2001, available at http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/p631-e.htm (visited January 9, 2002).
    • (2001) Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
  • 220
    • 84856916408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The same judge invoked hegel and kant when passing sentence over gen. Krstić
    • Press Release in Prosecutor v. Krstić, OF/P. I. S./609e, August 2, available at, visited January 10, 2002
    • The same judge invoked Hegel and Kant when passing sentence over Gen. Krstić. Press Release in Prosecutor v. Krstić, Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, OF/P. I. S./609e, August 2, 2001, available at http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/p609-e.htm (visited January 10, 2002).
    • (2001) Trial Chamber I of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
  • 221
    • 84856945059 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 101, stating that the jus cogens norm against torture "signals to all members of the international community and the individuals over whom they wield authority that the prohibition of torture is an absolute value from which nobody must deviate"
    • See Furundžija Trial Judgement, supra note 101, para. 154 (stating that the jus cogens norm against torture "signals to all members of the international community and the individuals over whom they wield authority that the prohibition of torture is an absolute value from which nobody must deviate");
    • Furundžija Trial Judgement , pp. 154
  • 222
    • 77950884948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reflections on international criminal justice
    • 1, writing that through tribunal proceedings, "a fully reliable record is established of atrocities so that future generations can remember and be made fully cognisant of what happened" emphasis in original
    • Antonio Cassese, "Reflections on International Criminal Justice", 61 Modern Law Review 1, 1(1998) (writing that through tribunal proceedings, "a fully reliable record is established of atrocities so that future generations can remember and be made fully cognisant of what happened") (emphasis in original).
    • (1998) Modern Law Review , vol.61 , pp. 1
    • Cassese, A.1
  • 225
    • 84856916409 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Defeat of house resolution on 'armenian genocide
    • describing unsuccessful effort to have U. S. President condemn early twentieth century massacres of Armenians in Turkey as genocide
    • See e.g., Sean D. Murphy, "Defeat of House Resolution on 'Armenian Genocide'," 95 American Journal of International Law 396(2001) (describing unsuccessful effort to have U. S. President condemn early twentieth century massacres of Armenians in Turkey as genocide);
    • (2001) American Journal of International Law , vol.95 , pp. 396
    • Murphy, S.D.1
  • 226
    • 84856931822 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Rwanda, women weigh HIV vs. Family
    • February 17, quoting physician who underscored gravity of spread of AIDS in post-massacre Rwanda by calling it the country's " 'new genocide' "
    • David Gough, "In Rwanda, Women Weigh HIV vs. Family", San Francisco Chronicle, February 17, 2000, at A1 (quoting physician who underscored gravity of spread of AIDS in post-massacre Rwanda by calling it the country's " 'new genocide' ").
    • (2000) San Francisco Chronicle
    • Gough, D.1
  • 228
    • 77958574962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 3
    • Schabas, "Codification", supra note 3, at 292.
    • Codification , pp. 292
    • Schabas1
  • 229
    • 84856945066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, stating that defendant pleaded guilty to thirty-one counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity, but proceeded to trial rather than plead to lone genocide count
    • E.g., Jeisić Appeal Judgement, supra note 61, para. 2 (stating that defendant pleaded guilty to thirty-one counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity, but proceeded to trial rather than plead to lone genocide count).
    • Jeisić Appeal Judgement , pp. 2
  • 230
    • 84856836292 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case concerning application of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide (bosnia and herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (serbia and montenegro))
    • 5, 249 December 17 describing initial allegation that Yugoslavia responsible for genocide against Bosnians and Yugoslavia's cross-complaint that Bosnia responsible for genocide against Serbians
    • See Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), 1997 I. C. J. 243, para. 5, 249 (December 17) (describing initial allegation that Yugoslavia responsible for genocide against Bosnians and Yugoslavia's cross-complaint that Bosnia responsible for genocide against Serbians);
    • (1997) I. C. J. , pp. 243
  • 231
    • 84856916411 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Case concerning application of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide (bosnia and herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (serbia and montenegro))
    • September 10 Order affirming Yugoslavia's withdrawal of cross-complaint against Bosnia
    • Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), 2001 I. C. J. General List No. 91 (September 10) (Order) (affirming Yugoslavia's withdrawal of cross-complaint against Bosnia);
    • (2001) I. C. J. General List , Issue.91
  • 232
    • 84856836294 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Application of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide (croatia v. Yugoslavia (serbia and montenegro))
    • July 2 alleging that Yugoslavia committed genocide against Croatians
    • Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), 1999 I. C. J. General List No. 18, paras. 29-34 (July 2) (alleging that Yugoslavia committed genocide against Croatians);
    • (1999) I. C. J. General List , Issue.18 , pp. 29-34
  • 234
    • 84856858921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Devant le TPIY, slobodan milošević Accuse l'OTAN d'avoir infligé Un "génocide" au peuple serbe
    • February 17-18, reporting that in opening statement, former Serb President, on trial before the ICTY for genocide and other crimes, charged NATO with genocide
    • Cf. R émy Ourdan, "Devant le TPIY, Slobodan Milošević accuse l'OTAN d'avoir infligé un "génocide" au peuple serbe", Le Monde, February 17-18, 2002, at 3 (reporting that in opening statement, former Serb President, on trial before the ICTY for genocide and other crimes, charged NATO with genocide).
    • (2002) Le Monde , pp. 3
    • Ourdan, R.1
  • 235
    • 84856945069 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Victims' justice
    • August 3, Comment sec., at 3
    • "Victims' justice", Independent (London), August 3, 2001, Comment sec., at 3.
    • (2001) Independent (London)
  • 236
    • 84856845860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 137 calling this conviction "a landmark event"
    • See also "Justice internationale", supra note 137 (calling this conviction "a landmark event").
    • Justice Internationale
  • 237
    • 84856930357 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Milošević Trial: Test on many levels
    • June 29, reporting that "Milošević has not been indicted on charges of genocide, but on lesser charges"
    • See e.g., Steven Erlanger, "Milošević Trial: Test on Many Levels", New York Times, June 29, 2001, at A10 (reporting that "Milošević has not been indicted on charges of genocide, but on lesser charges");
    • (2001) New York Times
    • Erlanger, S.1
  • 238
    • 84856899943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Milošević To face genocide charges
    • August, writing of expected allegations of genocide, adding that though Milošević "already faces charges of crimes against humanity, genocide is the most serious charge available"
    • Keith B. Richburg, "Milošević to Face Genocide Charges", International Herald Tribune, August 31, 2001, at 1 (writing of expected allegations of genocide, adding that though Milošević "already faces charges of crimes against humanity, genocide is the most serious charge available");
    • (2001) International Herald Tribune , vol.31 , pp. 1
    • Richburg, K.B.1
  • 239
    • 84856820241 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • War crimes tribunal expands milošević Indictment
    • June 30, stating that "because the charges may include genocide, the investigation has been longer and more complex"
    • Marlise Simons, "War Crimes Tribunal Expands Milošević Indictment", New York Times, June 30, 2001, at A5 (stating that "[b]ecause the charges may include genocide, the investigation has been longer and more complex").
    • (2001) New York Times
    • Simons, M.1
  • 240
    • 84856889172 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Milošević takes aim at a 'lynch process
    • Milošević eventually was charged with genocide, and as his trial began, a reporter iterated that this was the tribunal's most serious charge, February 14
    • Milošević eventually was charged with genocide, and as his trial began, a reporter iterated that this was the tribunal's most serious charge. Keith B. Richburg, "Milošević takes aim at a 'lynch process'," International Herald Tribune, February 14, 2002, at 3.
    • (2002) International Herald Tribune , pp. 3
    • Richburg, K.B.1
  • 241
    • 84856845862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Taliban accuse U. S. of 'genocide'
    • October 22, reporting Afghan rulers' claim that U. S. air strikes following terrorist attacks in New York and Washington constituted genocide
    • See e.g., "Taliban accuse U. S. of 'genocide'," CNN, October 22, 2001, http://www.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/central/10/22/ret.taliban. ambassador/index.html (reporting Afghan rulers' claim that U. S. air strikes following terrorist attacks in New York and Washington constituted genocide);
    • (2001) CNN
  • 242
    • 84856865242 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Accusation of genocide puts israel on defensive
    • September 3, describing resolution by some nongovernmental organizations charging Israel with " 'acts of genocide' " against Palestinians
    • "Accusation of Genocide Puts Israel on Defensive", International Herald Tribune, September 3, 2001, at 1 (describing resolution by some nongovernmental organizations charging Israel with " 'acts of genocide' " against Palestinians).
    • (2001) International Herald Tribune , pp. 1
  • 243
    • 60950254292 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See generally, supra note 143 describing withdrawal of genocide resolution in United States and passage by European Union. It labeled a French statement that genocide had occurred "an 'offense against the Turkish people'," and fans booed the French basketball team when it played in Ankara. See "La sélection tricolore est la tête de Turc du public local", September 2-3
    • See generally Murphy, supra note 143 (describing withdrawal of genocide resolution in United States and passage by European Union). It labeled a French statement that genocide had occurred "an 'offense against the Turkish people'," and fans booed the French basketball team when it played in Ankara. See "La sélection tricolore est la tête de Turc du public local", Le Monde, September 2-3, 2001, at 14.
    • (2001) Le Monde , pp. 14
    • Murphy1
  • 244
    • 77958574962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 3, describing U. S. reluctance to use term because of obligations that might ensue
    • See Schabas, "Codification", supra note 3, at 301-02 (describing U. S. reluctance to use term because of obligations that might ensue);
    • Codification , pp. 301-302
    • Schabas1
  • 245
    • 84856893639 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • En 1994, washington n'ignorait rien du génocide en cours au Rwanda
    • August 22, reporting that newly declassified U. S. documents confirmed this hesitation
    • "En 1994, Washington n'ignorait rien du génocide en cours au Rwanda", Le Monde, August 22, 2001, at 3 (reporting that newly declassified U. S. documents confirmed this hesitation);
    • (2001) Le Monde , pp. 3
  • 246
    • 0003811055 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UN Doc. S/1999/1257 December 15, available at, visited February 17, 2002 detailing UN organs' avoidance of term
    • see also Report of the Independent Inquiry into the Actions of the United Nations During the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda, at 7, UN Doc. S/1999/1257 (December 15, 1999), available at http://www.un.org/News/ossg/rwanda-report.htm (visited February 17, 2002) (detailing UN organs' avoidance of term).
    • (1999) Report of the Independent Inquiry Into the Actions of the United Nations During the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda , pp. 7
  • 247
    • 84856844432 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La difficile pédagogie du tribunal de la haye
    • August 4
    • Claire Tréan, "La difficile pédagogie du Tribunal de la Haye", Le Monde, August 4, 2001, at 2.
    • (2001) Le Monde , pp. 2
    • Tréan, C.1
  • 248
    • 6244240167 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The attack on human rights
    • See Michael Ignatieff, "The Attack on Human Rights", Foreign Affairs, November/December 2001, at 102, 109 (reasoning that human rights has won wide acceptance because it affirms the value of the individual against the state). (Pubitemid 33706926)
    • (2001) Foreign Affairs , vol.80 , Issue.6 , pp. 102
    • Ignatieff, M.1
  • 249
    • 84856844433 scopus 로고
    • The second treatise on civil government
    • ch. VII, § 77, in, Walter J. Black, Inc., ed.
    • John Locke, "The Second Treatise on Civil Government", ch. VII, § 77(1680), in John Locke on Politics and Education (Walter J. Black, Inc., ed., 1947), p. 113.
    • (1680) John Locke on Politics and Education , pp. 113
    • Locke, J.1
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    • ch. VI, in, Rousseau: Political Writings
    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau, "The Social Contract", vol. 1, ch. VI (1762), in Rousseau: Political Writings
    • (1762) The Social Contract , vol.1
    • Rousseau, J.1
  • 252
    • 84856926076 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 153, ch. IX, § 123, stating that "it is not without reason" that individuals "join in society... for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates, which I call by the general name - property'
    • See Locke, supra note 153, ch. IX, § 123, at 138-39 (stating that "it is not without reason" that individuals "join in society... for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates, which I call by the general name - property');
    • Locke , pp. 138-139
  • 253
    • 84856893640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Editor's introduction
    • supra note 154, arguing that according to Rousseau, civil society "is necessary. to the full development of men"
    • See also Frederick Watkins, "Editor's Introduction", in Rousseau, supra note 154, at xviii (arguing that according to Rousseau, civil society "is necessary... to the full development of men").
    • Frederick Watkins
    • Rousseau1
  • 254
    • 84856812637 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 154, ch, theorizing that "passage from the natural to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in man, substituting justice for instinct as the guide to his conduct, and giving his actions the morality they previously lacked", transforming "him from a stupid and limited animal into an intelligent being and a man". Locke contended that individuals in the state of nature exercised reason by acting within the law of Nature
    • Rousseau, supra note 154, ch. VIII, at 19-20 (theorizing that "passage from the natural to the civil state produces a very remarkable change in man, substituting justice for instinct as the guide to his conduct, and giving his actions the morality they previously lacked", transforming "him from a stupid and limited animal into an intelligent being and a man"). Locke contended that individuals in the state of nature exercised reason by acting within the law of Nature.
    • Rousseau , vol.7 , pp. 19-20
  • 255
    • 84856946363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 153, ch. II, §8
    • See Locke, supra note 153, ch. II, §8, at 79.
    • Locke , pp. 79
  • 256
    • 84856892086 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Akayesu, June 1, available at, visited December 13, 2001 hereinafter Akayesu Appeal Judgement stating that Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 embodies " 'the few essential rules of humanity which all civilized nations consider as valid everywhere' "; in particular, the protection of civilians
    • See e.g., Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-A, Appeals Chamber, Judgement, para. 442 (June 1, 2001), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited December 13, 2001) [hereinafter Akayesu Appeal Judgement] (stating that Article 3 common to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 embodies " 'the few essential rules of humanity which all civilized nations consider as valid everywhere' "; in particular, the protection of civilians)
    • (2001) Case No. ICTR-96-4-a, Appeals Chamber, Judgement , pp. 442
  • 257
    • 84856844436 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • quoting, supra note 102
    • (quoting Delali Appeal Judgement, supra note 102, para. 143
    • Delali Appeal Judgement , pp. 143
  • 259
    • 84856844435 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Procureur c. Kayishema, 1 juin, available at, visited September 26, 2001 hereinafter Kayishema Appeal Judgement referring to " 'the judicial guarantees that civilized peoples recognize as indispensable' " quoting Article 3 d common to Geneva Conventions of 1949
    • Procureur c. Kayishema, Affaire No. ICTR-95-1-A, Motifs de l'Arrêt de la Chambre d'Appel (1 juin 2001), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited September 26, 2001) [hereinafter Kayishema Appeal Judgement] (referring to " 'the judicial guarantees that civilized peoples recognize as indispensable' ") (quoting Article 3 (d) common to Geneva Conventions of 1949)).
    • (2001) Affaire No. ICTR-95-1-A, Motifs de L'Arrêt de la Chambre d'Appel
  • 261
    • 84856865244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 95, summarizing ICTY jurisprudence
    • See Blaškić Trial Judgement, supra note 95, paras. 797-801 (summarizing ICTY jurisprudence).
    • Blaškić Trial Judgement , pp. 797-801
  • 263
    • 84856850836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Prosecutor v. Akayesu, October 2, remarks of Justice Laty Kama, President, available at, visited September 26
    • See Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Trial Chamber I, Sentence (October 2, 1998) (remarks of Justice Laty Kama, President), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited September 26, 2001);
    • (1998) Case No. ICTR-96-4-t, Trial Chamber I, Sentence
  • 265
    • 84856836263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 58, 1001
    • Musema Trial Judgement, supra note 58, paras. 981, 1001;
    • Musema Trial Judgement , pp. 981
  • 267
    • 84856854243 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Schabas
    • supra note 30, discussed supra text accompanying notes 88-93
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, discussed supra text accompanying notes 88-93.
    • Genocide
  • 268
    • 84856862104 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 123, maintaining that status of genocide as "crime of crimes" should "support a hierarchy of crimes in international law", by which worst crime carries longest sentence
    • See Danner, supra note 123, at 491-92 (maintaining that status of genocide as "crime of crimes" should "support a hierarchy of crimes in international law", by which worst crime carries longest sentence).
    • Danner , pp. 491-492
  • 269
    • 84856868938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 6, Perhaps referring only to the ICTY, this opinion, issued two months after Kayishema Appeal Judgement, supra note 157, para. 367, discussed infra text accompanying notes 168-69, stated, "No Chamber has yet ruled on the ranking of crimes in a case where an individual has been found guilty of genocide". Id
    • Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, para. 700. Perhaps referring only to the ICTY, this opinion, issued two months after Kayishema Appeal Judgement, supra note 157, para. 367, discussed infra text accompanying notes 168-69, stated, "No Chamber has yet ruled on the ranking of crimes in a case where an individual has been found guilty of genocide".
    • Krstić Trial Judgement , pp. 700
  • 272
    • 84856868938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 6, describing both majority and separate opinions to this effect
    • See Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, para. 700 (describing both majority and separate opinions to this effect).
    • Krstić Trial Judgement , pp. 700
  • 273
    • 84856836742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, On selectivity in international criminal law, see supra text accompanying notes 102-06
    • See Jelisić Appeal Judgement, supra note 61, paras. 73-77. On selectivity in international criminal law, see supra text accompanying notes 102-06.
    • Jelisić Appeal Judgement , pp. 73-77
  • 274
    • 84856836742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, Partial Dissenting Opinion of Judge Wald
    • See Jelisić Appeal Judgement, supra note 61, Partial Dissenting Opinion of Judge Wald, para. 13.
    • Jelisić Appeal Judgement , pp. 13
  • 276
    • 84856865278 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 7, stating that because of allegation of genocide in first Nürnberg indictment, "the enormity of the Nazi crimes has been more accurately described"
    • Accord Lemkin, "Genocide", supra note 7, at 229 (stating that because of allegation of genocide in first Nürnberg indictment, "the enormity of the Nazi crimes has been more accurately described").
    • Genocide , pp. 229
    • Lemkin, A.1
  • 277
    • 77955013573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 36, art. 23 2
    • See ICTR Statute, supra note 36, art. 23(2);
    • ICTR Statute
  • 278
    • 84896336321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 36, art. 24 2
    • see also ICTY Statute, supra note 36, art. 24(2).
    • ICTY Statute
  • 279
    • 84856857913 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Prosecutor v. Serushago, Trial Chamber I, Sentence, § V February 5, fifteen years, available at, visited June 14, 2001
    • See Prosecutor v. Serushago, Case No. ICTR 98-39-S, Trial Chamber I, Sentence, para. 15, § V (February 5, 1999) (fifteen years), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited June 14, 2001);
    • (1999) Case No. ICTR 98-39-S , pp. 15
  • 280
    • 84856868917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 5, 28, twenty-five years for codefendant Ruzindana
    • Kayishema Trial Judgement, supra note 5, paras. 9, 28 (twenty-five years for codefendant Ruzindana).
    • Kayishema Trial Judgement , pp. 9
  • 281
    • 84856893657 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecutor v. Ruggiu, § IV June 1, available at, visited September 26, 2001 stating that "Genocide and Crimes against humanity are inherently aggravating offenses" and sentencing defendant to twelve years
    • Cf. Prosecutor v. Ruggiu, Case No. ICTR-97-32-I, Trial Chamber I, Judgement and Sentence, paras. 48, § IV (June 1, 2000), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited September 26, 2001) (stating that "Genocide and Crimes against humanity are inherently aggravating offenses" and sentencing defendant to twelve years).
    • (2000) Case No. ICTR-97-32-I, Trial Chamber I, Judgement and Sentence , pp. 48
  • 286
    • 84856865271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jelisic appeal judgement
    • Ostensibly a question of whether to retry the defendant, the disagreement among appellate judges in Jelisic may have been as much a question of which organ of the tribunal ought to decide whether to go forward on the genocide charge. Thus while Judge Wald voted to remit, she did so recognizing "that a reasonable Prosecutor might well choose to drop the genocide prosecution at this point", supra note 61
    • Ostensibly a question of whether to retry the defendant, the disagreement among appellate judges in Jelisic may have been as much a question of which organ of the tribunal ought to decide whether to go forward on the genocide charge. Thus while Judge Wald voted to remit, she did so recognizing "that a reasonable Prosecutor might well choose to drop the genocide prosecution at this point". Jelisic Appeal Judgement, supra note 61, Partial Dissenting Opinion of Judge Wald, para. 3;
    • Partial Dissenting Opinion of Judge Wald , pp. 3
  • 287
    • 84856888486 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 1, art. II
    • Genocide Convention, supra note 1, art. II.
    • Genocide Convention
  • 288
    • 77955013573 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • with, supra note 36, permitting prosecution for persecution on "political, racial and religious grounds"
    • with ICTR Statute, supra note 36, art. 3 (permitting prosecution for persecution on "political, racial and religious grounds");
    • ICTR Statute , pp. 3
  • 289
    • 84896336321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 36, same
    • ICTY Statute, supra note 36, art. 5 (same);
    • ICTY Statute , pp. 5
  • 290
    • 52649113731 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 36, prohibiting persecution "against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender. or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law"
    • ICC Statute, supra note 36, art. 7 (prohibiting persecution "against any identifiable group or collectivity on political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious, gender... or other grounds that are universally recognized as impermissible under international law").
    • ICC Statute , pp. 7
  • 291
    • 84856868938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 6, 700
    • See Krstić Trial Judgement, supra note 6, paras. 553, 700;
    • Krstić Trial Judgement , pp. 553
  • 293
    • 84856865273 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 5, differentiating genocide on account of specific intent
    • Accord Kayishema Trial Judgement, supra note 5, paras. 89-91 (differentiating genocide on account of specific intent);
    • Accord Kayishema Trial Judgement , pp. 89-91
  • 294
    • 84856865268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 4, same
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, para. 522 (same);
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement , pp. 522
  • 295
    • 84856865274 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 101, same. This distinction led the Trial Chamber in Sikirica to acquit a defendant of genocide
    • Kambanda Trial Judgement, supra note 101, para. 16 (same). This distinction led the Trial Chamber in Sikirica to acquit a defendant of genocide.
    • Kambanda Trial Judgement , pp. 16
  • 296
    • 84856845836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, observing that "the ultimate victim of genocide is the group, although its destruction necessarily requires the commission of crimes against its members". He later pleaded guilty to persecution
    • See Sikirica Acquittal Judgement, supra note 61, paras. 89-94 (observing that "the ultimate victim of genocide is the group, although its destruction necessarily requires the commission of crimes against its members"). He later pleaded guilty to persecution.
    • Sikirica Acquittal Judgement , pp. 89-94
  • 297
    • 84856841463 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Prosecutor v. Sikirica, November 13, available at, visited February 25, 2002
    • See Prosecutor v. Sikirica, Case No. IT-95-8, Trial Chamber III, Judgement, para. 18 (November 13, 2001), available at http://www.un.org/icty/ sikirica/judgement/index-2.htm (visited February 25, 2002).
    • (2001) Case No. IT-95-8, Trial Chamber III, Judgement , pp. 18
  • 298
    • 84856845844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • If these are the primary goals, other appropriate fora, such as truth commissions, are to be preferred. See generally, supra note 102
    • If these are the primary goals, other appropriate fora, such as truth commissions, are to be preferred. See generally Amann, "Adjudication", supra note 102.
    • Adjudication
    • Amann1
  • 301
    • 84856894396 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Procureur c. Musema, Arrêt de la Chambre d'Appel 16 novembre, available at, visited December 18, 2001
    • Procureur c. Musema, Affaire No. ICTR-96-13-A, Arrêt de la Chambre d'Appel (16 novembre 2001), available at http://www.ictr.org/(visited December 18, 2001);
    • (2001) Affaire No. ICTR-96-13-A
  • 303
    • 84856865270 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Defining protected groups under the genocide convention
    • One article faulted the variance itself, Indicating that the tribunals' different approaches rendered the group determination "seemingly political", it urged adoption of a standard approach "because the decisions of the tribunals must inspire confidence in order to preserve their legitimacy
    • One article faulted the variance itself. "Defining Protected Groups under the Genocide Convention", 114 Harvard Law Review 2007(2001). Indicating that the tribunals' different approaches rendered the group determination "seemingly political", it urged adoption of a standard approach "because the decisions of the tribunals must inspire confidence in order to preserve their legitimacy".
    • (2001) Harvard Law Review , vol.114
  • 304
    • 84924091599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 132-33
    • Genocide , pp. 132-133
    • Schabas1
  • 306
    • 33947703747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The definition of genocide: Joining the dots in the light of recent practice
    • 288, characterizing opinion in Akayesu as illogical, "an unjustifiably liberal interpretation both of the terms of the Convention, and the intention of the drafters"
    • Nina H. B. Jørgensen, "The Definition of Genocide: Joining the Dots in the Light of Recent Practice", 1 International Criminal Law Review 285, 288(2001) (characterizing opinion in Akayesu as illogical, "an unjustifiably liberal interpretation both of the terms of the Convention, and the intention of the drafters").
    • (2001) International Criminal Law Review , vol.1 , pp. 285
    • Nina Jørgensen, H.B.1
  • 307
    • 84856928251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 29, questioning use of travaux in Akayesu, but approving of contextual approach
    • See Amann, "Deconstruction", supra note 29, at 370-72 (questioning use of travaux in Akayesu, but approving of contextual approach);
    • Deconstruction , pp. 370-372
    • Amann1
  • 308
    • 27244447288 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prosecution and punishment of the crime of genocide
    • 302-06, writing favorably of approach in Akayesu, though acknowledging some internal contradictions in opinion
    • Johan D. van der Vyver, "Prosecution and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide", 23 Fordham International Law Journal 286, 302-06(1999) (writing favorably of approach in Akayesu, though acknowledging some internal contradictions in opinion).
    • (1999) Fordham International Law Journal , vol.23 , pp. 286
    • Van Der Vyver, J.D.1
  • 309
    • 85011487491 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The genocide definition in the jurisprudence of the ad hoc tribunals
    • 594, calling "subjective position. a welcome shift that takes into account the mutable and contingent nature of social perceptions, and does not reinforce perilous claims to authenticity in the field of ethnic and racial identities"
    • See Guglielmo Verdirame, "The Genocide Definition in the Jurisprudence of the Ad Hoc Tribunals, 49 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 578, 594(2000) (calling "subjective position... a welcome shift that takes into account the mutable and contingent nature of social perceptions, and does not reinforce perilous claims to authenticity in the field of ethnic and racial identities");
    • (2000) International and Comparative Law Quarterly , vol.49 , pp. 578
    • Verdirame, G.1
  • 311
    • 84856893656 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • favoring subjective approach
    • (Flavia Lattanzi & William A. Schabas eds., 1999), pp. 105-39 (favoring subjective approach).
    • (1999) , pp. 105-139
    • Lattanzi, F.1    Schabas, W.A.2
  • 312
    • 84924091599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, stating that to let group "be defined by the offender alone" would permit, "at least in theory, genocide to be committed against a group that does not have any real objective existence"
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 110 (stating that to let group "be defined by the offender alone" would permit, "at least in theory, genocide to be committed against a group that does not have any real objective existence");
    • Genocide , pp. 110
    • Schabas1
  • 313
    • 84856868932 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 61, Accord Bagilishema Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 65 n. 63 stating that search for "scientifically objective fact" unnecessary
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 70. Accord Bagilishema Trial Judgement, supra note 61, para. 65 n. 63 (stating that search for "scientifically objective fact" unnecessary).
    • Jelisić Trial Judgement , pp. 70
  • 314
    • 84856865268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 4, 516;, see id., paras. 81, 172 recognizing that nature of Tutsi group may change with time
    • See Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, paras. 511, 516; see id., paras. 81, 172 (recognizing that nature of Tutsi group may change with time).
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement , pp. 511
  • 315
    • 84856865245 scopus 로고
    • Liechtenstein v. Guatemala Merits, April 6. On page 23, Nottebohm stated that nationality is "a legal bond having as its basis a social fact of attachment, a genuine connection of existence, interests and sentiments, together with the experience of reciprocal rights and duties". Without quoting this definition, Akayesu borrowed from it to define "national group
    • (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) (Merits) [1955] I. C. J. Rep. 4 (April 6). On page 23, Nottebohm stated that nationality is "a legal bond having as its basis a social fact of attachment, a genuine connection of existence, interests and sentiments, together with the experience of reciprocal rights and duties". Without quoting this definition, Akayesu borrowed from it to define "national group".
    • (1955) I. C. J. Rep. , pp. 4
  • 316
    • 84856865268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 4, quoted supra text at note 40. Some critics interpreted that adaptation as an inapposite endorsement of group membership as a social fact. See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 115 calling Akayesu's reference to Nottebohm "incomplete" because "nationality" and "national group" are different concepts
    • See Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, para. 512, quoted supra text at note 40. Some critics interpreted that adaptation as an inapposite endorsement of group membership as a social fact. See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 115 (calling Akayesu's reference to Nottebohm "incomplete" because "nationality" and "national group" are different concepts);
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement , pp. 512
  • 317
    • 84856865267 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 188, 591-92, criticizing Akayesu's reliance on Nottebohm, which posited "objectively verifiable link" between individuals and states
    • Verdirame, supra note 188, at 579, 591-92 (criticizing Akayesu's reliance on Nottebohm, which posited "objectively verifiable link" between individuals and states).
    • Verdirame , pp. 579
  • 318
    • 84856836263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 58
    • See Musema Trial Judgement, supra note 58, para. 161;
    • Musema Trial Judgement , pp. 161
  • 320
    • 84856865268 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 4, 146, 151-52, 156, 183, 297, 340, 342
    • See Akayesu Trial Judgement, supra note 4, paras. 121, 146, 151-52, 156, 183, 297, 340, 342.
    • Akayesu Trial Judgement , pp. 121
  • 321
    • 84856933790 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • setting forth facts in section titled, id, concluding that defendant knew consequences of attaching certain label to victim "in the temporal context"
    • (setting forth facts in section titled "Historical Context of the Events in Rwanda in 1994"); id. at 384 (concluding that defendant knew consequences of attaching certain label to victim "in the temporal context").
    • Historical Context of the Events in Rwanda in 1994 , pp. 384
  • 322
    • 84924091599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, 122-23 contending, with particular reference to race, that enumerated terms "are social constructs, not scientific expressions, and were intended as such by the drafters"
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 111, 122-23 (contending, with particular reference to race, that enumerated terms "are social constructs, not scientific expressions, and were intended as such by the drafters");
    • Genocide , pp. 111
    • Schabas1
  • 323
    • 84856928251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 29, & nn. 9, 17 demonstrating applicability of social construction theories to protected group question
    • Amann, "Deconstruction", supra note 29, at 370-72 & nn. 9, 17 (demonstrating applicability of social construction theories to protected group question);
    • Deconstruction , pp. 370-372
    • Amann1
  • 324
    • 84856888477 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 188, approving of tribunals' recognition that "collective identities. are by their very nature social constructs"
    • Verdirame, supra note 188, at 592 (approving of tribunals' recognition that "collective identities... are by their very nature social constructs").
    • Verdirame , pp. 592
  • 326
    • 84856865265 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • hereinafter, approving Krstic's adoption of ensemble approach
    • [hereinafter Schabas, "Judgements"] (approving Krstic's adoption of ensemble approach).
    • Judgements
    • Schabas1
  • 327
    • 84924091599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, stating that various terms in enumeration "are really all efforts to describe a singular reality", and postulating "danger that a search for autonomous meanings for each of the four terms will weaken the overarching sense of the enumeration as a whole, forcing the jurist into an untenable Procrustes bed"
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 112-13 (stating that various terms in enumeration "are really all efforts to describe a singular reality", and postulating "danger that a search for autonomous meanings for each of the four terms will weaken the overarching sense of the enumeration as a whole, forcing the jurist into an untenable Procrustes bed").
    • Genocide , pp. 112-113
    • Schabas1
  • 329
    • 0342402760 scopus 로고
    • addition to the sources cited in Krstic, see supra notes 80-83 & accompanying text, evidence of this interrelation may be found in interpretation of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, art. 1 A 2, July 28
    • In addition to the sources cited in Krstic, see supra notes 80-83 & accompanying text, evidence of this interrelation may be found in interpretation of the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, art. 1 (A) (2), July 28, 1951, 189 U. N. T. S. 150.
    • (1951) U. N. T. S. , vol.189 , pp. 150
  • 330
    • 84856836732 scopus 로고
    • Office of the united nations high commissioner for refugees
    • "Race" is "to be understood in its widest sense to include all kinds of ethnic groups that are referred to as 'races' in common usage", and may "entail membership of a specific social group of common descent forming a minority within a larger population", reedited ed
    • "Race" is "to be understood in its widest sense to include all kinds of ethnic groups that are referred to as 'races' in common usage", and may "entail membership of a specific social group of common descent forming a minority within a larger population". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status, para. 68 (reedited ed. 1992)
    • (1992) Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status , pp. 68
  • 331
    • 22044444646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Race, the immigration laws, and domestic race relations: A 'magic mirror' into the heart of darkness
    • quoted in, 1115, "Nationality" encompasses not only citizenship, but also "membership of an ethnic or linguistic group and may occasionally overlap with the term 'race'
    • quoted in Kevin R. Johnson, "Race, The Immigration Laws, and Domestic Race Relations: A 'Magic Mirror' into the Heart of Darkness", 73 Indiana Law Journal 1111, 1115 n. 27(1998). "Nationality" encompasses not only citizenship, but also "membership of an ethnic or linguistic group and may occasionally overlap with the term 'race'."
    • (1998) Indiana Law Journal , vol.73 , Issue.27 , pp. 1111
    • Johnson, K.R.1
  • 332
    • 84856893653 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Prosecutor v. Tadic, May 7, available at, visited September 26, McDonald, P. J., Stephen and Vohrah, JJ. hereinafter Tadic Trial Judgement
    • See Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT-94-1, Trial Chamber II, Opinion and Judgement, paras. 64-66 (May 7, 1997), available at http://www.un.org/icty/ tadic/trialc2/judgement/index.htm (visited September 26, 2001) (McDonald, P. J., Stephen and Vohrah, JJ.) [hereinafter Tadic Trial Judgement];
    • (1997) Case No. IT-94-1, Trial Chamber II, Opinion and Judgement , pp. 64-66
  • 334
    • 84856893652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • unpublished manuscript, on file with author hereinafter Lemarchand, "Killing" discussing social segmentation
    • Rene Lemarchand, "Comparing the Killing Fields: Rwanda, Cambodia and Bosnia", p. 6 (unpublished manuscript, on file with author) [hereinafter Lemarchand, "Killing"] (discussing social segmentation).
    • Comparing the Killing Fields: Rwanda, Cambodia and Bosnia , pp. 6
    • Lemarchand, R.1
  • 335
    • 84856893654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 205
    • See Tadic Trial Judgement, supra note 205, para. 67;
    • Tadic Trial Judgement , pp. 67
  • 336
    • 84856865266 scopus 로고
    • discussing Slavic populations in region and stating, on page 81, "that the one component of the Bosnian population which has a large and identifiable element of non-Slav ancestry is the Bosnian Serbs"
    • Noel Malcolm, Bosnia: A Short History (1994), pp. 51-81 (discussing Slavic populations in region and stating, on page 81, "that the one component of the Bosnian population which has a large and identifiable element of non-Slav ancestry is the Bosnian Serbs").
    • (1994) Bosnia: A Short History , pp. 51-81
    • Malcolm, N.1
  • 337
    • 84856893654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 205
    • See Tadic Trial Judgement, supra note 205, para. 67;
    • Tadic Trial Judgement , pp. 67
  • 338
    • 84856893654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 205
    • See Tadic Trial Judgement, supra note 205, para. 66;
    • Tadic Trial Judgement , pp. 66
  • 339
    • 84856893654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 205
    • See Tadic Trial Judgement, supra note 205, paras. 66-67;
    • Tadic Trial Judgement , pp. 66-67
  • 340
    • 84856900971 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 206
    • Malcolm, supra note 206, at 199-200.
    • Malcolm , pp. 199-200
  • 341
    • 84856889976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 206
    • Malcolm, supra note 206, at 198.
    • Malcolm , pp. 198
  • 342
    • 84856868938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Compare id. writing that constitutional change may be interpreted as "implying, but not stating" Bosnian Muslim nationhood with, supra note 6, stating that change recognized Bosnian Muslims "as 'a nation' "
    • Compare id. (writing that constitutional change may be interpreted as "implying, but not stating" Bosnian Muslim nationhood) with Krstic Trial Judgement, supra note 6, para. 559 (stating that change recognized Bosnian Muslims "as 'a nation' ").
    • Krstic Trial Judgement , pp. 559
  • 343
    • 84856929886 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 206
    • Malcolm, supra note 206, at 199.
    • Malcolm , pp. 199
  • 345
    • 84856893654 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 205, stating that "by 1974 the Muslims were considered to be one of the nations or peoples of federal Yugoslavia"
    • see Tadic Trial Judgement, supra note 205, para. 65 (stating that "by 1974 the Muslims were considered to be one of the nations or peoples of federal Yugoslavia");
    • Tadic Trial Judgement , pp. 65
  • 346
    • 84856873923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 206, Serbians long had viewed Bosnian Muslims at least partially in politico-national terms, given abiding associations with practices of and conquests by the Turks
    • Malcolm, supra note 206, at 197-99. Serbians long had viewed Bosnian Muslims at least partially in politico-national terms, given abiding associations with practices of and conquests by the Turks.
    • Malcolm , pp. 197-199
  • 347
    • 84856933791 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 205
    • See Lemarchand, "Killing", supra note 205, at 12-13.
    • Killing , pp. 12-13
    • Lemarchand1
  • 349
    • 84856893649 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hearing, para. 95 July 11, 1996 Jorda, P. J., Odio Benito and Riad, JJ., reprinted in, 119-20, confirming indictment and issuing international arrest warrants
    • Hearing, para. 95 (July 11, 1996) (Jorda, P. J., Odio Benito and Riad, JJ.), reprinted in 108 Int'l L. Rep. 86, 119-20(1998) (confirming indictment and issuing international arrest warrants).
    • (1998) Int'l L. Rep , vol.108 , pp. 86
  • 350
    • 84856868530 scopus 로고
    • art, UN Doc. A/CONF.39/27, hereinafter Vienna Convention, quoted in Jelisić Appeal Judgement, supra note 61, para. 35 describing principle as part of "settled jurisprudence of the Tribunal"; Akayesu Appeal Judgement, supra note 157, para
    • Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, art. 31(1), UN Doc. A/CONF.39/27(1969) [hereinafter Vienna Convention], quoted in Jelisić Appeal Judgement, supra note 61, para. 35 (describing principle as part of "settled jurisprudence of the Tribunal"); Akayesu Appeal Judgement, supra note 157, para. 433 n. 799.
    • (1969) Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties , vol.31 , Issue.1-799 , pp. 433
  • 351
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    • Advisory Opinion on the Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, March 3 approving recourse to other methods of interpretation only in such cases; see Vienna Convention, supra note 214, art. 32 authorizing consideration of "preparatory work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion" if meaning unclear or unreasonable; Delalić Appeal Judgement, supra note 102, paras. 68-70 adopting this "textual, contextual and... teleological approach"
    • Advisory Opinion on the Competence of the General Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, [1950] I. C. J. Rep. 8 (March 3) (approving recourse to other methods of interpretation only in such cases); see Vienna Convention, supra note 214, art. 32 (authorizing consideration of "preparatory work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion" if meaning unclear or unreasonable; Delalić Appeal Judgement, supra note 102, paras. 68-70 (adopting this "textual, contextual and... teleological approach").
    • (1950) I. C. J. Rep. , vol.8
  • 352
  • 353
    • 84856933784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, at, articulating ensemble approach, then proceeding to separate examination of each enumerated group and of groups others have argued ought to be protected against genocide
    • Accord Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 106-50 (articulating ensemble approach, then proceeding to separate examination of each enumerated group and of groups others have argued ought to be protected against genocide).
    • Accord Schabas, Genocide , pp. 106-150
  • 354
    • 84856865265 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 201
    • See Schabas, "Judgements", supra note 201, at 39
    • Judgements , pp. 39
    • Schabas1
  • 355
    • 84856933783 scopus 로고
    • Prevention of minority conflicts
    • quoting statement in, in, Louis B. Sohn ed., that " 'I know a minority when I see one'," and adding, "Judges will too".
    • (quoting statement in Max van der Stoel, "Prevention of Minority Conflicts", in The CSCE and the Turbulent New Europe (Louis B. Sohn ed., 1993), p. 148, that " 'I know a minority when I see one'," and adding, "Judges will too".).
    • (1993) The CSCE and the Turbulent New Europe , pp. 148
    • Van Der Stoel, M.1
  • 357
    • 84856893646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30, at, describing European Jews as "a religious minority without any such kin-State"; supra text note 18 & accompanying text explaining use of "race" in mid-twentieth century
    • See Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 107-08 (describing European Jews as "a religious minority without any such kin-State"); supra text note 18 & accompanying text (explaining use of "race" in mid-twentieth century).
    • Genocide , pp. 107-108
    • Schabas1
  • 358
    • 84856865263 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A jurist wrote at the time: Although the present Convention and Lemkin's ideas have been provoked undoubtedly by the persecution of Jews and others by National Socialist Germany, the Convention is not a lex specialis like the Nuremberg Charter. The preamble expressly states that 'at all times of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity', supra note 7
    • A jurist wrote at the time: Although the present Convention and Lemkin's ideas have been provoked undoubtedly by the persecution of Jews and others by National Socialist Germany, the Convention is not a lex specialis like the Nuremberg Charter. The preamble expressly states that 'at all times of history genocide has inflicted great losses on humanity'. Kunz, supra note 7, at 741.
    • Kunz , pp. 741
  • 359
    • 84856865264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Writings on globalization frequently stress that overlapping and interconnected entities now exercise power over and vie for loyalty from individuals. See e.g., New York University Law Review1005, 1007-08, 1029-42, criticizing statist view of international order and positing "diaspora model" in which individuals construct national and transnational economic and political communities
    • Writings on globalization frequently stress that overlapping and interconnected entities now exercise power over and vie for loyalty from individuals. See e.g., Anupam Chander, "Diaspora Bonds", 76 New York University Law Review1005, 1007-08, 1029-42(2001) (criticizing statist view of international order and positing "diaspora model" in which individuals construct national and transnational economic and political communities);
    • (2001) Diaspora Bonds , vol.76
    • Chander, A.1
  • 360
    • 37849186539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Developments in the law - The law of cyberspace
    • 1688-89, outlining theories advanced by "New Medievalists"
    • "Developments in the Law - The Law of Cyberspace", 112 Harvard Law Review 1680, 1688-89(1999) (outlining theories advanced by "New Medievalists").
    • (1999) Harvard Law Review , vol.112 , pp. 1680
  • 361
    • 76249109304 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • forthcoming, explicating interdependent legal regimes within Europe, described in subtitle "as a laboratory for legal pluralism"
    • See also Mireille Delmas-Marty, Towards a Truly Common Law (forthcoming 2002) (explicating interdependent legal regimes within Europe, described in subtitle "as a laboratory for legal pluralism");
    • (2002) Towards a Truly Common Law
    • Delmas-Marty, M.1
  • 362
    • 0032333884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International law and international relations theory: A new generation of interdisciplinary scholarship
    • 370, discussing "emergence and importance of substate and nonstate actors", as well as "perceived transformation or disintegration of state sovereignty"
    • Anne-Marie Slaughter, Andrew S. Tulumello & Stepan Wood, "International Law and International Relations Theory: A New Generation of Interdisciplinary Scholarship", 92 American Journal of International Law 367, 370(1998) (discussing "emergence and importance of substate and nonstate actors", as well as "perceived transformation or disintegration of state sovereignty").
    • (1998) American Journal of International Law , vol.92 , pp. 367
    • Slaughter, A.1    Tulumello, A.S.2    Wood, S.3
  • 363
    • 84856394121 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Global crime calls for global justice
    • On the potential for large-scale assaults by nonstate actors, see e.g., forthcoming 2002 observing that September 11, attacks in New York and Washington, presumed to have been directed and executed by nonstate actors, seem to fit within definition of crime against humanity
    • On the potential for large-scale assaults by nonstate actors, see e.g., Mireille Delmas-Marty, "Global Crime Calls for Global Justice", European Journal of Crime (forthcoming 2002) (observing that September 11, 2001, attacks in New York and Washington, presumed to have been directed and executed by nonstate actors, seem to fit within definition of crime against humanity).
    • (2001) European Journal of Crime
    • Delmas-Marty, M.1
  • 364
    • 84856865258 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hutu and Tutsi, in fact, are transstate groups, resident in a number of states in Africa. Accord, 17, unpublished manuscript, on file with author forthcoming 2002, Journal of Genocide Research discussing early 1960s dispersal of Rwandan Tutsi, and noting that anti-Tutsi ideology first surfaced not in Rwanda but in Tanzania, among Burundian Hutu refugees. Cf. supra note 209 reporting that during drafting of Convention drafting, Swedish representative advocated coverage for groups not affiliated with a particular state
    • Hutu and Tutsi, in fact, are transstate groups, resident in a number of states in Africa. Accord Réné Lemarchand, "Disconnecting the Threads: Rwanda and the Holocaust Reconsidered", pp. 4-5, 17 n. 16 (unpublished manuscript, on file with author) (forthcoming 2002, Journal of Genocide Research) (discussing early 1960s dispersal of Rwandan Tutsi, and noting that anti-Tutsi ideology first surfaced not in Rwanda but in Tanzania, among Burundian Hutu refugees). Cf. supra note 209 (reporting that during drafting of Convention drafting, Swedish representative advocated coverage for groups not affiliated with a particular state).
    • Disconnecting the Threads: Rwanda and the Holocaust Reconsidered , Issue.16 , pp. 4-5
    • Réné Lemarchand1
  • 365
    • 84870403417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 8, discussed supra text accompanying notes, detailing ideology of group hatred and practice of group extermination as means to entrench Nazi rule in occupied territories
    • See generally Lemkin, Axis Rule, supra note 8, discussed supra text accompanying notes 8-15 (detailing ideology of group hatred and practice of group extermination as means to entrench Nazi rule in occupied territories);
    • Axis Rule , pp. 8-15
    • Lemkin1
  • 366
    • 84856832339 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 205, at, describing imposition of "mask of otherness"
    • Sells, supra note 205, at 72-79 (describing imposition of "mask of otherness");
    • Sells , pp. 72-79
  • 367
    • 84856844445 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "Killing", supra note 205 stressing relationship of politics to atrocities in Rwanda, Cambodia, and former Yugoslavia
    • Lemarchand, "Killing", supra note 205 (stressing relationship of politics to atrocities in Rwanda, Cambodia, and former Yugoslavia);
    • Lemarchand
  • 368
    • 84856933778 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • unpublished manuscript, on file with author forthcoming, IDEA: A Journal of Social Issues, describing role of politics, with particular reference to massacres of Armenians
    • Dennis Papazian, "Modern Genocide: The Curse of the Nation State and Ideological Political Parties" (unpublished manuscript, on file with author) (forthcoming 2002, IDEA: A Journal of Social Issues, http://www.ideajournal.com) (describing role of politics, with particular reference to massacres of Armenians).
    • (2002) Modern Genocide: The Curse of the Nation State and Ideological Political Parties
    • Papazian, D.1
  • 369
    • 84856913710 scopus 로고
    • Tadić Trial Judgement, supra note 205, para. 70 finding that "grave financial problems leading to a protracted economic crisis" helped touch off war in former Yugoslavia; Malcolm, supra note 206, at xxi contending that in Bosnia, "the main basis of hostility was not ethnic or religious but economic";, discussing noting that Nazi takeover in Germany occurred amid economic depression and unemployment
    • See e.g., Tadić Trial Judgement, supra note 205, para. 70 (finding that "grave financial problems leading to a protracted economic crisis" helped touch off war in former Yugoslavia); Malcolm, supra note 206, at xxi (contending that in Bosnia, "[t]he main basis of hostility was not ethnic or religious but economic"); William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (1990), pp. 135-46 (discussing noting that Nazi takeover in Germany occurred amid economic depression and unemployment);
    • (1990) The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany , pp. 135-146
    • Shirer, W.L.1
  • 370
    • 84856865249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 227, at, 14 asserting the economic concerns were more important in Rwanda, which had suffered economic "tailspin" and "famine conditions" in early 1990s, than in Nazi Germany
    • Lemarchand, "Threads", supra note 227, at 6, 14 (asserting the economic concerns were more important in Rwanda, which had suffered economic "tailspin" and "famine conditions" in early 1990s, than in Nazi Germany).
    • Threads , pp. 6
    • Lemarchand1
  • 371
    • 84856865252 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Resolution 96 I, supra note 23;, supra note 8, at, stressing need for law against genocide to "convey the specific losses to civilization in the form of the cultural contributions which can be made only by groups of people united through national, racial or cultural characteristics". Cf. supra text accompanying notes 152-59 explaining importance of human grouping in classical liberal theory
    • See e.g., Resolution 96 (I), supra note 23; Lemkin, "International Crime", supra note 8, at 147 (stressing need for law against genocide to "convey the specific losses to civilization in the form of the cultural contributions which can be made only by groups of people united through national, racial or cultural characteristics"). Cf. supra text accompanying notes 152-59 (explaining importance of human grouping in classical liberal theory).
    • International Crime , pp. 147
    • Lemkin1
  • 372
    • 84856893641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • But see, supra note 30, at, maintaining that "holistic approach" also would have placed Tutsi within Convention definition
    • But see Schabas, Genocide, supra note 30, at 131 (maintaining that "holistic approach" also would have placed Tutsi within Convention definition).
    • Genocide , pp. 131
    • Schabas1


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