Risking your life without a second thought: Intuitive decision-making and extreme altruism

PLoS ONE

Volumn 9, Issue 10, 2014, Pages

  Rand, David G ^a   Epstein, Ziv G ^b  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b POMONA COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALTRUISM; ARTICLE; AWARDS AND PRIZES; COGNITION; COMPUTER PROGRAM; CONTROLLED STUDY; COOPERATION; DECISION MAKING; DELIBERATIVE DECISION MAKING; EMOTION; EXTREME ALTRUISM; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTUITION; MALE; MOTIVATION; PREDICTION; RECIPIENT; THINKING; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; INTERVIEW; MIDDLE AGED; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; ALTRUISM; DECISION MAKING; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTERVIEWS AS TOPIC; INTUITION; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; RISK-TAKING; THINKING; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84908099238     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109687     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Goetz JL, Keltner D, Simon-Thomas E (2010) Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin 136: 351-374.
2. Shariff AF, Norenzayan A (2007) God Is Watching You: Priming God Concepts Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game. Psychological Science 18: 803-809.
3. Balliet D, Van Lange PAM (2013) Trust, Punishment, and Cooperation Across 18 Societies: A Meta-Analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science 8: 363-379.
4. Apicella CL, Marlowe FW, Fowler JH, Christakis NA (2012) Social networks and cooperation in hunter-gatherers. Nature 481: 497-501.
5. Rand DG, Nowak MA (2013) Human Cooperation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 17: 413-425.
6. Herrmann B, Thoni C, Gächter S (2008) Antisocial punishment across societies. Science 319: 1362-1367.
7. Sigmund K (2010) The calculus of selfishness. Princeton: Princeton Univ Press.
8. Nowak MA (2006) Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science 314: 1560-1563.
9. Crockett MJ (2013) Models of morality. Trends in cognitive sciences 17: 363-366.
10. Cushman F, Macindoe O (2009) The coevolution of punishment and prosociality among learning agents.
11. Jordan JJ, Peysakhovich A, Rand DG (In press) Why we cooperate. In: Decety J, Wheatley T, editors. The Moral Brain: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
12. Hauser OP, Rand DG, Peysakhovich A, Nowak MA (2014) Cooperating with the future. Nature 511: 220-223.
13. Fudenberg D, Maskin ES (1986) The Folk Theorem in Repeated Games with Discounting or with Incomplete Information. Econometrica 54: 533-554.
14. Fudenberg D, Maskin ES (1990) Evolution and cooperation in noisy repeated games. American Economic Review 80: 274-279.
15. Fudenberg D, Rand DG, Dreber A (2012) Slow to Anger and Fast to Forgive: Cooperation in an Uncertain World. American Economic Review 102: 720-749.
16. Rand DG, Fudenberg D, Dreber A (2014) It's the thought that counts: The role of intentions in noisy repeated games. Available at SSRN: http://ssrncom/abstract=2259407.
17. Nowak MA, Sigmund K (1992) Tit for tat in heterogeneous populations. Nature 355: 250-253
18. Nowak MA, Sigmund K (1993) A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for-tat in the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Nature 364: 56-58.
19. Rand DG, Ohtsuki H, Nowak MA (2009) Direct reciprocity with costly punishment: Generous tit-for-tat prevails J Theor Biol 256: 45-57.
20. Trivers R (1971) The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46: 35-57.
21. Axelrod R, Hamilton WD (1981) The evolution of cooperation. Science 211: 1390-1396.
22. van Veelen M, García J, Rand DG, Nowak MA (2012) Direct reciprocity in structured populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109: 9929-9934.
23. Kandori M (1992) Social norms and community enforcement. Rev Econ Stud 59: 63-80.
24. Nowak MA, Sigmund K (1998) Evolution of indirect reciprocity by image scoring. Nature 393: 573-577.
25. Nowak MA, Sigmund K (2005) Evolution of indirect reciprocity. Nature 437: 1291-1298.
26. Ohtsuki H, Iwasa Y (2006) The leading eight: social norms that can maintain cooperation by indirect reciprocity. J Theor Biol 239: 435-444.
27. Ohtsuki H, Iwasa Y, Nowak MA (2009) Indirect reciprocity provides only a narrow margin of efficiency for costly punishment. Nature 457: 79-82.
28. Wedekind C, Milinski M (2000) Cooperation Through Image Scoring in Humans. Science 288: 850-852.
29. Milinski M, Semmann D, Bakker TCM, Krambeck H-Jr (2001) Cooperation through indirect reciprocity: image scoring or standing strategy? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences 268: 2495-2501.
30. Milinski M, Semmann D, Krambeck HJ (2002) Reputation helps solve the 'tragedy of the commons'. Nature 415: 424-426.
31. Fu F, Hauert C, Nowak MA, Wang L (2008) Reputation-based partner choice promotes cooperation in social networks. Physical Review E 78: 026117.
32. Pfeiffer T, Tran L, Krumme C, Rand DG (2012) The value of reputation. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 9: 2791-2797.
33. Nowak MA, May RM (1992) Evolutionary games and spatial chaos. Nature 359: 826-829.
34. Nowak MA, Tarnita CE, Antal T (2010) Evolutionary dynamics in structured populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365: 19-30.
35. Tarnita CE, Ohtsuki H, Antal T, Fu F, Nowak MA (2009) Strategy selection in structured populations. Journal of Theoretical Biology 259: 570.
36. Tarnita CE, Wage N, Nowak MA (2011) Multiple strategies in structured populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108: 2334-2337.
37. Ohtsuki H, Hauert C, Lieberman E, Nowak MA (2006) A simple rule for the evolution of cooperation on graphs and social networks. Nature 441: 502-505.
38. Szabo G, Fath G (2007) Evolutionary games on graphs. Physics Reports 446: 97-216.
39. Perc M, Szolnoki A (2010) Coevolutionary games-A mini review. Biosystems 99: 109-125.
40. Wilson DS (1975) A theory of group selection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 72: 143-146.
41. Boyd R, Richerson P (1990) Group selection among alternative evolutionarily stable strategies. J Theor Biol 145: 331-342.
42. Traulsen A, Nowak MA (2006) Evolution of cooperation by multilevel selection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 10952-10955.
43. Sober E, Wilson DS (1998) Unto others: the evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. 394 p. p.
44. Bowles S (2009) Did warfare among ancestral hunter-gatherers affect the evolution of human social behaviors? Science 324: 1293-1298.
45. Bowles S, Gintis H (2011) A cooperative species: Human reciprocity and its evolution. Priceton NJ: Princeton University Press.
46. Boyd R, Gintis H, Bowles S, Richerson PJ (2003) The evolution of altruistic punishment. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 3531-3535.
47. Hamilton WD (1964) The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. J Theor Biol 7: 1-16.
48. Lieberman D, Tooby J, Cosmides L (2007) The architecture of human kin detection. Nature 445: 727-731.
49. DeSteno D (2009) Social Emotions and Intertemporal Choice ''Hot'' Mechanisms for Building Social and Economic Capital. Current Directions in Psychological Science 18: 280-284.
50. Marsh AA, Kozak MN, Ambady N (2007) Accurate identification of fear facial expressions predicts prosocial behavior. Emotion 7: 239-251.
51. de Hooge IE, Zeelenberg M, Breugelmans SM (2007) Moral sentiments and cooperation: Differential influences of shame and guilt. Cognition & Emotion 21: 1025-1042.
52. van den Bos K, Van Lange PA, Lind EA, Venhoeven LA, Beudeker DA, et al. (2011) On the benign qualities of behavioral disinhibition: because of the prosocial nature of people, behavioral disinhibition can weaken pleasure with getting more than you deserve. J Pers Soc Psychol 101: 791-811.
53. Galinsky AD, Maddux WW, Gilin D, White JB (2008) Why It Pays to Get Inside the Head of Your Opponent: The Differential Effects of Perspective Taking and Empathy in Negotiations. Psychological Science 19: 378-384.
54. Zaki J, Mitchell JP (2013) Intuitive Prosociality. Current Directions in Psychological Science 22: 466-470.
55. Sloman SA (1996) The empirical case for two systems of reasoning. Psychological Bulletin 119: 3.
56. Kahneman D (2011) Thinking, Fast and Slow. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
57. Kahneman D (2003) A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist 58: 697-720.
58. Frederick S (2005) Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making. The Journal of Economic Perspectives 19: 25-42.
59. Stanovich KE, West RF (1998) Individual Differences in Rational Thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 127: 161-188.
60. Miller EK, Cohen JD (2001) An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience 24: 167-202.
61. Chaiken S, Trope Y (1999) Dual-process theories in social psychology. New York: Guilford Press.
62. Rand DG, Peysakhovich A, Kraft-Todd GT, Newman GE, Wurzbacher O, et al. (2014) Social Heuristics Shape Intuitive Cooperation. Nature Communications 5: 3677.
63. Rand DG, Greene JD, Nowak MA (2012) Spontaneous giving and calculated greed. Nature 489: 427-430.
64. Rand DG, Kraft-Todd GT (2014) Reflection Does Not Undermine Self- Interested Prosociality. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 8: 300.
65. Rand DG, Newman GE, Wurzbacher O (2014) Social context and the dynamics of cooperative choice. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making: doi: 10.1002/bdm.1837.
66. Schulz JF, Fischbacher U, Thöni C, Utikal V (2014) Affect and fairness: Dictator games under cognitive load. Journal of Economic Psychology 41: 77-87.
67. Cornelissen G, Dewitte S, Warlop L (2011) Are Social Value Orientations Expressed Automatically? Decision Making in the Dictator Game. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37: 1080-1090.
68. Roch SG, Lane JAS, Samuelson CD, Allison ST, Dent JL (2000) Cognitive Load and the Equality Heuristic: A Two-Stage Model of Resource Overconsumption in Small Groups. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 83: 185-212.
69. Kovarik J (2009) Giving it now or later: Altruism and discounting. Economics Letters 102: 152-154.
70. Dreber A, Fudenberg D, Levine DK, Rand DG (2014) Altruism and Self- Control. Available at SSRN.
71. Ruff CC, Ugazio G, Fehr E (2013) Changing Social Norm Compliance with Noninvasive Brain Stimulation. Science 342: 482-484.
72. Hauge KE, Brekke KA, Johansson L-O, Johansson-Stenman O, Svedsä ter H (2009) Are Social Preferences Skin Deep? Dictators under Cognitive Load. University of Gothenburg Working Papers in Economics.
73. Tinghög G, Andersson D, Bonn C, Böttiger H, Josephson C, et al. (2013) Intuition and cooperation reconsidered. Nature 497: E1-E2.
74. Verkoeijen PPJL, Bouwmeester S (2014) Does Intuition Cause Cooperation? PLoS ONE 9: e96654.
75. Engel C, Rand DG (2014) What does ''clean'' really mean? The implicit framing of decontextualized experiments. Economics Letters 122: 386-389.
76. Rand DG, Kraft-Todd GT, Gruber J (2014) Positive Emotion and (Dis)Inhibition Interact to Predict Cooperative Behavior. Available at SSRN: http://ssrncom/abstract=2429787.
77. Roberts ME, Stewart BM, Tingley D, Lucas C, Leder-Luis J, et al. (In press) Topic models for open ended survey responses with applications to experiments. American Journal of Political Science.
78. Henrich J, Ensminger J, McElreath R, Barr A, Barrett C, et al. (2010) Markets, Religion, Community Size, and the Evolution of Fairness and Punishment. Science 327: 1480-1484.
79. Henrich J, Boyd R, Bowles S, Camerer C, Fehr E, et al. (2001) In Search of Homo Economicus: Behavioral Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies. The American Economic Review 91: 73-78.
80. Ellingsen T, Herrmann B, Nowak MA, Rand DG, Tarnita CE (2012) Civic Capital in Two Cultures: The Nature of Cooperation in Romania and USA. Availabe at SSRN: http://ssrncom/abstract=2179575.
81. Gä chter S, Herrmann B, Thöni C (2010) Culture and cooperation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365: 2651-2661.
82. Bowles S, Gintis H (2002) Prosocial emotions. In: Durlauf LBaSN, editor. The Economy as a Evolving Complex System 3. pp. 339-364.
83. Bowles S, Gintis H (2003) Origins of human cooperation. Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation: 429-443.
84. Chudek M, Henrich J (2011) Culture gene coevolution, norm-psychology and the emergence of human prosociality. Trends in cognitive sciences 15: 218-226.
85. Peysakhovich A, Rand DG (2013) Habits of Virtue: Creating Norms of Cooperation and Defection in the Laboratory. Available at SSRN: http://ssrncom/abstract=2294242.
86. Kiyonari T, Tanida S, Yamagishi T (2000) Social exchange and reciprocity: confusion or a heuristic? Evol Hum Behav 21: 411-427.
87. Yamagishi T, Terai S, Kiyonari T, Mifune N, Kanazawa S (2007) The social exchange heuristic: Managing errors in social exchange. Rationality and Society 19: 259-291.
88. Peysakhovich A, Nowak MA, Rand DG (In press) Humans Display a 'Cooperative Phenotype' that is Domain General and Temporally Stable. Nature Communications.
89. Righetti F, Finkenauer C, Finkel EJ (2013) Low Self-Control Promotes the Willingness to Sacrifice in Close Relationships. Psychological Science.
90. Toi M, Batson CD (1982) More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43: 281.
91. Batson CD, Duncan BD, Ackerman P, Buckley T, Birch K (1981) Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation? Journal of personality and Social Psychology 40: 290.
92. Brethel-Haurwitz KM, Marsh AA (2014) Geographical Differences in Subjective Well-Being Predict Extraordinary Altruism. Psychological Science 25: 762-771.
93. Swann WB, Gómez A, Buhrmester MD, López-Rodríguez L, Jiménez J, et al. (In press) Contemplating the ultimate sacrifice: Identity fusion channels progroup affect, cognition, and moral decision-making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
94. Horton JJ, Rand DG, Zeckhauser RJ (2011) The Online Laboratory: Conducting Experiments in a Real Labor Market. Experimental Economics 14: 399-425.
95. Buhrmester MD, Kwang T, Gosling SD (2011) Amazon's Mechanical Turk: A New Source of Inexpensive, Yet High-Quality, Data? Perspectives on Psychological Science 6: 3-5.
96. Pennebaker JW, Francis ME, Booth RJ (2001) Linguistic inquiry and word count: LIWC 2001. Mahway: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: 71.
97. Brown R, Kulik J (1977) Flashbulb memories. Cognition 5: 73-99.