Self-Control in School-Age Children

Educational Psychologist

Volumn 49, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 199-217

  Duckworth, Angela L ^a   Gendler, Tamar Szabó ^b   Gross, James J ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84904395966     PISSN: 00461520     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2014.926225     Document Type: Article

References (209)

1. Achtziger, A., Martiny, S. E., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2012). Meta-cognitive processes in the self-regulation of goal pursuit. In P. Brinol & K. DeMarree (Eds.), Social meta-cognition. Frontiers of social psychology (pp. 121-141). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
2. Adriaanse, M. A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hennes, E. P., de Riddler, D. T. D., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2010). When planning is not enough: Fighting unhealthy snacking habits by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII). European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 1277-1293.
3. Anderson, L., & Prawat, R. (1983). Responsibility in the classroom: A synthesis of research on teaching self-control. Educational Leadership, 40(7), 62-66.
4. Ariely, D. (2008). Predictably irrational: The hidden forces that shape our decisions. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
5. Ariely, D., & Wertenbroch, K. (2002). Procrastination, deadlines, and performance: Self-control by precommitment. Psychological Science, 13, 219-224.
6. Aristotle. (1999). Nicomachean ethics (T. Irwin, Trans.; 2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
7. Autin, F., & Croizet, J. C. (2012). Improving working memory efficiency by reframing metacognitive interpretation of task difficulty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 610-618. doi: 10.1037/a0027478
8. Baker, R. C., & Kirschenbaum, D. S. (1993). Self-monitoring may be necessary for successful weight control. Behavior Therapy, 24, 377-394.
9. Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models' reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 589-595.
10. Bandura, A. (1976). Self-reinforcement: Theoretical and methodological considerations. Behaviorism, 4, 135-155.
11. Bandura, A., & Mischel, W. (1965). Modifications of self-imposed delay of reward through exposure to live and symbolic models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2, 698-705.
12. Barratt, E. S. (1965). Factor analysis of some psychometric measures of impulsiveness and anxiety. Psychological Reports, 16, 547-554.
13. Barratt, E. S. (1972). Anxiety and impulsiveness: Toward a neuropsychological model. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research (Vol. 1, pp. 195-222). New York, NY: Academic.
14. Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252-1265.
15. Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing control: How and why people fail at self-regulation (Vol. 307). San Diego, CA: Academic.
16. Baumeister, R. F., Schmeichel, B. J., & Vohs, K. D. (2007). Self-regulation and the executive function: The self as controlling agent. In A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 516-539). New York, NY: Guilford.
17. Baumeister, R. F., Vohs, K. D., & Tice, D. M. (2007). The strength model of self-control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 351-355.
18. Ben-Eliyahu, A., & Linnenbrink-Garcia, L. (2013). Extending self-regulated learning to include self-regulated emotion strategies. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 558-573.
19. Berk, L. E., Mann, T. D., & Ogan, A. T. (2006). Make-believe play: Wellspring for development of self-regulation. In D. Singer, R. Gollwitzer, & K. Hirsh-Parek (Eds.), Play-learning: How play motivates and enhances children's cognitive and social-emotional growth (pp. 74-100). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
20. Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647-663.
21. Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2001). Educational effectiveness of a Vygotskian approach to preschool education: A randomized trial. Geneva, Switzerland: International Bureau of Education.
22. Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
23. Boekaerts, M. (2011). Emotions, emotion regulation, and self-regulation of learning. In Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 408-425). New York, NY: Routledge.
24. Boekaerts, M., & Cascallar, E. (2006). How far have we moved toward the integration of theory and practice in self-regulation? Educational Psychology Review, 18, 199-210.
25. Bonson, K. R., Grant, S. J., Contoreggi, C. S., Links, J. M., Metcalfe, J., Weyl, H. L., & London, E. D. (2002). Neural systems and cue-induced cocaine craving. Neuropsychopharmacology, 26, 376-386.
26. Boysen, S. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1995). Responses to quantity: perceptual versus cognitive mechanisms in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 21, 82.
27. Burke, L. E., Wang, J., & Sevick, M. A. (2011). Self-monitoring in weight loss: a systematic review of the literature. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 111, 92-102.
28. Burnette, J. L., O'Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 655-701.
29. Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., Erickson, E. A., & Gross, J. J. (2003). The social consequences of expressive suppression. Emotion, 3, 48-67.
30. Carlson, S. M., & Beck, D. M. (2009). Symbols as tools in the development of executive function. In A. Winsler, C. Fernyhough, & I. Montero (Eds.), Private speech, executive functioning, and the development of verbal self-regulation (pp. 163-175). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
31. Carlson, S. M., Davis, A. C., & Leach, J. G. (2005). Less is more: Executive function and symbolic representation in preschool children. Psychological Science, 16, 609-616.
32. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior (Vol. 439). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
33. Chen, C., & Stevenson, H. W. (1989). Homework: A cross-cultural examination. Child Development, 60, 551-561.
34. Christiansen, S., Oettingen, G., Dahme, B., & Klinger, R. (2010). A short goal-pursuit intervention to improve physical capacity: A randomized clinical trial in chronic back pain patients. Pain, 149, 444-452.
35. Cohen, A.-L., Bayer, U. C., Jaudas, A., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008). Self-regulatory strategy and executive control: implementation intentions modulate task switching and Simon task performance. Psychological Research 72, 12-26.
36. Cohen, J. D. (2005). The vulcanization of the human brain: A neural perspective on interactions between cognition and emotion. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4), 3-24. doi:10.1257/089533005775196750
37. Cole, P. M., Bruschi, C. J., & Tamang, B. L. (2002). Cultural differences in children's emotional reactions to difficult situations. Child Development, 73, 983-996.
38. Corno, L. (2001). Volitional aspects of self-regulated learning. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement (pp. 191-225). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. Corno, L. (2011). Studying self-regulation habits. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (pp. 361-375). New York, NY: Routledge.
40. Corno, L., & Mandinach, E. B. (2004). What we have learned about student engagement in the past twenty years. Big Theories Revisited, 4, 299-328.
41. Crum, A. J., Salovey, P., & Achor, S. (2013). Rethinking stress: The role of mindsets in determining the stress response. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 716-733.
42. Cunningham, W. A., Zelazo, P. D., Packer, D. J., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2007). The iterative reprocessing model: A multilevel framework for attitudes and evaluation. Social Cognition, 25, 736-760.
43. de Castro, B., Veerman, J. W., Koops, W., Bosch, J. D., & Monshouwer, H. J. (2002). Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 73, 916-934.
44. Depue, R. A., & Collins, P. F. (1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 491-569.
45. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333, 959-964.
46. Dimmitt, C., & McCormick, C. B. (2012). Metacognition in education. In K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, C. B. McCormick, G. M. Sinatra, & J. Sweller (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues (pp. 157-187). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
47. Dodge, K. A., Godwin, J., & The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2013). Social-information-processing patterns mediate the impact of preventetive intervention on adolescent antisocial behavior. Psychological Science, 24, 456-465.
48. Doyle, T. J., Friedmann, P. D., & Zywiak, W. H. (2013). Management of patients with alcohol dependence in recovery: Options for maintenance and anticipating and managing relapse in primary care. In R. Saitz (Ed.), Addressing unhealthy alcohol use in primary care (pp. 85-92). New York, NY: Springer.
49. Duckworth, A. L., & Allred, K. M. (2012). Temperament in the classroom. In M. Zenter & R. L. Shiner (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 627-644). New York, NY: Guilford.
50. Duckworth, A. L., & Carlson, S. M. (2013). Self-regulation and school success. In F. M. E. Grouzet, U. Muller, & B. W. Sokol (Eds.), Self-regulation and autonomy: Social and developmental dimensions of human conduct (pp. 208-230). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
51. Duckworth, A. L., Gollwitzer, A., Kirby, T., & Oettingen, G. (2010). From fantasy to action: Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII) improves report card grades and school attendance among disadvantaged children. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4, 745-753.
52. Duckworth, A. L., Grant, H., Loew, B., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2011). Self-regulation strategies improve self-discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intention. Educational Psychology, 31, 17-26.
53. Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & Kirby, T. (2013). Is it really self-control? Examining the predictive power of the delay gratification task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 843-855.
54. Duckworth, A. L., Tsukayama, E., & May, H. (2010). Establishing causality using longitudinal hierarchical linear modeling: An illustration predicting achievement from self-control. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 311-317.
55. Efklides, A. (2011). Interactions of metacognition with motivation and affect in self-regulated learning: The MASRL model. Educational Psychologist, 46, 6-25.
56. Eilam, B., & Aharon, I. (2003). Students' planning in the process of self-regulated learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 304-334.
57. Eisenberg, N., Duckworth, A. L., Spinrad, T. L., & Valiente, C. (2012). Conscientiousness: Origins in childhood? Developmental Psychology, 50, 1331-1349.
58. Eisenberg, N., Hofer, C., Sulik, M. J., & Spinrad, T. L. (2014). Self-regulation, effortful control, and their socioemotiona correlates. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 157-172). New York, NY: Guilford.
59. Eisenberg, N., Smith, C. L., Sadovsky, A., & Spinrad, T. (Eds.). (2004). Effortful control: Relations with emotion regulation, adjustment, and socialization in childhood. In R. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation research, theory and applications (pp. 259-282). New York, NY: Guilford.
60. Eisenberg, N., Valiente, C., Spinrad, T. L., Cumberland, A., Liew, J., Reiser, M., & Losoya, S. H. (2009). Longitudinal relations of children's effortful control, impulsivity, and negative emotionality to their externalizing, internalizing, and co-occurring behavior problems. Developmental Psychology 45, 988-1008.
61. Engle, R. A., Lama, D. P., Meyera, X. S., & Nixa, S. E. (2012). How does expansive framing promote transfer? Several proposed explanations and a research agenda for investigating them. Educational Psychologist, 47, 215-231.
62. Epictetus. (1983). The handbook (N. P. White, Trans.). Indianapolis, IN: Hackett.
63. Evenden, J. L. (1999). Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology, 146, 348-361.
64. Eysenck, S. B., Pearson, P. R., Easting, G., & Allsopp, J. F. (1984). Age norms for impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy in children. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 613-619.
65. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911.
66. Frankfurt, H. G. (1971). Freedom of the will and the concept of a person. The Journal of Philosophy, 68, 5-20.
67. Franklin, B. (1996). The art of virtue (3rd ed.). Eden Prairie, MN: Acorn. (Original work published 1760)
68. Freud, S. (1920). Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
69. Fujita, K. (2011). On conceptualizing self-control as more than the effortful inhibition of impulses. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 352-366.
70. Fujita, K., & Carnevale, J. J. (2012). Transcending temptation through abstraction. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 248-252. doi:10.1177/0963721412449169
71. Fujita, K., Trope, Y., Liberman, N., & Levin-Sagi, M. (2006). Construal levels and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 351-367.
72. Gilbert, D. T. & Wilson, T. D. (2007). Prospection: Experiencing the future. Science, 317, 1351-1354.
73. Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493-503.
74. Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271.
75. Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1993). Emotional suppression: Physiology, self-report, and expressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 970-986. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.6.970
76. Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting negative and positive emotion. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 95-103. doi:10.1037//0021-843X.106.1.95
77. Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3-23). New York, NY: Guilford.
78. Herrmann, P. A., Legare, C. H., Harris, P. L., & Whitehouse, H. (2013). Stick to the script: The effect of witnessing multiple actors on children's imitation. Cognition, 129, 536-543.
79. Hofmann, W., Baumeister, R. F., Förster, G., & Vohs, K. D. (2012). Everyday temptations: An experience sampling study of desire, conflict, and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 1318.
80. Hofmann, W., Friese, M., & Strack, F. (2009). Impulse and self-control from dual-systems perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 162-176.
81. Hofmann, W., & Kotabe, H. (2012). A general model of preventive and interventive self-control. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6, 707-722. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00461.x
82. Hofmann, W., & Van Dillen, L. (2012). Desire: The new hot spot in self-control research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 317-322. doi:10.1177/0963721412453587
83. Hogue, A., & Steinberg, L. (1995). Homophily of internalized distress in adolescent peer groups. Developmental Psychology, 31, 897-906.
84. Homer. (1961). The Odyssey (R. Fitzgerald, Trans.). New York, NY: Doubleday.
85. Inzlicht, M., & Legault, L. (2014). No pain, no gain: How distress underlies effective self-control (and unites diverse social psychological phenomena). In J. Forgas & E. Harmon-Jones (Eds.), The control within: motivation and its regualtion (pp. 115-136). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
86. Inzlicht, M., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What is ego depletion? Toward a mechanistic revision of the resource model of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 450-463. doi:10.1177/1745691612454134
87. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vol. II). New York, NY: Holt.
88. James, W. (1899). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals. New York, NY: Holt.
89. Jamieson, J. P., Mendes, W. B., Blackstock, E., & Schmader, T. (2010). Turning the knots in your stomach into bows: Reappraising arousal improves performance on the GRE. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 208-212.
90. Jansen, A., Theunissen, N., Slechten, K., Nederkoorn, C., Boon, B., Mulkens, S., & Roefs, A. (2003). Overweight children overeat after exposure to food cues. Eating Behaviors, 4, 197-209. doi:10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00011-4
91. Job, V., Dweck, C. S., & Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion-Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science, 21, 1686-1693.
92. Job, V., Walton, G. M., Bernecker, K., & Dweck, C. S. (in press). Implicit theories about willpower predict self-regulation and grades in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
93. Johnston, W. A., & Dark, V. J. (1986). Selective attention. Annual Review of Psychology, 37, 43-75.
94. Kandel, D. B. (1978). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 427-436.
95. Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. Annual Review of Psychology, 44, 23-52.
96. Kavanagh, D. J., Andrade, J., & May, J. (2004). Imaginary relish and exquisite torture: The elaborated intrusion theory of desire. Psychological Review, 112, 446-467.
97. Kelley, A. E. (2004). Memory and addiction: Shared neural circuitry and molecular mechanisms. Neuron, 44, 161-179.
98. Kendall, P. C. (1977). On the efficacious use of verbal self-instructional procedures with children. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 331-341.
99. Kirk, D., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2013). Promoting integrative bargaining: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions. International Journal of Conflict Management, 24, 148-165.
100. Kolovelonis, A., Goudas, M., Hassandra, M., & Dermitzaki, I. (2012). Self-regulated learning in physical education: Examining the effects of emulative and self-control practice. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 383-389.
101. Korotitsch, W. J., & Nelson-Gray, R. O. (1999). An overview of self-monitoring research in assessment and treatment. Psychological Assessment, 11, 415-425.
102. Krampe, H., Stawicki, S., Wagner, T., Bartels, C., Aust, C., Rüther, E., & Ehrenreich, H. (2006). Follow-up of 180 alcoholic patients for up to 7 years after outpatient treatment: Impact of alcohol deterrents on outcome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 86-95.
103. Kross, E., Duckworth, A., Ayduk, O., Tsukayama, E., & Mischel, W. (2011). The effect of self-distancing on adaptive versus maladaptive self-reflection in children. Emotion, 11, 1032-1039. doi:10.1037/a0021787
104. Kross, E., & Grossmann, I. (2011). Boosting wisdom: Distance from the self enhances wise reasoning, attitudes, and behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 14, 43-48.
105. Kumar, S. M. (2003). An introduction to Buddhism for the cognitive-behavioral therapist. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 9, 40-43.
106. Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A. L., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36, 661-726.
107. LaGrand, L. E. (1969). Discipline in the secondary schools. New York, NY: Parker.
108. Lillard, A. (2012). Preschool children's development in classic Montessori, supplemented Montessori, and conventional programs. Journal of School Psychology, 50, 379-401.
109. Luty, J. (2006). What works in alcohol use disorders? Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 12, 13-22.
110. Magen, E., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Harnessing the need for immediate gratification: Cognitive reconstrual modulates the reward value of temptations. Emotion, 7, 415-428.
111. Magen, E., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Getting our act together: Toward a general model of self-control. In R. Hassin, K. Ochsner, & Y. Trope (Eds.), Self control in society, mind and brain (pp. 335-353). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
112. Mann, T., de Riddler, D., & Fujita, K. (2013). Self-regulation of health behavior: Social psychological approaches to goal setting and goal striving. Health Psychology, 32, 487-498.
113. Mann, T., & Ward, A. (2007). Attention, self-control, and health behaviors. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 280-283.
114. McCaslin, M., & Hickey, D. T. (2001). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: A Vygotskian view. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement (pp. 227-252). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
115. McFall, R. M. (1970). Effects of self monitoring on normal smoking behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 35, 135-142.
116. Meichenbaum, D. H., & Goodman, J. (1971). Training impulsive children to talk to themselves: A means of developing self-control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77, 115-126.
117. Milkman, K. L., Minson, J., & Volpp, K. (2014). Holding the Hunger Games hostage at the gym: An evaluation of temptation bundling. Management Science, 60, 283-299.
118. Milkman, K. L., Rogers, T., & Bazerman, M. H. (2008). Harnessing our inner angels and demons: What we have learned about want/should conflicts and how that knowledge can help us reduce short-sighted decision making. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 324-338.
119. Mischel, H. N., & Mischel, W. (1983). The development of children's knowledge of self-control strategies. Child Development, 54, 603-619.
120. Mischel, W. (1981). Metacognition and the rules of delay. In J. H. Flavell & L. Ross (Eds.), Social cognitive development: Frontiers and possible futures (pp. 240-272). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
121. Mischel, W. (2014). The marshmallow test: Mastering self-control. New York, NY: Little, Brown.
122. Mischel, W., & Ayduk, O. (2004). Willpower in a cognitive-affective processing system: The dynamics of delay of gratification. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 99-129). New York, NY: Guilford.
123. Mischel, W., & Baker, N. (1975). Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 254-261.
124. Mischel, W., & Ebbesen, E. B. (1970). Attention in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16, 329-337.
125. Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. B., & Zeiss, A. R. (1972). Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21, 204-218.
126. Mischel, W., & Patterson, C. J. (1976). Substantive and structural elements of effective plans for self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 942-950.
127. Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Peake, P. K. (1988). The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by preschool delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 687-696.
128. Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933-938.
129. Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., & Caspia, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of the Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 2693-2698.
130. Moore, B., Mischel, W., & Zeiss, A. (1976). Comparative effects of the reward stimulus and its cognitive representation in voluntary delay. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 419-424.
131. Morgan, M. (1985). Self-monitoring of attained subgoals in private study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 623-630.
132. Mukhopadhyay, A., & Johar, G. V. (2005). Where there is a will, is there a way? Effects of lay theories of self-control on setting and keeping resolutions. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 779-786.
133. Nelson, T., Narens, L. M. J., & Shimamura, A. P. (1994). Metacognition: Knowing about knowing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
134. Niaura, R. S., Rohsenow, D. J., Binkoff, J. A., Monti, P. M., Pedraza, M., & Abrams, D. B. (1988). Relevance of cue reactivity to understanding alcohol and smoking relapse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 133.
135. Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., & Turkheimer, E. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130-159.
136. Nurmi, J. E. (1991). How do adolescents see their future? A review of the development of future orientation and planning. Developmental Review, 1(11), 1-59.
137. Nurmi, J. E. (2005). Thinking about and acting upon the future: Development of future orientation across the life span. In A. Strathman & J. Joireman (Eds.), Understanding behavior in the context of time: Theory, research, and application (pp. 31-57). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
138. Ochsner, K., & Gross, J. J. (2014). The neural bases of emotion and emotion regulation: A valuation perspective. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (2nd ed., pp. 23-42). New York, NY: Guilford.
139. Oettingen, G. (2012). Future thought and behaviour change. European Review of Social Psychology, 23, 1-63.
140. Paluck, E. L., & Shepherd, H. (2012). The salience of social referents: A field experiment on collective norms and harassment behavior in a school social network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 899-915.
141. Papies, E. K., & Hamstra, P. (2010). Goal priming and eating behavior: Enhancing self-regulation by environmental cues. Health Psychology, 29, 384-388.
142. Patterson, C. J., & Mischel, W. (1975). Plans to resist distraction. Developmental Psychology, 11, 369-378.
143. Patterson, C. J., & Mischel, W. (1976). Effects of temptation-inhibiting and task-facilitating plans on self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 209-217.
144. Peake, P. K., Hebl, M., & Mischel, W. (2002). Strategic attention deployment for delay of gratification in working and waiting situations. Developmental Psychology, 38, 313-326.
145. Perry, R. P., Hechter, F. J., Menec, V. H., & Weinberg, L. E. (1993). Enhancing achievement motivation and performance in college students: An attributional retraining perspective. Research in Higher Education, 34, 687-723.
146. Pintrich, P. R., & de Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 33-40. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33
147. Plummer, B. D., Galla, B. M., D'Mello, S. K., & Duckworth, A. L. (2013, May). Development and validation of a modern persistence performance task. Paper presented at the 25th annual convention of the Association for Psychological Science, Washington, DC.
148. Poston, W. S. C., & Foreyt, J. P. (2000). Successful management of the obese patient. American Family Physician, 61, 3615-3622.
149. Pronin, E., Olivola, C. Y., & Kennedy, K. A. (2008). Doing unto future selves as you would do unto others: Psychological distance and decision making. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 224-236.
150. Rachlin, H. (2000). The science of self-control. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
151. Richards, J. M., & Gross, J. J. (2000). Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one's cool. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 410-424. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.410
152. Rodriguez, M. L., Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1989). Cognitive person variables in the delay of gratification of older children at risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 358-367.
153. Rogers, P. J., & Hill, A. J. (1989). Breakdown of dietary restraint following mere exposure to food stimuli: Interrelationships between restraint, hunger, salivation, and food intake. Addictive Behaviors, 14, 387-397. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(89)90026-9
154. Romer, D., Duckworth, A. L., Sznitman, S., Sunhee, P. (2010). Can adolescents learn self-control? Delay of gratification in the development of control over risk taking. Prevention Science 11, 319-330.
155. Rosen, L. D., Carrier, M. L., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 948-958. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.001
156. Rosenbaum, M. S., & Drabman, R. S. (1979). Self-control training in the classroom: A review and critique. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 467-485.
157. Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., Hersey, K. L., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394-1408.
158. Rothbart, M. K., & Rueda, M. R. (2005). The development of effortful control. In U. Mayr, E. Awh, & S. W. Keele (Eds.), Developing individuality in the human brain (pp. 167-188). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
159. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80, 1-28.
160. Rozin, P., Scott, S., Dingley, M., Urbanek, J. K., Jiang, H., & Kaltenbach, M. (2011). Nudge to nobesity I: Minor changes in accessibility decrease food intake. Judgment and Decision Making, 6, 323-332.
161. Rueda, M. R., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005). The development of executive attention: Contributions to the emergence of self-regulation. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 573-594.
162. Sagotsky, G., Patterson, C. J., & Lepper, M. R. (1978). Training children's self-control: A field experiment in self-monitoring and goal-setting in the classroom. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 25, 242-253.
163. Sansone, C., Weir, C., Harpster, L., & Morgan, C. (1992). Once a boring task always a boring task? Interest as a self-regulatory mechanism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 379-390.
164. Schelling, T. C. (1978). Egonomics, or the art of self-management. The American Economic Review, 68, 290-294. doi:10.2307/1816707
165. Schelling, T. C. (1984). The intimate contest for self-command. Harvard Institute of Economic Research.
166. Schwartz, J., Mochon, D., Wyper, L., Maroba, J., Patel, D., & Ariely, D. (2014). Healthier by precommitment Psychological Science, 25, 538-546.
167. Schroeder, J. R., Latkin, C. A., Hoover, D. R., Curry, A. D., Knowlton, A. R., & Celentano, D. D. (2001). Illicit drug use in one's social network and in one's neighborhood predicts individual heroin and cocaine use. Annals of Epidemiology, 11, 389.
168. Schwebel, A. I., & Cherlin, D. L. (1972). Physical and social distancing in teacher-pupil relationships. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 543-550.
169. Seligman, M. E. P. (1990). Learned optimism: The skills to conquer life's obstacles, large and small. New York, NY: Random House.
170. Seligman, M. E. P., Railton, P., Baumeister, R. F., & Sripada, C. (2013). Navigating into the future or driven by the past. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 119-141. doi:10.1177/1745691612474317
171. Sesame Workshop. (Producer). (2013). Cookie Monster learns a lesson from Tom Hiddleston [Video file]. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b_ubVVnWglk
172. Sethi, A., Mischel, W., Aber, J. L., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (2000). The role of strategic attention deployment in development of self-regulation: Predicting preschoolers' delay of gratification from motherâ€"toddler interactions. Developmental Psychology, 36, 767-777.
173. Shakespeare, W. (2008). Hamlet (J. Bate & E. Rasmussen, Eds.). New York, NY: Modern Library.
174. Sheppes, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Is timing everything? Temporal considerations in emotion regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 319-331.
175. Simons, D. J., & Ambinder, M. S. (2005). Change blindness theory and consequences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 44-48.
176. Singer, J. L., & Singer, D. G. (2006). Preschoolers' imaginative play as precursor of narrative consciousness. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 25, 97-117.
177. Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk-taking in adolescence: New perspectives from brain and behavioral science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 55-59.
178. Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O'Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discoutning. Child Development, 80, 28-44.
179. Strayhorn, J. M. (2002a). Self-control: Theory and research. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 7-16.
180. Strayhorn, J. M. (2002b). Self-control: Toward systematic training programs. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 17-27.
181. Tangney, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Boone, A. L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271-322.
182. Taylor, S. E., Pham, L. B., Rivkin, I. D., & Armor, D. A. (1998). Harnessing the imagination: Mental simulation, self-regulation, and coping. American Psychologist, 53, 429-439. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.53.4.429
183. Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
184. Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117, 440-463.
185. Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Kim, B. E. (2012). Resisting everything except temptation: Evidence and an explanation for domain-specific impulsivity. European Journal of Personality, 26, 318-334. doi:10.1002/per.481
186. Tsukayama, E., Duckworth, A. L., & Kim, B. E. (2013). Domain-specific impulsivity in school-age children. Developmental Science, 16, 879-893.
187. Tsukayama, E., Toomey, S. L., Faith, M. S., & Duckworth, A. L. (2010). Self-control as a protective factor against overweight status in the transition from childhood to adolescence. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 164, 631-635.
188. Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., Larose, S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2005). Kindergarten disruptive behaviors, protective factors, and educational achievement by early adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 617-629.
189. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. In M. Cole (Ed.), Soviet developmental psychology (pp. 76-99). White Plains, NY: M. E. Sharpe. (Original work published 1933)
190. Walberg, H. J. (1969). Physical and psychological distance in the classroom. The School Review, 77, 64-70.
191. Wansink, B. (2007). Mindless eating: Why we eat more than we think. New York, NY: Bantam.
192. Wansink, B., Painter, J. E., & Lee, Y. K. (2006). The office candy dish: proximity's influence on estimated and actual consumption. International Journal of Obesity, 30, 871-875.
193. Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories, and research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
194. Weiss, F. (2005). Neurobiology of craving, conditioned reward and relapse. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 5, 9-19.
195. White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Bartusch, D. J., Needles, D. J., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1994). Measuring impulsivity and examining its relationship to delinquency. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 192-205.
196. White, R. E., Shearer, A., Gross, J. J., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). Situation modification strategies in college students. Manuscript in preparation.
197. Whitebread, D. (2010). Play, metacognition and self-regulation. In P. Broadhead, J. Howard, & E. Wood (Eds.), Play and learning in the early years: From research to practice (pp. 161-176). London, England: Sage.
198. Whiteside, S. P., & Lynam, D. R. (2001). The Five Factor Model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 669-689.
199. Whiteside, S. P., Lynam, D. R., Miller, J. D., & Reynolds, S. K. (2005). Validation of the UPPS impulsive behaviour scale: A four-factor model of impulsivity. European Journal of Personality, 19, 559-574.
200. Wills, T. A., & Stoolmiller, M. (2002). The role of self-control in early escalation of substance use: A time-varying analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 70, 986-997.
201. Winne, H. P. & Hadwin, A. F. (1998). Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 277-304). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
202. Wolters, C. A. (2003). Regulation of motivation: Evaluating an underemphasized aspect of self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 38, 189-205.
203. Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Mindsets that promote resilience: When students believe that personal characteristics can be developed. Educational Psychologist, 47, 302-314.
204. Yeager, D. S., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., Brzustoski, P., Master, A., & Cohen, G. L. (2014). Breaking the cycle of mistrust: Wise interventions to provide critical feedback across the racial divide. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 14, 804-824.
205. Zimmerman, B. J. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview. Educational Psychologist, 25, 3-17.
206. Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Academic studying and the development of personal skill: A self-regulatory perspective. Educational Psychologist, 33, 73-86.
207. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic.
208. Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methedological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45, 166-183.
209. Zimmerman, B. J., & Kitsantas, A. (2014). Comparing students' self-discipline and self-regulation measures and their prediction of academic achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39, 145-155.