Atmospheric CO2 and O2 During the Phanerozoic: Tools, Patterns, and Impacts

Treatise on Geochemistry: Second Edition

Volumn 6, Issue , 2013, Pages 251-267

  Royer, D L ^a  

^a WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Carbon dioxide; Oxygen; Paleoclimate; Phanerozoic

Indexed keywords

GLOBAL WARMING; OXYGEN;

EARLY PALEOZOIC; GLOBAL TEMPERATURES; KEY PROCESS; LATE CENOZOIC; PALEOCLIMATES; PHANEROZOIC; SULFUR CYCLES; TIME-SCALES;

CARBON DIOXIDE;

EID: 84903803427     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01311-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (309)

1. Allen K.A., Hönisch B., Eggins S.M., Yu J., Spero H.J., Elderfield H. Controls on boron incorporation in cultured tests of the planktic foraminifera Orbulina universa. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2011, 309:291-301.
2. 2 enrichment. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2001, 15:149-162.
3. Andrews J.E., Tandon S.K., Dennis P.F. Concentration of carbon dioxide in the Late Cretaceous atmosphere. Journal of the Geological Society of London 1995, 152:1-3.
4. Arrhenius S. On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature on the ground. Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 1896, 41:237-275.
5. 13C enrichment in modern marine organic carbon. Nature 1985, 315:216-218.
6. Arvidson R.S., Mackenzie F.T., Guidry M. MAGic: A Phanerozoic model for the geochemical cycling of major rock-forming components. American Journal of Science 2006, 306:135-190.
7. Baars C., Jones T.H., Edwards D. Microcosm studies of the role of land plants in elevating soil carbon dioxide and chemical weathering. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2008, 22:GB3019. 10.1029/2008GB003228.
8. Ballantyne A.P., Greenwood D.R., Sinninghe Damsté J.S., Csank A.Z., Eberle J.J., Rybczynski N. Significantly warmer Arctic surface temperatures during the Pliocene indicated by multiple independent proxies. Geology 2010, 38:603-606.
9. 2 pulse during Ocean Anoxic Event 2. Nature Geoscience 2010, 3:205-208.
10. 2 levels during the Permo-Carboniferous glaciation inferred from fossil lycopsids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2002, 99:12567-12571.
11. 2 and Its Effects on Plants, Animals, and Ecosystems 2005, 114-132. Springer, New York. J.R. Ehleringer, T.E. Cerling, M.D. Dearing (Eds.).
12. Beerling D.J. The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History 2007, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
13. 2 estimates from fossil leaves. American Journal of Science 2009, 309:775-787.
14. 2 ratios in the Permo-Carboniferous atmosphere. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2002, 66:3757-3767.
15. 2 reconstruction across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary from leaf megafossils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2002, 99:7836-7840.
16. 2 concentrations. Journal of Experimental Botany 1998, 49:1603-1607.
17. Beerling D.J., Royer D.L. Fossil plants as indicators of the Phanerozoic global carbon cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 2002, 30:527-556.
18. 2 history. Nature Geoscience 2011, 4:418-420.
19. 2 redefine paleoatmospheric predictions for the Mesozoic. Science 2008, 321:1197-1200.
20. Belcher C.M., Yearsley J.M., Hadden R.M., McElwain J.C., Rein G. Baseline intrinsic flammability of Earth's ecosystems estimated from paleoatmospheric oxygen over the past 350 million years. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2010, 107:22448-22453.
21. 2 concentration and primary production. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2007, 71:1528-1541.
22. Bergman N.M., Lenton T.M., Watson A.J. COPSE: A new model of biogeochemical cycling over Phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science 2004, 304:397-437.
23. 2 over Phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science 1991, 291:339-376.
24. Berner R.A. Weathering, plants, and the long-term carbon cycle. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1992, 56:3225-3231.
25. 2 over Phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science 1994, 294:56-91.
26. 2. Science 1997, 276:544-546.
27. 2 over Phanerozoic time: The role of land plants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1998, B 353:75-82.
28. 2 over Phanerozoic time. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2001, 65:685-694.
29. Berner R.A. The long-term carbon cycle, fossil fuels and atmospheric composition. Nature 2003, 426:323-326.
30. 2 2004, Oxford University Press, New York.
31. Berner R.A. The carbon and sulfur cycles and atmospheric oxygen from middle Permian to middle Triassic. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005, 69:3211-3217.
32. 2. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2006, 70:5653-5664.
33. 2 over Phanerozoic time. Geology 2006, 34:413-416.
34. Berner R.A. Inclusion of the weathering of volcanic rocks in the GEOCARBSULF model. American Journal of Science 2006, 306:295-302.
35. Berner R.A. Addendum to "inclusion of the weathering of volcanic rocks in the GEOCARBSULF model" (R. A. Berner, 2006, v. 306, p. 295-302). American Journal of Science 2008, 308:100-103.
36. Berner R.A. Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen: New results using the GEOCARBSULF model. American Journal of Science 2009, 309:603-606.
37. Berner R.A., Beerling D.J., Dudley R., Robinson J.M., Wildman R.A. Phanerozoic atmospheric oxygen. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 2003, 31:105-134.
38. Berner R.A., Canfield D. A new model for atmospheric oxygen over Phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science 1989, 289:333-361.
39. 2 over Phanerozoic time. American Journal of Science 2001, 301:182-204.
40. Berner R.A., Lasaga A.C., Garrels R.M. The carbonate-silicate geochemical cycle and its effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 100 million years. American Journal of Science 1983, 283:641-683.
41. 2: Fundamental principles were enunciated by J.J. Ebelmen in 1845. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1996, 60:1633-1637.
42. 2 evolution. Science 2000, 287:1630-1633.
43. Berner R.A., VandenBrooks J.M., Ward P.D. Oxygen and evolution. Science 2007, 316:557-558.
44. 4 species of Atriplex. Carnegie Institution Year Book 1972, 71:158-161.
45. 13C in nature and in the laboratory: Growth-rate effects in some haptophyte algae. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1997, 11:279-292.
46. 2 and temperature variations. Science 2010, 330:819-821.
47. Bijl P.K., Schouten S., Sluijs A., Reichart G.-J., Zachos J.C., Brinkhuis H. Early Palaeogene temperature evolution of the southwest Pacific Ocean. Nature 2009, 461:776-779.
48. Blamart D., Rollion-Bard C., Meibom A., Cuif J.-P., Juillet-Leclerc A., Dauphin Y. Correlation of boron isotopic composition with ultrastructure in the deep-sea coral Lophelia pertusa: Implications for biomineralization and paleo-pH. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 2007, 8:Q12001. 10.1029/2007GC001686.
49. 2: II. Theoretical modeling. American Journal of Science 2006, 306:575-615.
50. 2 conditions during the end-Triassic inferred from stomatal frequency analysis on Lepidopteris ottonis (Goeppert) Schimper and Ginkgoites taeniatus (Braun) Harris. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2010, 295:146-161.
51. 2 paleobarometry. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2004, 18:1026. 10.1029/2003GB002117.
52. Breecker D.O., Sharp Z.D., McFadden L.D. Seasonal bias in the formation and stable isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonate in modern soils from central New Mexico, USA. Geological Society of America Bulletin 2009, 121:630-640.
53. 2 concentrations during ancient greenhouse climates were similar to those predicted for A.D. 2100. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2010, 107:576-580.
54. Brook G.A., Folkoff M.E., Box E.O. A world model of soil carbon dioxide. Earth Surface Landforms 1983, 8:79-88.
55. Budyko M.I., Ronov A.B., Yanshin A.L. History of the Earth's Atmosphere 1987, Springer, Berlin.
56. Caldeira K., Berner R., Sundquist E.T., Pearson P.N., Palmer M.R. Seawater pH and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Science 1999, 286:2043a.
57. 2 concentrations during the Palaeozoic era. Nature 2007, 449:198-201.
58. Casson S., Gray J.E. Influence of environmental factors on stomatal development. New Phytologist 2008, 178:9-23.
59. Cerling T. The stable isotopic composition of modern soil carbonate and its relationship to climate. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1984, 71:229-240.
60. Cerling T.E. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: Evidence from Cenozoic and Mesozoic paleosols. American Journal of Science 1991, 291:377-400.
61. 2) of the paleoatmosphere. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1992, 6:307-314.
62. Cerling T.E. Stable carbon isotopes in palaeosol carbonates. Special Publications of the International Association of Sedimentologists 1999, 27:43-60.
63. Chaloner W.G. Fossil charcoal as an indicator of paleoatmospheric oxygen level. Journal of the Geological Society of London 1989, 146:171-174.
64. Chamberlin T.C. A group of hypotheses bearing on climatic changes. Journal of Geology 1897, 5:653-683.
65. Chamberlin T.C. The influence of great epochs of limestone formation upon the constitution of the atmosphere. Journal of Geology 1898, 6:609-621.
66. Chamberlin T.C. An attempt to frame a working hypothesis of the cause of glacial periods on an atmospheric basis. Journal of Geology 1899, 7:545-584.
67. 2 change. American Journal of Botany 2001, 88:1309-1315.
68. Cleveland D.M., Nordt L.C., Dworkin S.I., Atchley S.C. Pedogenic carbonate isotopes as evidence for extreme climatic events preceding the Triassic-Jurassic boundary: Implications for the biotic crisis?. Geological Society of America Bulletin 2008, 120:1408-1415.
69. Conte M.H., Volman J.K., Eglinton G. Lipid biomarkers of the Haptophyta. The Haptophyte Algae 1994, 351-377. Clarendon Press, Oxford. J.C. Green, B.S.C. Leadbeater (Eds.).
70. Cope M.J., Chaloner W.G. Fossil charcoals as evidence of past atmospheric composition. Nature 1980, 283:647-649.
71. Cox J.E., Railsback L.B., Gordon E.A. Evidence from Catskill pedogenic carbonates for a rapid Late Devonian decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Northeastern Geology and Environmental Sciences 2001, 23:91-102.
72. org analyses from the Midcontinent of North America: Implications for paleoceanography and paleoclimate. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2007, 256:195-203.
73. Crowley T.J., Baum S.K. Toward reconciliation of Late Ordovician (440 Ma) glaciation with very high CO2 levels. Journal of Geophysical Research 1991, 96:22597-22610.
74. 2 levels. Journal of Geophysical Research 1995, 100:1093-1101.
75. 2 and climate change. Science 2001, 292:870-872.
76. Dallanave E., Tauxe L., Muttoni G., Rio D. Silicate weathering machine at work: Rock magnetic data from the late Paleocene-early Eocene Cicogna section, Italy. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 2010, 11:Q07008. 10.1029/2010GC003142.
77. Degens E.T., Guillard R.R.L., Sackett W.M., Hellebust J.A. Metabolic fractionation of carbon isotopes in marine plankton: I. Temperature and respiration experiments. Deep Sea Research 1968, 15:1-9.
78. 2 since 60Ma from records of seawater pH, calcium, and primary carbonate mineralogy. Geology 2003, 31:793-796.
79. Diessel C.F.K. The stratigraphic distribution of inertinite. International Journal of Coal Geology 2010, 81:251-268.
80. 2 and climate history. Climate of the Past 2009, 5:85-96.
81. Donnadieu Y., Goddéris Y., Pierrehumbert R.T., Dromart G., Fluteau F., Jacob R. A GEOCLIM simulation of climatic and biogeochemical consequences of Pangea breakup. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 2006, 7:Q11019. 10.1029/2006GC001278.
82. Donnadieu Y., Pierrehumbert R., Jacob R., Fluteau F. Modelling the primary control of paleogeography on Cretaceous climate. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2006, 248:426-437.
83. 2 during the late Middle Eocene climate transition. American Journal of Science 2011, 311:63-75.
84. 2 in the Siluro-Devonian. Phanerozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems 2000, 47-61. Paleontological Society Special Papers 6. R.A. Gastaldo, W.A. DiMichele (Eds.).
85. Dudley R. The Biomechanics of Insect Flight: Form, Function, Evolution 2000, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
86. Ebelmen J.J. Sur les produits de la décomposition des especes minérales de la famille des silicates. Annales des Mines 1845, 7:3-66.
87. Ekart D.D., Cerling T.E., Montañez I.P., Tabor N.J. A 400 million year carbon isotope record of pedogenic carbonate: Implications for paleoatmospheric carbon dioxide. American Journal of Science 1999, 299:805-827.
88. CO2. Journal of Geophysical Research 1966, 71:3369-3377.
89. Falkowski P.G., Katz M.E., Milligan A.J., et al. The rise of oxygen over the past 205 million years and the evolution of large placental mammals. Science 2005, 309:2202-2204.
90. Farrimond P., Eglinton G., Brassell S.C. Alkenones in Cretaceous black shales, Blake-Bahama Basin, western North Atlantic. Organic Geochemistry 1986, 10:897-903.
91. 3)OH in goethite from a mid-latitude Cenomanian laterite in southwestern Minnesota. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2009, 73:2559-2580.
92. 2 record: Variability tied to changes in thermohaline circulation. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1995, 9:391-403.
93. 2 levels: Experimental evidence and a Cretaceous case study. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2005, 19:GB3012. 10.1029/2005GB002495.
94. Fletcher B.J., Brentnall S.J., Anderson C.W., Berner R.A., Beerling D.J. Atmospheric carbon dioxide linked with Mesozoic and early Cenozoic climate change. Nature Geoscience 2008, 1:43-48.
95. 2, light and temperature. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2006, 70:5676-5691.
96. 2-] variations in the Caribbean Sea over the last 130 kyr: A boron isotope and B/Ca study of planktonic foraminifera. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2008, 271:254-266.
97. Foster G.L., Ni Y., Haley B., Elliott T. Accurate and precise isotopic measurement of sub-nanogram sized samples of foraminiferal hosted boron by total evaporation NTIMS. Chemical Geology 2006, 230:161-174.
98. 2 levels. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1992, 6:185-198.
99. 2 and Its Effects on Plants, Animals, and Ecosystems 2005, 35-61. Springer, New York. J.R. Ehleringer, T.E. Cerling, M.D. Dearing (Eds.).
100. 13C-rich carbon in marine food webs. Marine Ecology Progress Series 1991, 76:149-157.
101. Gaffin S.R. Ridge volume dependence on seafloor generation rate and inversion using long term sealevel change. American Journal of Science 1987, 287:596-611.
102. Garrels R.M., Lerman A. Coupling of the sedimentary sulfur and carbon cycles-an improved model. American Journal of Science 1984, 284:989-1007.
103. Garrels R.M., Mackenzie F.T. Evolution of Sedimentary Rocks 1971, Norton, New York.
104. Garrels R.M., Perry E.A. Cycling of carbon, sulfur, and oxygen through geologic time. The Sea 1974, 303-316. Wiley, New York. E.D. Goldberg (Ed.).
105. 2 and Its Effects on Plants, Animals, and Ecosystems 2005, Springer, New York. J.R. Ehleringer, T.E. Cerling, M.D. Dearing (Eds.).
106. Ghosh P., Bhattacharya S.K., Jani R.A. Palaeoclimate and palaeovegetation in central India during the Upper Cretaceous based on stable isotope composition of the palaeosol carbonates. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1995, 114:285-296.
107. 2 levels in the Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic atmosphere from soil carbonate and organic matter, Satpura basin, Central India. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2001, 170:219-236.
108. 2 threshold for glaciation in the Late Ordovician. Geology 1997, 25:447-450.
109. 2. Warm Climates in Earth History 2000, 386-422. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. B.T. Huber, K.G. MacLeod, S.L. Wing (Eds.).
110. Gislason S.R., Oelkers E.H., Eiriksdottir E.S., et al. Direct evidence of the feedback between climate and weathering. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2009, 277:213-222.
111. Glasspool I.J., Edwards D., Axe L. Charcoal in the Silurian as evidence for the earliest wildfire. Geology 2004, 32:381-383.
112. Glasspool I.J., Scott A.C. Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal. Nature Geoscience 2010, 3:627-630.
113. 2?. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2008, 267:247-255.
114. Gradstein F.M., Ogg J.G., Smith A.G. A Geologic Timescale 2004 2004, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
115. Graham J.B., Dudley R., Aguilar N.M., Gans C. Implications of the late Palaeozoic oxygen pulse for physiology and evolution. Nature 1995, 375:117-120.
116. 2 perception to stomatal development. Nature 2000, 408:713-716.
117. 2. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2003, 196:375-393.
118. 2 during the early Middle Eocene by application of a gas exchange model to fossil plants from the Messel Formation, Germany. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2011, 309:383-391.
119. 2 variations as a response to soil moisture content. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2011, 75:7099-7116.
120. 2: Where should humanity aim?. Open Atmospheric Science Journal 2008, 2:217-231.
121. 2: A model perspective. American Journal of Science 2003, 303:94-148.
122. Harrison J.F., Kaiser A., VandenBrooks J.M. Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 2010, 277:1937-1946.
123. 2 among four genera of Cupressaceae conifers. Annals of Botany 2010, 105:411-418.
124. 2 based on stomata of the extinct conifer Pseudofrenelopsis (Cheirolepidiaceae). Geology 2005, 33:749-752.
125. Hayes J.M., Popp B.N., Takigiku R., Johnson M.W. An isotopic study of biogeochemical relationships between carbonates and organic carbon in the Greenhorn Formation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1989, 53:2961-2972.
126. Hemming N.G., Hanson G.N. Boron isotopic composition and concentration in modern marine carbonates. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1992, 56:537-543.
127. 2 records. Paleoceanography 2007, 22:PA3202. 10.1029/2006PA001399.
128. 2. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2008, 269:575-583.
129. 2 during the Late Ordovician glaciation. Geology 2003, 31:485-488.
130. 2, poleward ocean heat transport and sea level change on global cooling during the Late Ordovician. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2004, 206:59-74.
131. Hetherington A.M., Woodward F.I. The role of stomata in sensing and driving environmental change. Nature 2003, 424:901-908.
132. 2 concentration, pH, temperature, and species. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 1994, 8:91-102.
133. Holland H.D. The Chemistry of the Atmosphere and Oceans 1978, Wiley, New York.
134. Holland H.D. The Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans 1984, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
135. 2 barometer. Geology 1991, 19:929-932.
136. Hollis C.J., Handley L., Crouch E.M., et al. Tropical sea temperatures in the high-latitude South Pacific during the Eocene. Geology 2009, 37:99-102.
137. Hönisch B., Bijma J., Russell A.D., et al. The influence of symbiont photosynthesis on the boron isotopic composition of foraminifera shells. Marine Micropaleontology 2003, 49:87-96.
138. Hönisch B., Hemming N.G. Ground-truthing the boron isotope-paleo-pH proxy in planktonic foraminifera shells: Partial dissolution and shell size effects. Paleoceanography 2004, 19:PA4010. 10.1029/2004PA001026.
139. 2 through two full glacial cycles. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005, 236:305-314.
140. Hönisch B., Hemming N.G., Archer D., Siddall M., McManus J.F. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration across the mid-Pleistocene transition. Science 2009, 324:1551-1554.
141. IPCC Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning (Eds.).
142. Isbell J.L., Miller M.F., Wolfe K.L., Lenaker P.A. Timing of late Paleozoic glaciation in Gondwana: Was glaciation responsible for the development of northern hemisphere cyclothems?. Extreme Depositional Environments: Mega End Members in Geologic Time 2003, 5-24. Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, Special Paper 340. M.A. Chan, A.W. Archer (Eds.).
143. 2 indicators for ancient and modern alkaline saline lakes. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 2010, 42(5):404. (Paper No. 165-402).
144. 2 levels during the late Quaternary. Nature 1990, 347:462-464.
145. 2 from fossil leaves. New Phytologist 2011, 192:29-44.
146. Kaiser A., Klok C.J., Socha J.J., Lee W.-K., Quinlan M.C., Harrison J.F. Increase in tracheal investment with beetle size supports hypothesis of oxygen limitation on insect gigantism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2007, 104:13198-13203.
147. Kashiwagi H., Shikazono N. Climate change during Cenozoic inferred from global carbon cycle model including igneous and hydrothermal activities. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2003, 199:167-185.
148. 2 degassing from the solid Earth. Reviews of Geophysics 2001, 39:565-585.
149. 2 records. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2001, 15:113-127.
150. Kleidon A. Optimized stomatal conductance and the climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide. Geophysical Research Letters 2007, 34:L14709. 10.1029/2007GL030342.
151. 11B MAS NMR. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2009, 73:1890-1900.
152. Klochko K., Kaufman A.J., Yao W.S., Byrne R.H., Tossell J.A. Experimental measurement of boron isotope fractionation in seawater. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2006, 248:276-285.
153. Koch P.L., Zachos J.C., Gingerich P.D. Correlation between isotope records in marine and continental carbon reservoirs near the Palaeocene/Eocene boundary. Nature 1992, 358:319-322.
154. 2. Journal of Theoretical Biology 2008, 253:638-658.
155. 2 during the Late Ordovician. Palaeoclimatology, Palaeogeography, Palaeoecology 1999, 152:173-187.
156. 2 levels. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 1997, 96:1-30.
157. Kürschner W.M., Kvacek Z., Dilcher D.L. The impact of Miocene atmospheric carbon dioxide fluctuations on climate and the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2008, 105:449-453.
158. 2 concentrations. Marine Micropaleontology 1996, 27:299-312.
159. 2 concentrations. Geological Perspectives of Global Climate Change 2001, 169-189. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK. L.C. Gerhard, W.E. Harrison, B.M. Hanson (Eds.).
160. Lake J.A., Quick W.P., Beerling D.J., Woodward F.I. Signals from mature to new leaves. Nature 2001, 411:154.
161. 2 signalling in plants. Journal of Experimental Botany 2002, 53:183-193.
162. Lane N. Oxygen: The Molecule That Made the World 2002, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
163. Le Hir G., Donnadieu Y., Goddéris Y., Meyer-Berthaud B., Ramstein G., Blakey R.C. The climate change caused by the land plant invasion in the Devonian. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2011, 310:203-212.
164. Lee Y.I. Stable isotopic composition of calcic paleosols of the Early Cretaceous Hasandong Formation, southeastern Korea. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1999, 150:123-133.
165. Lee Y.I., Hisada K. Stable isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonates of the Early Cretaceous Shimonoseki Subgroup, western Honshu, Japan. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1999, 153:127-138.
166. Leier A., Quade J., DeCelles P., Kapp P. Stable isotopic results from paleosol carbonate in South Asia: Paleoenvironmental reconstructions and selective alteration. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2009, 279:242-254.
167. Lemarchand D., Gaillardet J., Lewin É., Allègre C.J. The influence of rivers on marine boron isotopes and implications for reconstructing past ocean pH. Nature 2000, 408:951-954.
168. Lemarchand D., Gaillardet J., Lewin É., Allègre C.J. Boron isotope systematics in large rivers: Implications for the marine boron budget and paleo-pH reconstruction over the Cenozoic. Chemical Geology 2002, 190:123-140.
169. Liu Y., Tossell J.A. Ab initio molecular orbital calculations for boron isotope fractionations on boric acids and borates. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005, 69:3995-4006.
170. 2 and its subsequent decline. Science 2006, 313:1928.
171. Lunt D.J., Haywood A.M., Schmidt G.A., Salzmann U., Valdes P.J., Dowsett H.J. Earth system sensitivity inferred from Pliocene modelling and data. Nature Geoscience 2010, 3:60-64.
172. McAlester A.L. Animal extinctions, oxygen consumption, and atmospheric history. Journal of Paleontology 1970, 44:405-409.
173. 2 concentration in the geological past?. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1998, B 353:83-96.
174. McElwain J.C., Beerling D.J., Woodward F.I. Fossil plants and global warming at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary. Science 1999, 285:1386-1390.
175. McElwain J.C., Chaloner W.G. Stomatal density and index of fossil plants track atmospheric carbon dioxide in the Palaeozoic. Annals of Botany 1995, 76:389-395.
176. 2 concentration during the Younger Dryas stadial: A comparison with Antarctic ice core records. Journal of Quaternary Science 2002, 17:21-29.
177. McElwain J.C., Wade-Murphy J., Hesselbo S.P. Changes in carbon dioxide during an oceanic anoxic event linked to intrusion into Gondwana coals. Nature 2005, 435:479-482.
178. 2-forced climate and vegetation instability during late Paleozoic deglaciation. Science 2007, 315:87-91.
179. 2 levels from soil carbonate and organic matter. Science 1996, 271:1105-1107.
180. Moulten K.L., Berner R.A. Quantification of the effect of plants on weathering: Studies in Iceland. Geology 1998, 26:895-898.
181. Moulton K.L., West J., Berner R.A. Solute flux and mineral mass balance approaches to the quantification of plant effects on silicate weathering. American Journal of Science 2000, 300:539-570.
182. 2. Chemical Geology 1993, 106:389-396.
183. Ni Y., Foster G.L., Bailey T., et al. A core top assessment of proxies for the ocean carbonate system in surface-dwelling foraminifers. Paleoceanography 2007, 22:PA3212. 10.1029/2006PA001337.
184. 11B measurements of foraminifers. Chemical Geology 2010, 274:187-195.
185. 2 across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Geology 2002, 30:703-706.
186. Nordt L., Atchley S., Dworkin S. Terrestrial evidence for two greenhouse events in the latest Cretaceous. GSA Today 2003, 13(12):4-9.
187. Otto-Bliesner B.L. Continental drift, runoff and weathering feedbacks: Implications from climate model experiments. Journal of Geophysical Research 1995, 100:11537-11548.
188. 2 proxy and ancient atmospheric carbon dioxide. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A 2002, 360:609-632.
189. Pagani M., Arthur M.A., Freeman K.H. Miocene evolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Paleoceanography 1999, 14:273-292.
190. 2 decline over the past 24 million years. Nature 2009, 460:85-88.
191. 4 grasses. Science 1999, 285:876-879.
192. Pagani M., Freeman K.H., Arthur M.A. Isotope analyses of molecular and total organic carbon from Miocene sediments. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2000, 64:37-49.
193. Pagani M., Huber M., Liu Z., et al. The role of carbon dioxide during the onset of Antarctic glaciation. Science 2011, 334:1261-1264.
194. Pagani M., Lemarchand D., Spivack A., Gaillardet J. A critical evaluation of the boron isotope-pH proxy: The accuracy of ancient ocean pH estimates. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005, 69:953-961.
195. Pagani M., Liu Z., LaRiviere J., Ravelo A.C. High Earth-system climate sensitivity determined from Pliocene carbon dioxide concentrations. Nature Geoscience 2010, 3:27-30.
196. Pagani M., Zachos J.C., Freeman K.H., Tipple B., Bohaty S. Marked decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations during the Paleogene. Science 2005, 309:600-603.
197. Palmer M.R., Pearson P.N., Cobb S.J. Reconstructing past ocean pH-depth profiles. Science 1998, 282:1468-1471.
198. Paris G., Gaillardet J., Louvet P. Geological evolution of seawater boron isotopic composition recorded in evaporites. Geology 2010, 38:1035-1038.
199. Park J., Royer D.L. Geologic constraints on the glacial amplification of Phanerozoic climate sensitivity. American Journal of Science 2011, 311:1-26.
200. 2 estimation from stomatal frequency analysis of gymnosperm leaves of Patagonia, Argentina. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2009, 273:17-24.
201. Pearson P.N., Ditchfield P.W., Singano J., et al. Warm tropical sea surface temperatures in the Late Cretaceous and Eocene epochs. Nature 2001, 413:481-487.
202. Pearson P.N., Foster G.L., Wade B.S. Atmospheric carbon dioxide through the Eocene-Oligocene climate transition. Nature 2009, 461:1110-1113.
203. Pearson P.N., Palmer M.R. Middle Eocene seawater pH and atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Science 1999, 284:1824-1826.
204. Pearson P.N., Palmer M.R. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years. Nature 2000, 406:695-699.
205. Platt N.H. Lacustrine carbonates and pedogenesis: Sedimentology and origin of palustrine deposits from the Early Cretaceous Rupelo Formation, W. Cameros Basin, N. Spain. Sedimentology 1989, 36:665-684.
206. Popp B.N., Laws E.A., Bidigare R.R., Dore J.E., Hanson K.L., Wakeham S.G. Effect of phytoplankton cell geometry on carbon isotopic fractionation. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1998, 62:69-77.
207. 13C depletion in primary marine organic matter. American Journal of Science 1989, 289:436-454.
208. 2: A coupled model analysis. Paleoceanography 1999, 14:542-558.
209. Price G.D., McKenzie J.E., Pilcher J.R., Hoper S.T. Carbon-isotope variation in Sphagnum from hummock-hollow complexes: Implications for Holocene climate reconstruction. The Holocene 1997, 7:229-233.
210. Prochnow S.J., Nordt L.C., Atchley S.C., Hudec M.R. Multi-proxy paleosol evidence for middle and late Triassic climate trends in eastern Utah. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2006, 232:53-72.
211. 34S database through Earth history. Earth-Science Reviews 2008, 87:113-133.
212. 2 levels through the Campanian (Late Cretaceous) based on Ginkgo cuticles. Cretaceous Research 2009, 30:424-428.
213. 2 in the Palaeozoic atmosphere. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2006, 242:110-125.
214. Rahmstorf S., Archer D., Ebel D.S., et al. Cosmic rays, carbon dioxide, and climate. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 2004, 38-41. 85.
215. Retallack G.J. A 300-million-year record of atmospheric carbon dioxide from fossil plant cuticles. Nature 2001, 411:287-290.
216. Retallack G.J. Carbon dioxide and climate over the past 300 Myr. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A 2002, 360:659-673.
217. Retallack G.J. Greenhouse crises of the past 300 million years. Geological Society of America Bulletin 2009, 121:1441-1455.
218. 2 paleobarometer to quantify a middle Miocene greenhouse spike. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2009, 281:57-65.
219. Rice S.K., Giles L. The influence of water content and leaf anatomy on carbon isotope discrimination and photosynthesis in Sphagnum. Plant, Cell and Environment 1996, 19:118-124.
220. Ridgwell A., Zeebe R.E. The role of the global carbonate cycle in the regulation and evolution of the Earth system. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2005, 234:299-315.
221. Roberts C.D., Tripati A.K. Modeled reconstructions of the oceanic carbonate system for different histories of atmospheric carbon dioxide during the last 20Ma. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 2009, 23:GB1011. 10.1029/2008GB003310.
222. Robinson J.M. Lignin, land plants, and fungi: Biological evolution affecting Phanerozoic oxygen balance. Geology 1990, 15:607-610.
223. Robinson J.M. Phanerozoic atmospheric reconstructions: A terrestrial perspective. Global and Planetary Change 1991, 5:51-62.
224. 2 and depositional environment from stable-isotope geochemistry of calcrete nodules (Barremian, Lower Cretaceous, Wealden Beds, England). Journal of the Geological Society of London 2002, 159:215-224.
225. Rothman D.H. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels for the last 500 million years. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2002, 99:4167-4171.
226. 2 concentration. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2003, 202:153-178.
227. Royer D.L. Depth to pedogenic carbonate horizon as a paleoprecipitation indicator?. Geology 1999, 27:1123-1126.
228. 2 concentration. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2001, 114:1-28.
229. 2 concentration from stomatal indices. Causes and Consequences of Globally Warm Climates in the Early Paleogene 2003, 79-93. Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, Special Paper 369. S.L. Wing, P.D. Gingerich, B. Schmitz, E. Thomas (Eds.).
230. 2-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2006, 70:5665-5675.
231. Royer D.L. Fossil soils constrain ancient climate sensitivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2010, 107:517-518.
232. 2 change: Evaluating geochemical and paleobiological approaches. Earth-Science Reviews 2001, 54:349-392.
233. 2 as a primary driver of Phanerozoic climate. GSA Today 2004, 14(3):4-10.
234. 2 concentrations over the past 420 million years. Nature 2007, 446:530-532.
235. 2 during part of the Tertiary. Science 2001, 292:2310-2313.
236. 2 record from the stomatal index of sub-fossil Salix herbacea L. leaves from northern Sweden. The Holocene 1999, 9:509-513.
237. 2 levels?. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 2003, 4(7):1058. 10.1029/2002GC000463.
238. 2 changes from stomatal index data and their relation to climate variations. Global and Planetary Change 2005, 49:47-62.
239. Runkel A.C., Mackey T.J., Cowan C.A., Fox D.L. Tropical shoreline ice in the late Cambrian: Implications for Earth's climate between the Cambrian Explosion and the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. GSA Today 2010, 20(11):4-10.
240. -(aq). Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2010, 74:2843-2850.
241. Rustad J.R., Zarzycki P. Calculation of site-specific carbon-isotope fractionation in pedogenic oxide minerals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2008, 105:10297-10301.
242. Saltzman M.R., Young S.A., Kump L.R., Gill B.C., Lyons T.W., Runnegar B. Pulse of atmospheric oxygen during the late Cambrian. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2011, 108:3876-3881.
243. 2 levels during the mid-Turonian derived from stable isotope composition of paleosol calcite from Israel. Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates 2006, 75-88. Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, Special Paper 416. A.M. Alonso-Zarza, L.H. Tanner (Eds.).
244. Sanyal A., Hemming N.G., Broecker W.S., Lea D.W., Spero H.J., Hanson G.N. Oceanic pH control on the boron isotopic composition of foraminifera: Evidence from culture experiments. Paleoceanography 1996, 11:513-517.
245. Sanyal A., Hemming N.G., Hanson G.N., Broecker W.S. Evidence for a higher pH in the glacial ocean from boron isotopes in foraminifera. Nature 1995, 373:234-236.
246. 2 change. Geophysical Research Letters 2003, 30:1588. 10.1029/2002GL016541.
247. CO2 perturbations associated with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. Science 2011, 331:1404-1409.
248. Schroeder P.A., Austin J.C., Dowd J.F. Estimating long-term soil respiration rates from carbon isotopes occluded in gibbsite. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2006, 70:5692-5697.
249. Scott A.C. The pre-Quaternary history of fire. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2000, 164:297-345.
250. Scott A.C., Glasspool I.J. The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006, 103:10861-10865.
251. Seki O., Foster G.L., Schmidt D.N., Mackensen A., Kawamura K., Pancost R.D. Alkenone and boron-based Pliocene pCO2 records. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2010, 292:201-211.
252. Seton M., Gaina C., Müller R.D., Heine C. Mid-Cretaceous seafloor spreading pulse: Fact or fiction?. Geology 2009, 37:687-690.
253. Sheldon N.D., Tabor N.J. Quantitative paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic reconstruction using paleosols. Earth-Science Reviews 2009, 95:1-52.
254. 11B evolution of seawater and oceanic crust. Chemical Geology 2006, 225:61-76.
255. 2 estimates from paleosols during the late Paleocene/early Eocene global warming interval. Global and Planetary Change 1994, 9:297-307.
256. 2 during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum from stomatal frequency of Ginkgo, Okanagan Highlands, British Columbia, Canada. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2010, 293:120-131.
257. Spivack A.J., You C.-F. Boron isotopic geochemistry of carbonates and pore waters, Ocean Drilling Program Site 851. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1997, 152:113-122.
258. Spivack A.J., You C.-F., Smith H.J. Foraminiferal boron isotope ratios as a proxy for surface ocean pH over the past 21 Myr. Nature 1993, 363:149-151.
259. 2 concentrations at the Triassic/Jurassic boundary. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2011, 308:418-432.
260. 2 estimates based on Taxodium distichum (Cupressaceae) fossils from the Miocene and Pliocene of eastern North America. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2011, 309:327-332.
261. Suchecki R.K., Hubert J.F., Birney de Wet C.C. Isotopic imprint of climate and hydrogeochemistry on terrestrial strata of the Triassic-Jurassic Hartford and Fundy rift basins. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 1988, 58:801-811.
262. Sun B., Dilcher D.L., Beerling D.J., Zhang C., Yan D., Kowalski E. Variation in Ginkgo biloba L. leaf characters across a climatic gradient in China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2003, 100:7141-7146.
263. 2 level based on stomatal characters of fossil Ginkgo from Jurassic to Cretaceous in China. Acta Geologica Sinica 2007, 81:931-939.
264. 2 and associated organic matter. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005, 69:5495-5510.
265. 2 concentrations. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2004, 68:1503-1517.
266. Tajika E. Climate change during the last 150 million years: Reconstruction from a carbon cycle model. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1998, 160:695-707.
267. 2 levels across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary. Nature 2001, 411:675-677.
268. Taylor L.L., Leake J.R., Quirk J., Hardy K., Banwart S.A., Beerling D.J. Biological weathering and the long-term carbon cycle: Integrating mycorrhizal evolution and function into the current paradigm. Geobiology 2009, 7:171-191.
269. 2: A comparative evaluation of available geochemical proxies. Paleoceanography 2010, 25:PA3202. 10.1029/2009PA001851.
270. 2 and ice sheet stability over major climate transitions of the last 20 million years. Science 2009, 326:1394-1397.
271. Tyrrell T., Zeebe R.E. History of carbonate ion concentration over the last 100 million years. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2004, 68:3521-3530.
272. Urey H.C. The Planets: Their Origin and Development 1952, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
273. Van Cappellen P., Ingall E.D. Redox stabilization of the atmosphere and oceans by phosphorus-limited marine productivity. Science 1996, 271:493-496.
274. van der Burgh J., Visscher H., Dilcher D.L., Kürschner W.M. Paleoatmospheric signatures in Neogene fossil leaves. Science 1993, 260:1788-1790.
275. VandenBrooks J., Munoz E., Weed M., Ford C., Harrison M., Harrison J. Impacts of paleo-oxygen levels on the size, development, reproduction, and tracheal systems of Blatella germanica. Evolutionary Biology 2012, 39:83-93.
276. Vaughan A.P.M. Climate and geology - A Phanerozoic perspective. Deep-Time Perspectives on Climate Change: Marrying the Signal from Computer Models and Biological Proxies 2007, 5-59. The Geological Society and The Micropalaeontological Society, London, Special Publications. M. Williams, A.M. Haywood, F.J. Gregory, D.N. Schmidt (Eds.).
277. 18O evolution of Phanerozoic seawater. Chemical Geology 1999, 161:59-88.
278. Vengosh A., Kolodny Y., Starinsky A., Chivas A.R., McCulloch M.T. Coprecipitation and isotopic fractionation of boron in modern biogenic carbonates. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 1991, 55:2901-2910.
279. 2 proxies. Neues Jahrbuch Für Geologie und Paläontologie Abhandlungen 2008, 248:245-255.
280. Walker J.C.G., Hays P.B., Kasting J.F. A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth's surface temperature. Journal of Geophysical Research 1981, 86:9776-9782.
281. 2 and climate. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2001, 65:3005-3025.
282. 18O record. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 2004, 5:Q06004. 10.1029/2003GC000683.
283. 2 and global mean land surface temperature: Evidence from plant fossils. Science China Earth Sciences 2011, 54:1338-1345.
284. Wara M.W., Delaney M.L., Bullen T.D., Ravelo A.C. Possible roles of pH, temperature, and partial dissolution in determining boron concentration and isotopic composition in planktonic foraminifera. Paleoceanography 2003, 18(4):1100. 10.1029/2002PA000797.
285. Weart S.R. The Discovery of Global Warming 2003, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
286. 2 content from carbon isotopes in peat. Nature 1994, 367:153-156.
287. 2: I. Analysis of a black shale. American Journal of Science 2004, 304:234-249.
288. Wildman R.A., Hickey L.J., Dickinson M.B., et al. Burning of forest materials under late Paleozoic high atmospheric oxygen levels. Geology 2004, 32:457-460.
289. Wilkinson B.H., Walker J.C.G. Phanerozoic cycling of sedimentary carbonate. American Journal of Science 1989, 289:525-548.
290. Willis K.J., McElwain J.C. The Evolution of Plants 2002, Oxford University Press, New York.
291. Woodward F.I. Ecophysiological studies on the shrub Vaccinium myrtillus L. taken from a wide altitudinal range. Oecologia 1986, 70:580-586.
292. 2 from pre-industrial levels. Nature 1987, 327:617-618.
293. 2 partial pressure. Journal of Experimental Botany 1988, 39:1771-1781.
294. 2 with global surface temperature and its latitudinal contrast. Geology 1991, 19:1161-1164.
295. 2-induced stomatal frequency response. New Phytologist 2003, 157:391-398.
296. Wynn J.G. Carbon isotope fractionation during decomposition of organic matter in soils and paleosols: Implications for paleoecological interpretations of paleosols. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2007, 251:437-448.
297. 2 concentration of Solenites vimineus (Phillips) Harris (Ginkgophyta) from the Middle Jurassic of the Yaojie Basin, Gansu Province, China. Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 2009, 52:2029-2039.
298. 2 partial pressures in low-temperature geologic systems. Chemical Geology 1987, 64:259-268.
299. 2 concentration in the Early Eocene "climatic optimum". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2004, 68:935-947.
300. 12C ratios of the Fe(III) carbonate component in natural goethites. Stable Isotope Geochemistry: A Tribute to Samuel Epstein 1991, 257-270. The Geochemical Society, San Antonio, Special Publication 3. H.P. Taylor, J.R. O'Neil, I.R. Kaplan (Eds.).
301. 2 pressures inferred from natural goethites. Nature 1992, 355:342-344.
302. 2 pressure. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 1996, 137:71-82.
303. 2 coincide with latest Ordovician glacial-interglacial cycles?. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2010, 296:376-388.
304. Yu J., Elderfield H., Hönisch B. B/Ca in planktonic foraminifera as a proxy for surface seawater pH. Paleoceanography 2007, 22:PA2202. 10.1029/2006PA001347.
305. 11B for deep ocean carbonate ion and pH reconstructions. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2010, 293:114-120.
306. Zachos J.C., Dickens G.R., Zeebe R.E. An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics. Nature 2008, 451:279-283.
307. -. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 2005, 69:2753-2766.
308. 2 and ocean chemistry records. Nature Geoscience 2008, 1:312-315.
309. 11B as a paleo-pH indicator: Evidence from modeling. Paleoceanography 2003, 18(2):1043. 10.1029/2003PA000881.