Poly-γ-glutamic acid: Production, properties and applications

Microbiology (United Kingdom)

Volumn 161, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 1-17

  Ogunleye, Adetoro ^a   Bhat, Aditya ^b   Irorere, Victor U ^a   Hill, David ^a   Williams, Craig ^a   Radecka, Iza ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WOLVERHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

^b ABER INSTRUMENTS LTD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COSMETIC; POLY GAMMA GLUTAMIC ACID; POLYGLUTAMIC ACID; PROTEINASE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; POLY(GAMMA-GLUTAMIC ACID);

AGRICULTURE; AMINO ACID ANALYSIS; BACILLUS AMYLOLIQUEFACIENS; BACILLUS ANTHRACIS; BACILLUS LICHENIFORMIS; BACILLUS SUBTILIS; BACTERIAL STRAIN; BIOMEDICINE; CHEMICAL MODIFICATION; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CONFORMATIONAL TRANSITION; COST; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; ENZYME DEGRADATION; FERMENTATION; FOOD INDUSTRY; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY; MICROBIAL FERMENTATION; MOLECULAR WEIGHT; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; POLYMERIZATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PRODUCTIVITY; RACEMIZATION; REVIEW; SYNTHESIS; WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT; ANALOGS AND DERIVATIVES; BACILLUS; BIOSYNTHESIS; CHEMISTRY; CONFORMATION; FOOD CONTROL; GENETICS; METABOLISM;

BACILLUS; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS; FERMENTATION; FOOD MICROBIOLOGY; MOLECULAR CONFORMATION; POLYGLUTAMIC ACID; POLYMERIZATION;

EID: 84920885390     PISSN: 13500872     EISSN: 14652080     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.081448-0     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Akagi, T., Baba, M. & Akashi, M. (2007). Preparation of nanoparticles by the self-organization of polymers consisting of hydrophobic and hydrophilic segments: potential applications. Polymer (Guildf) 48, 6729-6747.
2. Ashiuchi, M. & Misono, H. (2002). Biochemistry and molecular genetics of poly-y-glutamate synthesis. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 59, 9-14.
3. Ashiuchi, M., Tani, K., Soda, K. & Misono, H. (1998). Properties of glutamate racemase from Bacillus subtilis IFO 3336 producing poly-y-glutamate. J Biochem 123, 1156-1163.
4. Ashiuchi, M., Soda, K. & Misono, H. (1999a). A poly-y-glutamate synthetic system of Bacillus subtilis IFO 3336: gene cloning and biochemical analysis of poly-y-glutamate produced by Escherichia coli clone cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 263, 6-12.
5. Ashiuchi, M., Soda, K. & Misono, H. (1999b). Characterization of yrpC gene product of Bacillus subtilis IFO 3336 as glutamate racemase isozyme. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 63, 792-798.
6. Ashiuchi, M., Kamei, T., Baek, D. H., Shin, S. Y., Sung, M. H., Soda, K., Yagi, T. & Misono, H. (2001a). Isolation of Bacillus subtilis(chungkookjang), a poly-y-glutamate producer with high genetic competence. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 57, 764-769.
7. Ashiuchi, M., Nawa, C., Kamei, T., Song, J. J., Hong, S. P., Sung, M. H., Soda, K., Yagi, T. & Misono, H. (2001b). Physiological and biochemical characteristics of poly y-glutamate synthetase complex of Bacillus subtilis. Eur J Biochem 268, 5321-5328.
8. Ashiuchi, M., Kamei, T. & Misono, H. (2003a). Poly-gamma-glutamate synthetase of Bacillus subtilis. J Mol Catal B Enzym 23, 101-106.
9. Ashiuchi, M., Kuwana, E., Komatsu, K., Soda, K. & Misono, H. (2003b). Differences in effects on DNA gyrase activity between two glutamate racemases of Bacillus subtilis, the poly-y-glutamate synthesis-linking Glr enzyme and the YrpC (MurI) isozyme. FEMS Microbiol Lett 223, 221-225.
10. Ashiuchi, M., Shimanouchi, K., Nakamura, H., Kamei, T., Soda, K., Park, C., Sung, M. H. & Misono, H. (2004). Enzymatic synthesis of high-molecular-mass poly-y-glutamate and regulation of its stereochemistry. Appl Environ Microbiol 70, 4249-4255.
11. Ashiuchi, M., Shimanouchi, K., Horiuchi, T., Kamei, T. & Misono, H. (2006). Genetically engineered poly-y-glutamate producer from Bacillus subtilis ISW1214. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 70, 1794-1797.
12. Bajaj, I. B. & Singhal, R. S. (2009). Enhanced production of poly(y-glutamic acid) from Bacillus licheniformis NCIM 2324 by using metabolic precursors. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 159, 133-141.
13. Bajaj, I. B. & Singhal, R. S. (2011). Flocculation properties of poly(y-glutamic acid) produced from Bacillus subtilis isolate. Food Bioprocess Technol 4, 745-752.
14. Bajaj, I. B., Lele, S. S. & Singhal, R. S. (2008). Enhanced production of poly (y-glutamic acid) from Bacillus licheniformis NCIM 2324 in solid state fermentation. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 35, 1581-1586.
15. Bajaj, I. B., Lele, S. S. & Singhal, R. S. (2009). A statistical approach to optimization of fermentative production of poly(y-glutamic acid) from Bacillus licheniformis NCIM 2324. Bioresour Technol 100, 826832.
16. Ben-Zur, N. & Goldman, D. M. (2007). y-Poly glutamic acid: a novel peptide for skin care. Cosmetics Toiletries 122, 65-74.
17. Bhat, A. (2012). Bacterial production of poly-y-glutamic acid and evaluation of its effect on the viability of probiotic microorganisms. PhD. Thesis. University of Wolverhampton: UK. http://wlv.openrepository. com/wlv/handle/2436/241854
18. Bhat, A. R., Irorere, V. U., Bartlett, T., Hill, D., Kedia, G., Morris, M. R., Charalampopoulos, D. & Radecka, I. (2013). Bacillus subtilis natto: a non-toxic source of poly-y-glutamic acid that could be used as a cryoprotectant for probiotic bacteria. AMB Express 3, 36.
19. Bhattacharyya, D., Hestekin, J. A., Brushaber, P., Cullen, L., Bachas, L. G. & Sikdar, S. K. (1998). Novel poly-glutamic acid functionalized microfiltration membranes for sorption of heavy metals at high capacity. J Membr Sci 141, 121-135.
20. Bhunia, B., Mukhopadhy, D., Goswami, S., Mandal, T. & Dey, A. (2012). Improved production, characterization and flocculation properties of poly(y)-glutamic acid produced from Bacillus subtilis. J Biochem Technol 3, 389-394.
21. Birrer, G. A., Cromwick, A.-M. & Gross, R. A. (1994). y-Poly(glutamic acid) formation by Bacillus licheniformis 9945a: physiological and biochemical studies. Int J Biol Macromol 16, 265-275.
22. Bodnar, M., Kjeniksen, A.-L., Molnar, R. M., Hartmann, J. F., Damczi, L., Nystrom, B. & Borbely, J. (2008). Nanoparticles formed by complexation of poly-gamma-glutamic acid with lead ions. J Hazard Mater 153, 1185-1192.
23. Borbely, M., Nagasaki, Y., Borbely, J., Fan, K., Bhogle, A. & Sevoian, M. (1994). Biosynthesis and chemical modification of poly(y-glutamic acid). Polym Bull 32, 127-132
24. Bovarnick, M. (1942). The formation of extracellular D (-) glutamic acid polypeptide by Bacillus subtilis. J Biol Chem 145, 415-424.
25. Buescher, J. M. & Margaritis, A. M. (2007). Microbial biosynthesis of polyglutamic acid biopolymer and applications in the biopharma-ceutical, biomedical and food industries. Crit Rev Biotechnol 27, 119.
26. Cachat, E., Barker, M., Read, T. D. & Priest, F. G. (2008). A Bacillus thuringiensis strain producing a polyglutamate capsule resembling that of Bacillus anthracis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 285, 220-226.
27. Candela, T. & Fouet, A. (2005). Bacillus anthracis CapD, belonging to the y-glutamyltranspeptidase family, is required for the covalent anchoring of capsule to peptidoglycan. Mol Microbiol 57, 717-726.
28. Candela, T. & Fouet, A. (2006). Poly-gamma-glutamate in bacteria. Mol Microbiol 60, 1091-1098.
29. Candela, T., Mock, M. & Fouet, A. (2005). CapE, a 47-amino-acid peptide, is necessary for Bacillus anthracis polyglutamate capsule synthesis. J Bacteriol 187, 7765-7772.
30. Candela, T., Moya, M., Haustant, M. & Fouet, A. (2009).Fusobacterium nucleatum, the first Gram-negative bacterium demonstrated to produce polyglutamate. Can J Microbiol 55, 627-632.
31. Candela, T., Balomenou, S., Aucher, W., Bouriotis, V., Simore, J. P., Fouet, A. & Boneca, I. G. (2014). N-acetylglucosamine deacetylases modulate the anchoring of the gamma-glutamyl capsule to the cell wall of Bacillus anthracis. Microb Drug Resist 20, 222-230.
32. Cao, M., Song, C., Jin, Y., Liu, L., Liu, J., Xie, H., Guo, W. & Wang, S.. Synthesis of poly(y-glutamic acid) and heterologous expression of pgsBCA genes. J Mol Catal B Enzym 67, 111-116.
33. Cao, M., Geng, W., Liu, L., Song, C., Xie, H., Guo, W., Jin, Y. & Wang, S. Glutamic acid independent production of poly-y-glutamic acid by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens LL3 and cloning of pgsBCA genes. Bioresour Technol 102, 4251-4257.
34. Cao, M., Geng, W., Zhang, W., Sun, J., Wang, S., Feng, J., Zheng, P., Jiang, A. & Song, C. (2013). Engineering of recombinant Escherichia coli cells co-expressing poly-y-glutamic acid (y-PGA) synthetase and glutamate racemase for differential yielding of y-PGA. Microb Biotechnol 6, 675-684.
35. Chang, J., Zhong, Z., Xu, H., Yao, Z. & Chen, R. (2013). Fabrication of poly(y-glutamic acid)-coated Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles and their application in heavy metal removal. Chin J Chem Eng 21, 1244-1250.
36. Cheng, C., Asada, Y. & Aaida, T. (1989). Production of y-polyglutamic acid by Bacillus subtilis A35 under denitrifying conditions. Agric Biol Chem 53, 2369-2375.
37. Choi, S., Park, J. & Yoon, M. (2004). Production of microbial biopolymer, poly y-glutamic acid by Bacillus subtilis BS 62. Agric Chem Biotechnol 47, 60-64.
38. Cromwick, A. M. & Gross, R. A. (1995a). Effect of manganese (II) on Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 9945A physiology and y-poly(glutamic acid) formation. Int J Biol Macromol 16, 265-275.
39. Cromwick, A. M. & Gross, R. A. (1995b). Investigation by NMR of metabolic routes to bacterial y-poly(glutamic acid) using 13C labelled citrate and glutamate as media carbon sources. Can J Microbiol 41, 902-909.
40. Do, T. H., Suzuki, Y., Abe, N., Kaneko, J., Itoh, Y. & Kimura, K. (2011).Mutations suppressing the loss of DegQ function in Bacillus subtilis (natto) poly-y-glutamate synthesis. Appl Environ Microbiol 77, 82498258.
41. Edde, B., Rossier, J., Le Caer, J. P., Desbruyeres, E., Gros, F. & Denoulet, P. (1990). Posttranslational glutamylation of alpha-tubulin.Science 247, 83-85.
42. Ezzell, J. W., Abshire, T. G., Panchal, R., Chabot, D., Bavari, S., Leffel, K., Purcell, B., Friedlander, A. M. & Ribot, W. J. (2009). Associationof Bacillus anthracis capsule with lethal toxin during experimental infection. Infect Immun 77, 749-755.
43. Feng, J., Gu, Y., Sun, Y., Han, L., Yang, C., Zhang, W., Cao, M., Song, C., Gao, W. & Wang, S. (2014). Metabolic engineering of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens for poly-gamma-glutamic acid (y-PGA) overproduction. Microb Biotechnol 7, 446-455.
44. Graciela, P. C., Francisco, C., Jordi, J. B. & Sebastian, M. G. (2000). Biosynthesis and ultrasonic degradation of bacterial poly(y-glutamic acid). Biotechnol Bioeng 63, 110-115.
45. Hajdu, I., Bodnar, M., Csikos, Z., Wei, S., Daroczi, L., Kovacs, B., Gyori, Z., Tamas, J. & Borbely, J. (2012). Combined nano-membrane technology for removal of lead ions. J Membr Sci 409-410, 4453.
46. Hanby, W. E. & Rydon, H. N. (1946). The capsular substance of Bacillus anthracis. Biochem J 40, 297-309.
47. He, L. M., Neu, M. P. & Vanderberg, L. A. (2000). Bacillus licheniformis y-glutamyl exopolymer: physicochemical characterization and U(VI) interaction. Environ Sci Technol 34, 1694-1701.
48. Hezayen, F. F., Rehm, B. H., Tindall, B. J. & Steinbuchel, A. (2001). Transfer of Natrialba asiatica B1T to Natrialba taiwanensis sp. nov. and description of Natrialba aegyptiaca sp. nov., a novel extremely halophilic, aerobic, non-pigmented member of the Archaea from Egypt that produces extracellular poly(glutamic acid). Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 51, 1133-1142.
49. Ho, G. H., Ho, T. I., Hsieh, K. H., Su, Y. C., Line, P.-Y., Yang, J., Yang, K.-H. & Yang, S.-C. (2006). y-Polyglutamic acid produced by Bacillus subtilis (natto): structural characteristics, chemical properties and biological functionalities. J Chin Chem Soc Taip 53, 1363-1384.
50. Ho, G.-H., Yang, T.-H. & Yang, J. (2009). Dietary products comprising one or more of y-polyglutamic acid (y-PGA, H form) and y-polyglutamates for use as nutrition supplements. US Patent 7,632,804 B2.
51. Hsieh, C.-Y., Tsai, S.-P., Wang, D.-M., Chang, Y.-N. & Hsieh, H.-J. (2005). Preparation of y-PGA/chitosan composite tissue engineering matrices. Biomaterials 26, 5617-5623.
52. Hu, T. C., Korczytiska, J., Smith, D. K. & Brzozowski, A. M. (2008). High-molecular-weight polymers for protein crystallization: poly-y-glutamic acid-based precipitants. Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr 957-963.
53. Huang, J., Du, Y., Xu, G., Zhang, H., Zhu, F., Huang, L. & Xu, Z. (2011). High yield and cost-effective production of poly(y-glutamic acid) with Bacillus subtilis. Eng Life Sci 11, 291-297.
54. Inbaraj, B. S. & Chen, B. H. (2012). In vitro removal of toxic heavy metals by poly(y-glutamic acid)-coated superparamagnetic nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine 7, 4419-4432.
55. Inbaraj, B. S., Chiu, C. P., Ho, G. H., Yang, J. & Chen, B. H. (2006). Removal of cationic dyes from aqueous solution using an anionic poly-y-glutamic acid-based adsorbent. J Hazard Mater 137, 226234.
56. Inbaraj, B. S., Kao, T. H., Tsai, T. Y., Chiu, C. P., Kumar, R. & Chen, B. H. (2011). The synthesis and characterization of poly(y-glutamic acid)-coated magnetite nanoparticles and their effects on antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity. Nanotechnology 22, 075101.
57. Ivanovics, G. & Bruckner, V. (1937a). Chemical and immunologic studies on the mechanism of anthrax infection and immunity. The chemical structure of capsule substance of anthrax bacilli and its identity with that of the B. mesentericus. Z. Immunitaetsforsc 90, 304318.
58. Ivanovics, G. & Bruckner, V. (1937b). The chemical nature of the immuno-specific capsule substance of anthrax bacillus. Naturwissenschaften 25, 250.
59. Jagannath, A., Raju, P. S. & Bawa, A. S. (2010). Comparative evaluation ofbacterial cellulose (nata) as a cryoprotectant and carrier support during the freeze drying process of probiotic lactic acid bacteria. LWT-Food Sci Technol 43, 1197-1203.
60. Jian, X., Shouwen, C. & Ziniu, Y. (2005). Optimization of process parameters for poly y-glutamate production under solid state fermentation from Bacillus subtilis CCTCC202048. Process Biochem 40, 3075-3081.
61. Jung, D.-Y., Jung, S., Yun, J.-S., Kim, J.-N., Wee, Y.-J., Jang, H.-G. & Ryu, H.-W. (2005). Influences of cultural medium component on the production of poly(y-glutamic acid) by Bacillus sp. RKY3. Biotechnol Bioprocess Eng 10, 289-295.
62. Kada, S., Nanamiya, H., Kawamura, F. & Horinouchi, S. (2004). Glr, a glutamate racemase, supplies D-glutamate to both peptidoglycan synthesis and poly-y-glutamate production in y-PGA-producing Bacillus subtilis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 236, 13-20.
63. Kandler, O., Konig, H., Wiegel, J. & Claus, D. (1983). Occurrence of poly-y-D-glutamic acid and poly-a-L-glutamine in the genera Xanthobacter, Flexithrix, Sporosarcina and Planococcus. Syst Appl Microbiol 4, 34-41.
64. Kim, T. W., Lee, T. Y., Bae, H. C., Hahm, J. H., Kim, Y. H., Park, C., Kang, T. H., Kim, C. J., Sung, M. H. & Poo, H. (2007). Oral administration of high molecular mass poly-y-glutamate induces NK cell-mediated antitumor immunity. J Immunol 179, 775-780.
65. Kimura, K., Tran, L. S. P., Uchida, I. & Itoh, Y. (2004). Characterization of Bacillus subtilis y-glutamyltransferase and its involvement in the degradation of capsule poly-y-glutamate. Microbiology 150, 41154123.
66. Ko, Y. H. & Gross, R. A. (1998). Effects of glucose and glycerol on y-poly(glutamic acid) formation by Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 9945a. Biotechnol Bioeng 57, 430-437.
67. Kocianova, S., Vuong, C., Yao, Y., Voyich, J. M., Fischer, E. R., DeLeo, R. & Otto, M. (2005). Key role of poly-y-dl-glutamic acid in immune evasion and virulence of Staphylococcus epidermidis. J Clin Invest 115, 688-694.
68. Kubota, H., Nambu, Y. & Endo, T. (1995). Convenient esterification of poly(y-glutamic acid) produced by microorganism with alkyl halides and their thermal properties. J Polym Sci A Polym Chem 33, 85-88
69. Kunioka, M. & Goto, A. (1994). Biosynthesis of poly(y-glutamic acid) from L-glutamic acid, citric acid, and ammonium sulfate in Bacillus subtilis IFO3335. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 40, 867-872.
70. Kurosaki, T., Kitahara, T., Fumoto, S., Nishida, K., Nakamura, J., Niidome, T., Kodama, Y., Nakagawa, H., To, H. & Sasaki, H. (2009). Ternary complexes of pDNA, polyethylenimine, and y-polyglutamic acid for gene delivery systems. Biomaterials 30, 2846-2853.
71. Li, C., Yu, D.-F., Newman, R. A., Cabral, F., Stephens, L. C., Hunter, N., Milas, L. & Wallace, S. (1998). Complete regression of well-established tumors using a novel water-soluble poly(L-glutamic acid)-paclitaxel conjugate. Cancer Res 58, 2404-2409.
72. Lim, S., Kim, J., Shim, J., Imm, B., Sung, M. & Imm, J. (2012). Effect of poly-y-glutamic acids (PGA) on oil uptake and sensory quality in doughnuts. Food Sci Biotechnol 21, 247-252.
73. Liu, J., He, D., Li, X. Z., Gao, S., Wu, H., Liu, W., Gao, X. & Zhou, T. (2010). y-Polyglutamic acid (y-PGA) produced by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens C06 promoting its colonization on fruit surface. Int J Food Microbiol 142, 190-197.
74. Mabrouk, M., Abou-Zeid, D. & Sabra, W. (2012). Application of Plackett-Burman experimental design to evaluate nutritional requirements for poly(y-glutamic acid) production in batch fermentation by Bacillus licheniformis A13. Afr J Appl Microb Res 2, 6-18.
75. Makino, S., Uchida, I., Terakado, N., Sasakawa, C. & Yoshikawa, M.. Molecular characterization and protein analysis of the capregion, which is essential for encapsulation in Bacillus anthracis. J Bacteriol 171, 722-730.
76. McLean, R. J., Beauchemin, D., Clapham, L. & Beveridge, T. J. Metal-binding characteristics of the gamma-glutamyl capsular polymer of Bacillus licheniformis ATCC 9945. Appl Environ Microbiol 56, 3671-3677.
77. Mesnage, S., Tosi-Couture, E., Gounon, P., Mock, M. & Fouet, A. The capsule and S-layer: two independent and yet compatible macromolecular structures in Bacillus anthracis. J Bacteriol 180, 5258.
78. Mitsuiki, M., Mizuno, A., Tanimoto, H. & Motoki, M. (1998). Relationship between the antifreeze activities and the chemical structures of oligo-and poly(glutamic acid)s. J Agric Food Chem 46, 891-895.
79. Morelli, C. F., Calvio, C., Biagiotti, M. & Speranza, G. (2014). pH-dependent hydrolase, glutaminase, transpeptidase and autotranspeptidase activities of Bacillus subtilis y-glutamyltransferase. FEBS J 281, 232-245.
80. Ogata, M., Hidari, K. I., Murata, T., Shimada, S., Kozaki, W., Park, E. Y., Suzuki, T. & Usui, T. (2009). Chemoenzymatic synthesis of sialoglycopolypeptides as glycomimetics to block infection by avian and human influenza viruses. Bioconjug Chem 20, 538549.
81. Ohsawa, T., Tsukahara, K. & Ogura, M. (2009). Bacillus subtilis response regulator DegU is a direct activator of pgsB transcription involved in y-poly-glutamic acid synthesis. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 73, 2096-2102.
82. Osera, C., Amati, G., Calvio, C. & Galizzi, A. (2009). SwrAA activates poly-y-glutamate synthesis in addition to swarming in Bacillus subtilis. Microbiology 155, 2282-2287.
83. Otani, Y., Tabata, Y. & Ikada, Y. (1999). Sealing effect of rapidly curable gelatin-poly(L-glutamic acid) hydrogel glue on lung air leak. Ann Thorac Surg 67, 922-926.
84. Park, C., Choi, J.-C., Choi, Y.-H., Nakamura, H., Shimanouchi, K., Horiuchi, T., Misono, H., Sewaki, T., Soda, K. & other authors (2005). Synthesis of super-high-molecular-weight poly-y-glutamic acid by Bacillus subtilis subsp. chungkookjang. J Mol Catal B Enzym 35, 128133.
85. Perez-Camero, G., Congregado, F., Bou, J. J. & Mutnoz-Guerra, S. Biosynthesis and ultrasonic degradation of bacterial poly(y-glutamic acid). Biotechnol Bioeng 63, 110-115.
86. Rehm, B. (2009). Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors: Applications and Perspectives. Caister: Horizon Scientific Press.
87. Richard, A. & Margaritis, A. (2003). Rheology, oxygen transfer, and molecular weight characteristics of poly(glutamic acid) fermentation by Bacillus subtilis. Biotechnol Bioeng 82, 299-305.
88. Richard, A. & Margaritis, A. (2006). Kinetics of molecular weight reduction of poly(glutamic acid) by in situ depolymerization in cell-free broth of Bacillus subtilis. Biochem Eng J 30, 303-307.
89. Ryu, M., Nakazawa, T., Akagi, T., Tanaka, T., Watanabe, R., Yasuda, M., Himori, N., Maruyama, K., Yamashita, T. & other authors (2011). Suppression of phagocytic cells in retinal disorders using amphiphilic poly(y-glutamic acid) nanoparticles containing dexamethasone. J Control Release 151, 65-73.
90. Sakai, K., Sonoda, C. & Murase, K. (2000). Bitterness relieving agent. JP Patent WO0021390.
91. Sato, M., Kanie, K., Soda, K. & Yokoigawa, K. (2008). Suppressive effect of poly-y-glutamate on SOS response of Salmonella typhimur-ium induced by chemical mutagens. J Biosci Bioeng 105, 690693.
92. Scoffone, V., Dondi, D., Biino, G., Borghese, G., Pasini, D., Galizzi, A. & Calvio, C. (2013). Knockout of pgdS and ggt genes improves y-PGA yield in B. subtilis. Biotechnol Bioeng 110, 2006-2012.
93. Shih, I. L. & Van, Y. T. (2001). The production of poly-(y-glutamic acid) from microorganisms and its various applications. Bioresour Technol 79, 207-225.
94. Shih, L. & Wu, J. (2009). Biosynthesis and application of poly(y-glutamic acid). In Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors: Applications and Perspectives, pp. 101-135. Edited by B. H. A. Rehm. Caister: Horizon Scientific Press.
95. Shih, I. L., Van, Y. T., Yeh, L. C., Lin, H. G. & Chang, Y. N. (2001). Production of a biopolymer flocculant from Bacillus licheniformis and its flocculation properties. Bioresour Technol 78, 267-272.
96. Shih, I. L., Van, Y. T. & Sau, Y. Y. (2003). Antifreeze activities of poly(y-glutamic acid) produced by Bacillus licheniformis. Biotechnol Lett 25, 1709-1712.
97. Shih, I. L., Wu, P. J. & Shieh, C. J. (2005). Microbial production of a poly(y-glutamic acid) derivative by Bacillus subtilis. Process Biochem 40, 2827-2832.
98. Shyu, Y. & Sung, W. (2010). Improving the emulsion stability of sponge cake by the addition of y-polyglutamic acid. J Mar Sci Technol 18, 895-900.
99. Shyu, Y.-S., Hwang, J.-Y. & Hsu, C.-K. (2008). Improving the rheological and thermal properties of wheat dough by the addition of y-polyglutamic acid. LWT-Food Sci Technol 41, 982-987.
100. Siaterlis, A., Deepika, G. & Charalampopoulos, D. (2009). Effect of culture medium and cryoprotectants on the growth and survival of probiotic lactobacilli during freeze drying. Lett Appl Microbiol 48, 295-301.
101. Singer, J. W. (2005). Paclitaxel poliglumex (XYOTAX, CT-2103): a macromolecular taxane. J Control Release 109, 120-126.
102. Soliman, N. A., Berekaa, M. M. & Abdel-Fattah, Y. R. (2005). Polyglutamic acid (PGA) production by Bacillus sp. SAB-26: application of Plackett-Burman experimental design to evaluate culture requirements. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 69, 259-267.
103. Stanley, N. R. & Lazazzera, B. A. (2005). Defining the genetic differences between wild and domestic strains of Bacillus subtilis that affect poly-y-DL-glutamic acid production and biofilm formation. Mol Microbiol 57, 1143-1158.
104. Sung, M. H., Park, C., Choi, J. C., Uyama, H. & Park, S. L. (2005a). Hyaluronidase inhibitor containing poly-gamma-glutamic acid as an effective component. US Patent 12/090,678.
105. Sung, M. H., Park, C., Kim, C.-J., Poo, H., Soda, K. & Ashiuchi, M. (2005b). Natural and edible biopolymer poly-y-glutamic acid: synthesis, production, and applications. Chem Rec 5, 352366.
106. Suzuki, T. & Tahara, Y. (2003). Characterization of the Bacillus subtilis ywtD gene, whose product is involved in y-polyglutamic acid degradation. J Bacteriol 185, 2379-2382.
107. Tanimoto, H., Mori, M., Motoki, M., Torii, K., Kadowaki, M. & Noguchi, T. (2001). Natto mucilage containing poly-y-glutamic acid increases soluble calcium in the rat small intestine. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 516-521.
108. Tanimoto, H., Fox, T., Eagles, J., Satoh, H., Nozawa, H., Okiyama, A., Morinaga, Y. & Fairweather-Tait, S. J. (2007). Acute effect of poly-y-glutamic acid on calcium absorption in post-menopausal women. J Am Coll Nutr 26, 645-649.
109. Tarui, Y., Iida, H., Ono, E., Miki, W., Hirasawa, E., Fujita, K., Tanaka, T. & Taniguchi, M. (2005). Biosynthesis of poly-y-glutamic acid in plants: transient expression of poly-y-glutamate synthetase complex in tobacco leaves. J Biosci Bioeng 100, 443-448.
110. Thorne, C. B. & Leonard, C. G. (1958). Isolation of d-and L-glutamyl polypeptides from culture filtrates of Bacillus subtilis. J Biol Chem 233, 1109-1112.
111. Thorne, C. B., Gomez, C. G. & Housewright, R. D. (1955). Transamination of D-amino acids by Bacillus subtilis. J Bacteriol 69, 357-362.
112. Tiffany, M. L. & Krimm, S. (1969). Circular dichroism of the ‘‘random’’ polypeptide chain. Biopolymers 8, 347-359.
113. Tomcsik, J. & Szongott, H. (1933). Uber ein spezifisches Protein der Kapsel des Milzbrandbazillus. Zeitschr Immunitat-Forsch 78, 8699.
114. Tran, L. S., Nagai, T. & Itoh, Y. (2000). Divergent structure of the ComQXPA quorum-sensing components: molecular basis of strain-specific communication mechanism in Bacillus subtilis. Mol Microbiol 37, 1159-1171.
115. Tsao, C. T., Chang, C. H., Lin, Y. Y., Wu, M. F., Wang, J. L., Young, T. H., Han, J. L. & Hsieh, K. H. (2011). Evaluation of chitosan/y-poly(glutamic acid) polyelectrolyte complex for wound dressing materials. Carbohydr Polym 84, 812-819.
116. Tsutomu, O. & Makoto, T. (2002). Biodegradable plastics. Patent WO 02051907.
117. Uotani, K., Hidetoshi, K., Endou, H. & Tokita, F. (2011). Sialogogue, oral composition and food product containing the same. US Patent 7910089 B2.
118. Urushibata, Y., Tokuyama, S. & Tahara, Y. (2002a). Characterization of the Bacillus subtilis ywsC gene, involved in y-polyglutamic acid production. J Bacteriol 184, 337-343.
119. Urushibata, Y., Tokuyama, S. & Tahara, Y. (2002b). Difference in transcription levels of cap genes for y-polyglutamic acid production between Bacillus subtilis IFO 16449 and Marburg 168. J Biosci Bioeng 93, 252-254.
120. Wang, Q., Chen, S., Zhang, J., Sun, M., Liu, Z. & Yu, Z. (2008). Coproducing lipopeptides and poly-y-glutamic acid by solid-state fermentation of Bacillus subtilis using soybean and sweet potato residues and its biocontrol and fertilizer synergistic effects. Bioresour Technol 99, 3318-3323.
121. Weber, J. (1990). Poly(gamma-glutamic acid)s are the major constituents of nematocysts in Hydra (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria). J Biol Chem 265, 9664-9669.
122. Wu, Q., Xu, H., Xu, L. & Ouyang, P. (2006). Biosynthesis of poly(y-glutamic acid) in Bacillus subtilis NX-2: regulation of stereochemical composition of poly(y-glutamic acid). Process Biochem 41, 16501655.
123. Wu, Q., Xu, H., Ying, H. & Ouyang, P. (2010). Kinetic analysis and pH-shift control strategy for poly(y-glutamic acid) production with Bacillus subtilis CGMCC 0833. Biochem Eng J 50, 24-28.
124. Xu, Z., Shi, F. & Cen, P. (2005). Production of polyglutamic acid from mixed glucose and sucrose by co-cultivation of Bacillus subtilis and Corynebacterium glutamicum. The 2005 AIChE Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, OH. https://aiche.confex.com/aiche/2005/techprogram/ P25321.HTM
125. Yamashiro, D., Yoshioka, M. & Ashiuchi, M. (2011). Bacillus subtilis pgsE (formerly ywtC) stimulates poly-y-glutamate production in the presence of zinc. Biotechnol Bioeng 108, 226-230.
126. Yao, J., Jing, J., Xu, H., Liang, J., Wu, Q., Feng, X. & Ouyang, P. (2009). Investigation on enzymatic degradation of y-polyglutamic acid from Bacillus subtilis NX-2. J Mol Catal B Enzym 56, 158-164.
127. Yasuzawa, M., Edagawa, K., Matsunaga, T., Takaoka, H. & Yabutani, T. (2011). Highly selective needle-type glucose sensors prepared by the immobilization of glucose oxidase on gamma-polyglutamic acid film. Anal Sci 27, 337-340.
128. Ye, H., Jin, L., Hu, R., Yi, Z., Li, J., Wu, Y., Xi, X. & Wu, Z. (2006). Poly(y,L-glutamic acid)-cisplatin conjugate effectively inhibits human breast tumor xenografted in nude mice. Biomaterials 27, 5958-5965.
129. Yokoi, H., Natsuda, O., Hirose, J., Hayashi, S. & Takasaki, Y. (1995). Characteristics of a biopolymer flocculant produced by Bacillus sp. PY-90. J Ferment Bioeng 79, 378-380.
130. Zhang, H., Zhu, J., Zhu, X., Cai, J., Zhang, A., Hong, Y., Huang, J., Huang, L. & Xu, Z. (2012). High-level exogenous glutamicacid-independent production of poly-(y-glutamic acid) with organic acid addition in a new isolated Bacillus subtilis C10. Bioresour Technol 116, 241-246.
131. Zwartouw, H. T. & Smith, H. (1956). Polyglutamic acid from Bacillus anthracis grown in vivo: structure and aggression activity. Biochem J 63, 437-442.