Intestinal bacteria and probiotics: Effects on the immune system and impacts on human health

Diet, Immunity and Inflammation

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 267-291

  Trejo, F ^a   Sanz, Y ^a  

^a INSTITUTO DE AGROQUÍMICA Y TECNOLOGÍA DE ALIMENTOS CSIC   (Spain)

Author keywords

Immune system; Intestinal bacteria; Lymphocyte differentiation; Probiotics; T cells

Indexed keywords

EID: 84903244114     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1533/9780857095749.3.267     Document Type: Chapter

References (135)

1. Abbas A.K., Lichtman A.H. Cellular and Molecular Immunology 2003, Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA. 5th ed.
2. Aggarwal S., Ghilardi N., Xie M.H., de Sauvage F.J., Gurney A.L. Interleukin-23 promotes a distinct CD4 T cell activation state characterized by the production of interleukin-17. Journal of Biological Chemistry 2003, 278:1910-1914.
3. Akdis M., Akdis C.A. Therapeutic manipulation of immune, tolerance in allergic disease. Nature Reviews of Drug Discovery 2009, 8:645-660.
4. Akdis C.A., Akdis M. Mechanisms and treatment of allergic disease in the big picture of regulatory T cells. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2009, 123:735-746.
5. Akira S., Uematsu S., Takeuchi O. Pathogen recognition and innate immunity. Cell 2006, 124(4):783-801.
6. Alexopoulou L., Holt A.C., Medzhitov R., Flavell R.A. Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-κB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature 2001, 413(6857):732-738.
7. Asahara T., Shimizu K., Nomoto K., Hamabata T., Ozawa A., Takeda Y., Shimizu K. Probiotic bifidobacteria protect mice from lethal infection with Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157, H7. Infection and Immunology 2004, 72:2240-2247.
8. Boudousquie C., Pellaton C., Barbier N., Spertini F. CD4+ CD25+ T cell depletion impairs tolerance induction in a murine model of asthma. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2009, 39:1415-1426.
9. Boyle R.J., Bath-Hextall F.J., Leonardi-Bee J., Murrell D.F., Tang M.L. Probiotics for the treatment of eczema, a systematic review. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2009, 39(8):1117-1127.
10. Caballero-Franco C., Keller K., De Simona C., Chadee K. The VSL#3 probiotic formula induces mucin gene expression and secretion in colonic epithelial cells, American Journal of Physiology -. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 2007, 292:G315-G322.
11. Calcinaro F., Dionisi S., Marinaro M., Candeloro P., Bonato V., Marzotti S., Corneli R.B., Ferretti E., Gulino A., Grasso F., De Simone C., Di Mario U., Falorni A., Boirivant A., Dotta F. Oral probiotic administration induces interleukin-10 production and prevents spontaneous autoimmune diabetes in the non-obese diabetic mouse. Diabetes 2005, 48:1565-1575.
12. Chouraqui J.P., Van Egroo L.D., Fichot M.C. Acidified milk formula supplemented with bifidobacterium lactis, impact on infant diarrhea in residential care settings. Journal of Pediatric and Gastroenterology Nutrition 2004, 38:288-292.
13. Corr S.C., Li Y., Riedel C.U., O'Toole P.W., Hill C., Gahan C.G.M. Bacteriocin production as a mechanism for the anti-infective activity of Lactobacillus salivarius UCC118. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences USA 2007, 104:7617-7621.
14. Deshpande G., Rao S., Patole S., Bulsara M. Updated meta-analysis of probiotics for preventing necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm neonates. Pediatrics 2010, 125(5):921-930.
15. Didierlaurent A., Ferrero I., Otten L.A., Dubois B., Reinhardt M., Carlsen H., Blomhoff R., Akira S., Kraehenbuhl J.P., Sirard L.C. Flagellin promotes myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent development of Th2-type response. Journal of Immunology 2004, 172:6922-6930.
16. Dogi C.A., Galdeano C.M., Perdigón G. Gut immune stimulation by non-pathogenic Gram(+) and Gram(-) bacteria, Comparison with a probiotic strain. Cytokine 2008, 41:223-231.
17. D'Souza A.L., Rajkumar C., Cooke J., Bulpitt C.J. Probiotics in prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhoea, meta-analysis. British Medical Journal 2002, 324(7350):1361.
18. Joint FAO/WHO Working Group Report on Drafting Guidelines for the Evaluation of Probiotics in Food 2002, FAO/WHO, London, Ontario, Canada, April 30 and May 1, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations/World Health Organization, Rome/ Geneva, available at:, (accessed April 2013). ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/wgreport2.pdf.
19. Foligne B., Zoumpopoulou G., Dewulf J., Ben Younes A., Chareyre F., Sirard J.C., Pot B., Grangette C. A key role of dendritic cells in probiotic functionality. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences USA 2007, 104:13780-13785.
20. Foligne B., Zoumpopoulou G., Dewulf J., Ben Younes A., Chareyre F., Sirard Pot B., Grangette C.A. A key role of dendritic cells in probiotic functionality. PLoS One 2007, 2:e313.
21. Freitas M., Axelsson L.G., Cayuela C., Midtvedt T., Truenan G. Indigenous microbes and their soluble factors differentially modulate intestinal glycosylation steps in vivo, Use of a 'lectin assay' to survey in vivo glycosylation changes. Histochemistry and Cell Biology 2005, 124:423-443.
22. Fukazawa A., Alonso C., Kurachi K., Gupta S., Lesser C.F., McCormick B.A., Reinecker A.C. GEF-H1 mediated control of NOD1 dependent NF-kappaB activation by Shigella effectors. PLoS Pathology 2008, 4(11):1-15. e1000228.
23. Gazzinelli R.T., Ropert C., Campos M.A. Role of the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor signaling pathway in host resistance and pathogenesis during infection with protozoan parasites. Immunology Review 2004, 201:9-25.
24. Gionchetti P., Rizzello F., Helwig U., Venturi A., Lammers K.M., Brigidi P., Vitali B., Piggoli G., Miglioli M., Campieri M. Prophylaxis of pouchitis onset with probiotic therapy, a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2003, 124:1202-1209.
25. Gionchetti P., Rizzello F., Venturi A., Brigidi P., Matteuzzi D., Bazzocchi G., Piggoli G., Miglioli M., Campieri M. Oral bacteriotherapy as maintenance treatment in patients with chronic pouchitis, a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2000, 119:305-309.
26. Giovannini M., Agostoni C., Riva E., Salvini F., Ruscitto A., Zuccotti G.V., Radaelli G., Felicita Study Group A randomized prospective double blind controlled trial on effects of long-term consumption of fermented milk containing Lactobacillus casei in preschool children with allergic asthma and/or rhinitis. Pediatric Research 2007, 62(2):215-220.
27. Girardin S.E., Boneca I.G., Carneiro L.A., Antignac A., Jehanno M., Viala J., Tedin K., Taha M.K., Labigne A., Zahringer U. Nod1 detects a unique muropeptide from gramnegative bacterial peptidoglycan. Science 2003, 300:1584-1587.
28. Gosselink M.P., Schouten W.R., van Lieshout L.M., Hop W.C., Laman J.D., Ruseler-van Embden J.G. Delay of the first onset of pouchitis by oral intake of the probiotic strain Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum 2004, 47(6):876-884.
29. Grabig A., Paclik D., Guzy C., Dankof A., Baumgart D.C., Erckenbrecht J., Raupach B., Sonnenborn U., Eckert Schumann R.R., Wiedenmann B., Dignass A.U., Sturm A. Escherichia coli strain Nissle, 1917 ameliorates experimental colitis via toll-like receptor 2- and toll-like receptor 4-dependent pathways. Infection and Immunity 2006, 74:4075-4082.
30. Grangette C., Nutten S., Palumbo E., Morath S., Hermann C., Dewulf J., Pot B., Hartung T., Hols P., Mercenier A. Enhanced antiinflammatory capacity of a Lactobacillus plantarum mutant synthesizing modified teichoic acids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 2005, 102:10321-10326.
31. Gri G., Piconese S., Frossi B., Manfroi V., Merluzzi S., Tripodo C., Viola A., Odom S., Rivera J., Colombo M.P., Pucillo C.E. CD4+CD25+regulatory T cells suppress mast cell degranulation and allergic responses through OX40-OX40L interaction. Immunity 2008, 29:771-781.
32. Grönlund M.M., Arvilommi H., Kero P., Lehtonen O.P., Isolauri E. Importance of intestinal colonisation in the maturation of humoral immunity in early infancy, a prospective follow up study of healthy infants aged 0-6months. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal Neonatal Edition 2000, 83(3):F186-F192.
33. Guarino A.R., Canani R.B., Spagnuolo M.I., Albano F., Di Benedetto L. Oral bacterial therapy reduces the duration of symptoms and of viral excretion in children with mild diarrhea. Journal of Pediatry and Gastroenterology Nutrition 1997, 25(5):16-519.
34. Hart A.L., Lammers K., Brigidi P., Vitali B., Rizzello F., Gionchetti P., Campieri M., Kamm M.A., Knight S.C., Stagg A.J. Modulation of human dendritic cell phenotype and function by probiotic bacteria. Gut 2004, 53:1602-1609.
35. Hayashi F., Smith K.D., Ozinsky A. The innate immune response to bacterial flagellin is mediated by Toll-like receptor 5. Nature 2001, 410(6832):1099-1103.
36. Heil F., Hemmi H., Hochrein H., Hochrein H., Ampenberger F., Kirschning C., Akira S., Lipford G., Wagner H., Bauer S. Species-specific recognition of single-stranded RNA via Toll-like receptor 7 and 8. Science 2004, 303(5663):1526-1529.
37. Hickson M., D'Souza A.L., Muthu N., Rogers T.R., Want S., Rajkumar C., Bulpitt C.J. Use of probiotic Lactobacillus preparation to prevent diarrhoea associated with antibiotics, randomised double blind placebo controlled trial. British Medical Journal 2007, 335(7610):80.
38. Hill D.A., Artis D. Maintaining diplomatic relations between mammals and beneficial microbial communities. Science Signalling 2009, 2(98):77.
39. Hoarau C., Lagaraine C., Martin L., Velge-Roussel F., Lebranchu Y. Supernatant of Bifidobacterium breve induces dendritic cell maturation, activation, and survival through a Toll-like receptor 2 pathway. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2006, 117:696-702.
40. Hoebe K., Georgel P., Rutschmann S. CD36 is a sensor of diacylglycerides. Nature 2005, 433(7025):523-527.
41. Ho-Keun K., Choong-Gu L., Jae-Seon S., Chang-Suk C., Ji-Sun H., Anupama S., Jong H.N., Joon H.R., Ki-Chul H., Sin-Hyeog I. Generation of regulatory dendritic cells and CD4+Foxp3+ T cells by probiotics administration suppresses immune disorders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 2009, 107(5):2159-2164.
42. Hooper L.V., Stappenbeck T.S., Hong C.V., Gordon J.L. Angiogenins, a new class of microbicidal proteins involved in innate immunity. Nature Immunology 2003, 4:269-273.
43. Hrncir T., Stepankova R., Kozakova H., Hudcovic T., Tlaskalova-Hogenova H. Gut microbiota and lipopolysaccharide content of the diet influence development of regulatory T cells, studies in germ-free mice. British Medical and Clinical Immunology 2008, 9:65.
44. Hu Y., Shen F., Crellin N.K., Ouyang W. The IL-17 pathway as a major therapeutic target in autoimmune disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2010, 1217:60-76.
45. Huurre A., Laitinen K., Rautava S., Korkeamaki M., Isolauri E. Impact of maternal atopy and probiotic supplementation during pregnancy on infant sensitization, a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2008, 38(8):1342-1348.
46. Inagaki-Ohara K., Chinen T., Matsuzaki G., Sasaki A., Sakamoto Y., Hiromatsu K., Nakamura-Uchiyama F., Nawa Y., Yoshimura A. Mucosal T cells bearing TCR gamma-delta play a protective role in intestinal inflammation. Journal of Immunology 2004, 173:1390-1398.
47. Ishida Y., Nakamura F., Kanzato H., Sawada D., Hirata H., Nishimura A., Kajimoto O., Fujiwara S. Clinical effects of Lactobacillus acidophilus strain L-92 on perennial allergic rhinitis, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Dairy Science 2005, 88:527-533.
48. Ishikawa H., Akedo I., Umesaki Y., Tanaka R., Imaoka A., Otani T. Randomized controlled trial of the effect of bifidobacteria-fermented milk on ulcerative colitis. Journal of the American College and Nutrition 2004, 22:56-63.
49. Isolauri E., Arvola T., Sutas Y., Moilanen E., Salminen S. Probiotics in the management of atopic eczema. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2000, 30:1604-1610.
50. Jijon H., Backer J., Diaz H., Yeung H., Thiel D., McKaigney C., De Simone C., Madsen D. DNA from probiotic bacteria modulates murine and human epithelial and immune function. Gastroenterology 2004, 126:1358-1373.
51. Jutel M., Akdis M., Budak F., Aebischer-Casaulta C., Wrzyszcz M., Blaser K., Akdis C.A. IL-10 and TGF-beta cooperate in the regulatory T cell response to mucosal allergens in normal immunity and specific immunotherapy. European Journal of Immunology 2003, 33:1205-1214.
52. Kalliomäki M., Kirjavainen P., Eerola E., Kero P., Salminen S., Isolauri E. Distinct patterns of neonatal gut microflora in infants in whom atopy was and was not developing. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2001, 107:129-134.
53. Kalliomäki M., Salminen S., Poussa T., Isolauri E. Probiotics during the first 7years of life, a cumulative risk reduction of eczema in a randomized, placebo controlled trial. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2007, 119:1019-1021.
54. Kawase M., He F., Kubota A., Hiramatsu M., Saito H., Ishii T., Yasueda H., Akiyama K. Effect of fermented milk prepared with two probiotic strains on Japanese cedar pollinosis in a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study. International Journal of Food Microbiology 2009, 128(3):429-434.
55. Kim J.Y., Kwon J.H., Ahn S.H., Lee S.I., Han Y.S., Choi Y.O., Lee S.Y., Ahn K.M., Ji G.E. Effect of probiotic mix (Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus acidophilus in the primary prevention of eczema, a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Pediatric Allergy and Immunology 2010, 21(2):386-393.
56. Kobayashi T., Okamoto S., Hisamatsu T., Kamada N., Chinen H., Saito R., Kitazume M.T., Nakazawa A., Sugita A., Koganei K., Isobe K., Hibi T. IL23 differentially regulates the Th1/Th17 balance in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Gut 2008, 57:1682-1689.
57. Kopp M.V., Salfeld P.O. Probiotics and prevention of allergic disease. Current Opinion on Clinical and Nutrition Metabolism Care 2009, 12(3):298-303.
58. Kruis W., Fric P., Pokrotnieks J., Lukas M., Fixa B., Kascak M., Kamm M.A., Weismueller J., Beglinger C., Stolte M., Wolff C., Schulze J. Maintaining remission of ulcerative colitis with the probiotic Escherichia coli Nissle, 1917 is as effective as with standard mesalazine. Gut 2004, 53:1617-1623.
59. Kuisma J., Mentula S., Jarvinen H., Kahri A., Saxelin M., Farkkila M. Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG on ileal pouch inflammation and microbial flora. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2003, 17:509-515.
60. Kukkonen K., Savilahti E., Haahtela T. Probiotics and prebiotic galactooligosaccharides in the prevention of allergic diseases, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2007, 119:192-198.
61. Kumar A., Wu H., Collier-Hyams L.S., Kwon Y.M., Hanson J.M., Neish A.S. The bacterial fermentation product butyrate influences epithelial signaling via reactive oxygen species-mediated changes in cullin-1 neddylation. Journal of Immunology 2009, 182:538-546.
62. Langrish C.L., Chen Y., Blumenschein W.M., Mattson J., Basham B., Sedgwick J.D., McClanahan T., Kastelein R.A., Cua D.J. IL-23 drives a pathogenic T cell population that induces autoimmune inflammation. Journal of Experimental Medicine 2005, 201(2):233-240.
63. Lavasani S., Dzhambazov B., Nouri M., Fåk F., Buske S., Molin G., Thorlacius H., Alenfall J., Jeppsson B., Weström B. A novel probiotic mixture exerts a therapeutic effect on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mediated by IL-10 producing regulatory T cells. PLoS One 2010, 5(2):e9009.
64. Lee J., Chuang T.H., Redecke V. Molecular basis for the immunostimulatory activity of guanine nucleoside analogs, activation of Toll-like receptor 7. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 2003, 100(11):6646-6651.
65. Lee M.S., Kim Y.J. Signaling pathways downstream of pattern-recognition receptors and their cross talk. Annual Review Biochemistry 2007, 76:447-480.
66. Leung D.Y.M., Boguniewicz M., Howell M.D., Nomura I., Hamid Q.A. New insights into atopic dermatitis. Journal of Clinical Investigation 2004, 113:651-657.
67. Lin H.C., Hsu C.H., Chen H.L., Chung M.Y., Hsu J.F., Lien R.I., Tsao L.Y., Chen C.H., Su B.H. Oral probiotics prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in very low birth weight preterm infants, a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics 2008, 122(4):693-700.
68. Lin Y.P., Thibodeaux C.H., Peña J., Ferry G.D., Versalovic J. Probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri suppress proinflammatory cytokines via c-Jun. Inflammatory Bowel Disease 2008, 14:1068-1083.
69. Lührs H., Gerke T., Müller J.G., Melcher R., Schauber J., Boxberge F., Scheppach W., Menze Butyrate inhibits NF-κB activation in lamina propria macrophages of patients with ulcerative colitis. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 2002, 37:458-466.
70. Lutgendorff F., Akkermans L.M., Soderholm J.D. The role of microbiota and probiotics in stress-induced gastro-intestinal damage. Current Molecular Medicine 2008, 8:282-298.
71. Lyons A., O'Mahony D., O'Brien F., MacSharry J., Sheil B., Ceddia M., Russell W.M., Forsythe P., Bienenstock J., Kiely B., Shanahan F., O'Mahony L. Bacterial strain-specific induction of Foxp3+ T regulatory cells is protective in murine allergy models A. Clinical & Experimental Allergy 2010, 40:811-819.
72. MacFarlane G.T., Cummings J.H. Probiotics, infection and immunity. Current Opinion on Infective Disease 2002, 15:501-506.
73. Mackie R.I., Sghir A., Gaskins H.R. Developmental microbial ecology of the neonatal gastrointestinal tract. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999, 69:1035-1045.
74. Mallon P., McKay D., Kirk S., Gardiner K. Probiotics for induction of remission in ulcerative colitis. Cochrane Database System Review 2007, 4. CD005573.
75. Maul J., Loddenkemper C., Mundt P., Berg E., Giese T., Stallmach A., Zeitz M., Duchmann R. Peripheral and intestinal regulatory CD4+ CD25 (high) T cells in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 2005, 128:1868-1878.
76. Mazmanian S.K., Liu C.H., Tzianabos O.A., Kasper D.L. An immunomodulatory molecule of symbiotic bacteria directs maturation of the host immune system. Cell 2005, 122:107-118.
77. McFarland L.V. Meta-analysis of probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea and the treatment of Clostridium difficile disease. American Journal of Gastroenterology 2006, 101(4):812-822.
78. McFarland L.V., Surawicz C.M., Greenberg R.N. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of Saccharomyces boulardii in combination with standard antibiotics for Clostridium difficile disease. Journal of the American Medical Association 1994, 271:1913-1918.
79. Medina M., Izquierdo E., Ennahar S., Sanz Y. Differential immunomodulatory properties of Bifidobacterium longum strains, relevance to probiotic selection and clinical applications. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 2007, 150:531-538.
80. Meiler F., Klunker S., Zimmermann M., Akdis C.A., Akdis M. Distinct regulation of IgE, IgG4 and IgA by T regulatory cells and toll-like receptors. Allergy 2008, 63:1455-1463.
81. Ménard O., Batel M.J., Gaboriau-Routhiau V., Waligora-Dupriet A.J. Gnotobiotic mouse immune response induced by Bifidobacterium sp, strains isolated from infants. Applied of Environmental Microbiology 2008, 74:660-666.
82. Michelsen K.S., Arditi M. Toll-like receptors and innate immunity in gut homeostasis and pathology. Current Opinion in Hematology 2007, 14:48-54.
83. Mills K.H. Regulatory T cells, friend or foe in immunity to infection?. Nature Review of Immunology 2004, 4:841-855.
84. Mimura T., Rizzello F., Helwig U., Poggioli G., Schreiber S., Talbot I.C., Nicholls R.J., Gionchetti P., Campieri M., Kamm M.A. Once daily high dose probiotic therapy (VSL#3) for maintaining remission in recurrent or refractory pouchitis. Gut 2004, 53:108-114.
85. Nasu K., Narahara H. Pattern recognition via the Toll-Like receptor system in the human female genital tract mediators. Inflammation 2010, 976024.
86. Netea M.N., Kullberg B.J., de Jong D.J., Franke B., Sprong T., Naber T.H., Drenth J.P., Van der Meer J.W. NOD2 mediates anti-inflammatory signals induced by TLR2 ligands, implications for Crohn's disease. European Journal of Immunology 2004, 34:2052-2059.
87. Niers L., Martín R., Rijkers G.L., Sengers G., Timmerman H., van Uden N., Smidt H., Kimpen J., Hoekstra M. The effects of selected probiotic strains on 1 the development of eczema (The PandA study). Allergy 2009, 64:1349-1358.
88. Nonaka M., Pawankar R., Fukumoto A., Yagi T. Heterogeneous response of nasal and lung fibroblasts to transforming growth factorbeta Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2008, 38:812-821.
89. O'Mahony C., Scully P., O'Mahony D., Murphy S., O'Brien F., Lyons A., Sherlock G., MacSharry J., Kiely B., Sanan F., O'Mahony L. Commensal-induced regulatory T cells mediate protection against pathogen-stimulated NF-kappaB activation. PLoS Pathogens 2008, 4:e1000112.
90. O'Mahony L., O'Callaghan L., McCarthy J., Shilling D., Scully P., Sibartie S., Kavanagh E., Kirwan W.O., Redmond H.P., Collins J.K., Sanan F. Differential cytokine response from dendritic cells to commensal and pathogenic bacteria in different lymphoid compartments in humans. American Journal of Physiology -Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 2006, 290:G839-G845.
91. Pene J., Chevalier S., Preisser L., Venereau E., Guilleux M.H., Ghannam S., Moles J.P., Danger Y., Ravon E., Lesaux S., Yssel H., Gascan H. Chronically inflamed human tissues are infiltrated by highly differentiated Th17 lymphocytes. Journal of Immunology 2008, 180:7423-7430.
92. Pryde S.E., Duncan S.H., Hold G.L., Stewart C.S., Flint H.J. The microbiology of butyrate formation in the human colon. FEMS Microbiology Letters 2002, 217:133-139.
93. Qiao H., Duffy L.C., Griffiths E., Dryja D., Leavens A., Rossman J., Rich G., Riepenhoff-Talty M., Locniskar M. Immune responses in rhesus rotavirus-challenged BALB/c mice treated with bifidobacteria and prebiotic supplements. Podiatry Research 2002, 51:750-755.
94. Rautava S., Arvilommi H., Isolauri E. Specific probiotics in enhancing maturation of IgA responses in formula-fed infants. Pediatric Research 2006, 60(2):221-224.
95. Rembacken B.J., Snelling A.M., Hawkey P.M., Chalmers D.M., Axon A.T. Non-pathogenic Escherichia coli versus mesalazine for the treatment of ulcerative colitis, a randomized trial. Lancet 1999, 354:635-639.
96. Ring S., Schafer S.C., Mahnke K., Lehr H.A., Enk A.H. CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells suppress contact hypersensitivity reactions by blocking influx of effector T cells into inflamed tissue. European Journal of Immunology 2006, 36:2981-2992.
97. Romagnani S. The increased prevalence of allergy and the hygiene hypothesis, missing immune deviation, reduced immune suppression, or both?. Immunology 2004, 112:352-363.
98. Rose M.A., Stieglitz F., Köksal A., Schubert R., Schulze J., Zielen S. Efficacy of probiotic Lactobacillus GG on allergic sensitization and asthma in infants at risk. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2010, 40(9):1398-1405.
99. Roselli M., Finamore A., Nuccitelli S., Carnevali P., Brigidi P., Vitali B., Nobili B., Rami R., Garaguso I., Mengheri E. Prevention of TNBS-induced colitis by different Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains is associated with an expansion of γδT and regulatory T cells of intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes. Inflammatory Bowel Disease 2009, 15:1526-1536.
100. Rosenfeldt V., Benfeldt E., Nielsen S.D., Michaelsen K.F., Jeppesen D.L., Valerius N.H., Paerregaard A. Effect of probiotic Lactobacillus strains in children with atopic dermatitis. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2003, 111(2):389-395.
101. Saavedra J.M., Bauman N.A., Oung I., Perman J.A., Yolken R.H. Feeding of Bifidobacterium bifidum and Streptococcus thermophilus to infants in hospital for prevention of diarrhoea and shedding of rotavirus. Lancet 1994, 344:1046-1049.
102. Sanz Y., Nadal I., Sánchez E. Probiotics as drugs against human gastrointestinal infections. Recent Patents on Anti-infective Drug Discovery 2007, 2(2):148-156.
103. Schwandner R., Dziarski R., Wesche H., Rothe R., Kirschning C.J. Peptidoglycan- and lipoteichoic acid-induced cell activation is mediated by Toll-like receptor 2. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1999, 274(25):17406-17409.
104. Schwartz M., Kipnis J. Protective autoimmunity and neuroprotection in inflammatory and noninflammatory neurodegenerative diseases. Journal of Neurology Science 2005, 233(1-2):163-166.
105. Segain J.P., Raingeard de la Blétière D., Bourreille A., Leray V., Gervois N., Rosales C., Ferrier L., Bonnet C., Blottière H.M., Galmiche J.P. Butyrate inhibits inflammatory responses through NFκB inhibition, implications for Crohn's disease. Gut 2000, 47:397-403.
106. Sen G.C., Sarkar S.N. Transcriptional signaling by double-stranded RNA: role of TLR3. Cytokine Growth Factor Reviews 2005, 16(1):1-14.
107. Shale M., Ghosh S. Beyond TNF, Th1 and Th2 in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 2008, 57:1349-1351.
108. Shornikova A.V., Casas I.A., Isolauri E., Mykkanen H., Vesikari T. Lactobacillus reuteri as a therapeutic agent in acute diarrhea in young children. Journal of Pediatric and Gastroenterology and Nutrition 1997, 24:399-404.
109. Shu Q., Lin H., Rutherfurd K.J., Fenwick S.G., Prasad J., Gopal P.K., Gill H.S. Dietary Bifidobacterium lactis (HN019) enhances resistance to oral Salmonella typhimurium infection in mice. Microbiology and Immunology 2000, 44:213-222.
110. Sistek D., Kelly R., Wickens K., Stanley T., Fitzharris P., Crane J. Is the effect of probiotics on atopic dermatitis confined to food sensitized children?. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 2006, 36(5):629-633.
111. Smits H.H., Engering A., van der Kleij D., de Jong D.C., Schipper K., van Capel T.M., Zaat B.A., Yazdanbakhsh M., Wierenga E.A., van Kooyk Y., Kapsenberg M.L. Selective probiotic bacteria induce IL-10-producing regulatory T cells in vitro by modulating dendritic cell function through dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3-grabbing nonintegrin. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2005, 115:1260-1267.
112. Smolen J.S., Steiner G. Therapeutic strategies for rheumatoid arthritis. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 2003, 2(6):473-488.
113. Szajewska H., Mrukowicz J. Meta-analysis, non-pathogenic yeast Saccharomyces boulardii in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Aliment Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2005, 22(5):365-372.
114. Szajewska H., Skórka A., Dylag M. Meta-analysis, Saccharomyces boulardii for treating acute diarrhoea in children. Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 2007, 25(3):257-264.
115. Szajewska H., Kotowska M., Mrukowicz J.Z., Armanska M., Mikolajczyk W. Efficacy of Lactobacillus sp, strain GG in prevention of nosocomial diarrhea in infants. Journal of Pediatry 2001, 138:361-365.
116. Tabeta K., Georgel P., Janssen E. Toll-like receptors 9 and 3 as essential components of innate immune defense against mouse cytomegalovirus infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 2004, 101(10):3516-3521.
117. Takeda K., Kaisho T., Akira S. Toll-like receptors. Annual Review of Immunology 2003, 21:335-376.
118. Takeuchi O., Hoshino H., Kawai T. Differential roles of TLR2 and TLR4 in recognition of gram-negative and gram positive bacterial cell wall components. Immunity 1999, 11(4):443-451.
119. Takeuchi O., Sato S., Horiuchi T., Hoshino K., Takeda K., Dong Z., Modlin R.L., Akira S. Cutting edge: role of Toll-like receptor 1 in mediating immune response to microbial lipoproteins. Journal of Immunology 2002, 169(1):10-14.
120. Tamura M., Shikina T., Morihana T., Hayama M., Kajimoto O., Sakamoto A., Kajimoto Y., Watanabe O., Nonaka C., Shida K., Nanno M. Effects of probiotics on allergic rhinitis induced by Japanese cedar pollen, randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology 2007, 143:75-82.
121. Thangaraju M., Cresci G.A., Liu K., Ananth S., Gnanaprakasam J.P., Browning D.D., Mellinger J.D., Smith S.B., Digby G.J., Lambert N.A., Prasad P.D., Ganapathy V. GPR109A is a G-protein coupled receptor for the bacterial fermentation product butyrate and functions as a tumor suppressor in colon. Cancer Research 2009, 69:2826-2832.
122. Tlaskalová-Hogenová H., Stepánková R., Hudcovic T., Tucková L., Cukrowska B., Lodinová-Zádníková R., Kozáková H., Rossmann P., Bártová J., Sokol D., Funda D.P., Borovská D., Reháková Z., Sinkora J., Hofman J., Drastich P., Kokesová A. Comensal bacteria (normal microflora), mucosal immunity and chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Immunology Letters 2004, 93:97-108.
123. Vaishnava S., Behrendt C.L., Ismail A.S., Eckmann L., Hooper L.V. Paneth cells directly sense gut commensals and maintain homeostasis at the intestinal host-microbial interface. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 2008, 105:20858-20863.
124. Vanderhoof J.A., Whitney D.B., Antonson D.L., Hanner T.L., Lupo J.V., Young R.J. Lactobacillus GG in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in children. Journal of Pediatry 1999, 135:564-568.
125. Wapenaar M.C., Monsuur A.J., van Bodegraven A.A., Weersma R.K., Bevova M.R., Linskens R.K., Howdle P., Holmes G., Mulder C.J., Dijkstra G., van Heel D.A., Wijmenga C. Associations with tight junction genes PARD3 and MAGI2 in Dutch patients point to a common barrier defect for coeliac disease and ulcerative colitis. Gut 2008, 57:463-467.
126. We L., Ley R.E., Volchkov P.V., Stranges P.B., Avanesyan L., Stonebraker A.C., Hu C., Wong F.S., Szot G.L., Bluestone J.A., Gordon J.I., Chervonsky A.V. Innate immunity and intestinal microbiota in the development of Type 1 diabetes. Nature 2008, 455(7216):1109-1113.
127. Weizman Z., Asli G., Alsheikh A. Effect of a probiotic infant formula on infections in child care centers, comparison of two probiotic agents. Pediatrics 2005, 115:5-9.
128. Wen Z., Fiocchi C. Inflammatory bowel disease, autoimmune or immune-mediated pathogenesis?. Clinical and Developmental Immunology 2004, 11:195-204.
129. West A.P., Koblansky A.A., Ghosh S. Recognition and signaling by Toll-like receptors. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 2006, 22:409-437.
130. Weston S., Halbert A., Richmond P., Prescott S.L. Effects of probiotics on atopic dermatitis, a randomised controlled trial. Archives of Disease of Children 2005, 90:892-897.
131. Wheeler J.G., Shema S.J., Bogle M.L., Shirrell M.A., Burks A.W., Pittler A., Helm R.M. Immune and clinical impact of Lactobacillus acidophilus on asthma. Annual of Allergy Asthma Immunology 1997, 79(3):229-233.
132. Wickens K., Black P.N., Stanley T.V., Mitchell E., Fitzharris P., Tannock G.W., Purdie G., Crane J., Probiotic Study Group A differential effect of 2 probiotics in the prevention of eczema and atopy: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 2008, 122(4):788-794.
133. Wing K., Onishi Y., Prieto-Martin P., Yamaguchi T., Miyara M., Fehervari Z., Nomura T., Sakaguchi S. CTLA-4 control over Foxp3+ regulatory T cell function. Science 2008, 322(5899):271-275.
134. Young S.L., Simon M.A., Baird M.A., Tannock G.W., Bibiloni R., Spencely K., Lane J.M., Fitzharris P., Crane J., Town I., Addo-Yobo E., Murria C.S., Woodcock A. Bifidobacterial species differentially affect expression of cell surface markers and cytokines of dendritic cells harvested from cord blood. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 2004, 11:686-690.
135. Zuany-Amorim C., Sawicka E., Manlius C., Le Moine A., Brunet L.R., Kemeny D.M., Bowen G., Rook G., Walker C. Suppression of airway eosinophilia by killed mycobacterium vaccae induced allergen-specific regulatory T-cells. Nature Medicine 2002, 8:625-629.