Industrial Farm Animal Production: A Comprehensive Moral Critique

Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 479-522

  Rossi, John ^a   Garner, Samual A ^b  

^a DREXEL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Animal agriculture; Animal ethics; Animal welfare; Ethics; Factory farming; Industrial animal agriculture; Industrial farm animal production; Morality; Public health

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL WELFARE; ETHICS; FARMING SYSTEM; LIVESTOCK FARMING; MORALITY; PUBLIC HEALTH;

UNITED STATES;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 84901591260     PISSN: 11877863     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10806-014-9497-8     Document Type: Review

References (206)

1. Abbey, M. J., Wittum, T. E., Moeller, S. J., et al. (2012). Quantification of Campylobacter in swine before, during and after the slaughter process. Journal of Food Protection, 75(1), 139-143.
2. ACS (American Cancer Society). (2013). Cancer facts & figures 2013. Atlanta: American Cancer Society. http://www. cancer. org/research/cancerfactsfigures/cancerfactsfigures/cancer-facts-figures-2013. Accessed November 4, 2013.
3. ADA (American Dietetic Association). (2009). Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109(7), 1266-1282.
4. Akhtar, A. (2013). The need to include animal protection in public health policies. Journal of Public Health Policy. doi: 10. 1057/jphp. 2013. 29.
5. Akhtar, A., Greger, M., Ferdowsian, H., & Frank, E. (2009). Health professionals' roles in animal agriculture, climate change, and human health. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(2), 182-187.
6. Allen, N. E., Key, T. J., Appleby, P. N., et al. (2008). Animal foods, protein, calcium and prostate cancer risk: The European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. British Journal of Cancer, 98(9), 1574-1581.
7. Almassi, B. (2011). The consequences of individual consumption: A defence for threshold arguments for vegetarianism and consumer ethics. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 28(4), 396-411.
8. Alston, J. M., James, J. S., Anderson, M. A., & Pardey, P. G. (2010). A brief history of U. S. agriculture. In J. M. Alston, M. A. Anderson, J. S. James, & P. G. Pardey (Eds.), Persistence pays: U. S. agricultural productivity growth and the benefits from public R&D spending (pp. 9-21). New York: Springer.
9. Animal Agriculture Alliance. (n. d.). Myths and facts (electronic resource). http://www. animalagalliance. org/current/home. cfm?Category=Myths_and_Facts&Section=Main. Accessed November 4, 2013.
10. Anthony, R. (2012). Building a sustainable future for animal agriculture: An environmental virtue ethic-of-care approach within the philosophy of technology. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 25, 123-144.
11. APHA (American Public Health Association). (2003). Policy statement #20037: Precautionary moratorium on new concentrated animal feeding operations. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. http://www. apha. org. Accessed November 4, 2013.
12. APHA (American Public Health Association). (2007). Policy statement #200712: Toward a healthy, sustainable food system. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. http://www. apha. org. Accessed November 4, 2013.
13. Appleby, M. C. (2005). Sustainable agriculture is humane, humane agriculture is sustainable. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 18, 293-303.
14. Appleby, M. C. (2004). Alternatives to conventional livestock production methods. In G. J. Benson & B. E. Rollin (Eds.), The well-being of farm animals: Challenges and solutions (pp. 339-350). Ames, IA: Blackwell.
15. Appleby, P. N., Davey, G. K., & Key, T. J. (2002). Hypertension and blood pressure among meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and vegans in EPIC-Oxford. Public Health Nutrition, 5(5), 645-654.
16. Arthur, T. M., Brichta-Harhay, D. M., Bosilevac, J. M., et al. (2010). Super shedding of E. coli 0157: H7 by cattle and the impact on beef carcass contamination. Meat Science, 86, 32-37.
17. Arthur, P. F., & Herd, R. M. (2012). Genetic improvement of feed efficiency. In R. A. Hill (Ed.), Feed efficiency in the beef industry (pp. 93-122). Somerset: Wiley-Blackwell.
18. AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). (2005). A comprehensive review of housing for pregnant sows. JAVMA, 227(10), 1580-1590.
19. AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). (2008). AVMA responds to 'Prop 2' (online resource). https://www. avma. org/News/JAVMANews/Pages/081001a. aspx#avmaprop2. Accessed November 4, 2013.
20. AVMA (American Veterinary Medical Association). (2009). Response to the final report of the Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. https://www. avma. org/Advocacy/National/Other/Pages/Executive-Summary-of-the-AVMA-response-to-the-final-report-of-the-Pew-Commission-on-Industrial-Farm-Animal-Production. aspx. Accessed November 4, 2013.
21. Barker, D. (2007). The rise and predictable fall of globalized industrial agriculture. San Francisco, CA: International Forum on Globalization.
22. Barnard, N. D., Cohen, J., Jenkins, D. J., Turner-McGrievy, G., et al. (2006). A low-fat vegan diet improves glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in a randomized clinical trial in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 29(8), 1777-1783.
23. Barnard, N. D., Cohen, J., Jenkins, D. J., et al. (2009a). A low-fat vegan diet and a conventional diabetes diet in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: A randomized, controlled, 74-wk clinical trial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1588S-1596S.
24. Barnard, N., Gloede, L., Cohen, J., et al. (2009b). A low-fat vegan diet elicits greater macronutrient changes, but is comparable in adherence and acceptability, compared with a more conventional diabetes diet among individuals with type 2 diabetes. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109(2), 263-272.
25. Barnard, N. D., Nicholson, A., & Howard, J. L. (1995). The medical costs attributable to meat consumption. Preventive Medicine, 24(6), 646-655.
26. Barnard, N. D., Scialli, A. R., Turner-McGrievy, G., & Lanou, A. J. (2004). Acceptability of a low-fat vegan diet compares favorably to a step II diet in a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation, 24(4), 229-235.
27. Barnard, N., Scialli, A., Turner-McGrievy, G., Lanou, A., & Glass, J. (2005). The effects of a low-fat, plant-based dietary intervention on body weight, metabolism, and insulin sensitivity. The American Journal of Medicine, 118(9), 991-997.
28. Benson, G. J., & Rollin, B. E. (Eds.). (2004). The well-being of farm animals: Challenges and solutions. Ames, IA: Blackwell.
29. Bergqvist, J., & Gunnarsson, S. (2011). Finfish aquaculture: Animal welfare, the environment, and ethical implications. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. doi: 10. 1007/s10806-011-9346-y.
30. Bernick, J. (2010). Firing up ag activism. Top producer, Spring issue. http://www. highbeam. com/doc/1G1-249876856. html. Accessed November 4, 2013.
31. Blackwell, T. E. (2004). Production practices and well-being: Swine. In G. J. Benson & B. E. Rollin (Eds.), The well-being of farm animals: Challenges and solutions (pp. 241-269). Oxford: Blackwell.
32. Brei, A. T. (2012). Rights and nature: Approaching environmental issues by way of human rights. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. doi: 10. 1007/s10806-012-9385-z.
33. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). (2012). Obesity and Overweight: Facts (online resource). http://www. cdc. gov/obesity/data/facts. html. Accessed February 28, 2014.
34. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). (2013a). CDC estimates of foodborne illness in the United States (online resource). http://www. cdc. gov/foodborneburden/2011-foodborne-estimates. html. Accessed November 4, 2013.
35. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). (2013b). Avian influenza A(H7N9) virus. http://www. cdc. gov/flu/avianflu/h7n9-virus. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
36. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). (2013c). National diabetes fact sheet: National estimates and general information on diabetes and prediabetes in the United States, 2011. http://www. cdc. gov/diabetes/pubs/factsheets. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
37. Chan, D. S., Lau, R., Aune, D., et al. (2011). Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: Meta-analysis of prospective studies. PLoS One, 6(6), e20456.
38. Clark, S. R. (2004). Vegetarianism and the ethics of virtue. In S. F. Sapontzis (Ed.), Food for thought: The debate over eating meat (pp. 138-151). Amherst: Prometheus.
39. Cohen, C. (2001). In defense of the use of animals. In C. Cohen & T. Regan (Eds.), The animal rights debate (pp. 3-117). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
40. Cottee, S. Y., & Petersan, P. (2009). Animal welfare and organic aquaculture in open systems. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 22, 437-461.
41. Cox, J. (2007). Industrial animal agriculture: Part of the poverty problem. London: World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA).
42. Craig, W. J. (2009). Health effects of vegan diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1627S-1633S.
43. Crisp, R. (1988). Utilitarianism and vegetarianism. International Journal of Applied Philosophy, 4(1), 41-49.
44. Cross, A. J., Leitzmann, M. F., Gail, M. H., et al. (2007). A prospective study of red and processed meat intake in relation to cancer risk. PLoS Medicine, 4(12), E325.
45. D'Amelio, M., Ricci, I., Sacco, R., et al. (2005). Paraoxonsase gene variants are associated with autism in North America, but not in Italy: Possible regional specificity in gene-environment interactions. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 1006-1016.
46. Daniel, C. R., Cross, A. J., Koebnick, C., et al. (2011). Trends in meat consumption in the United States. Public Health Nutrition, 14(4), 575-583.
47. Davey, G. K., Spencer, E. A., Appleby, P. N., et al. (2003). EPIC-Oxford: Lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33, 883 meat-eaters and 31, 546 non meat-eaters in the UK. Public Health Nutrition, 6(03), 259-268.
48. Dawkins, M. S., & Layton, R. (2012). Breeding for better welfare: Genetic goals for broiler chickens and their parents. Animal Welfare, 21, 147-155.
49. DeGrazia, D. (1996). Taking animals seriously. New York: Cambridge University Press.
50. DeGrazia, D. (2002). Animal rights: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
51. DeGrazia, D. (2003). Common morality, coherence and the principles of biomedical ethics. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 13(3), 219-230.
52. DeGrazia, D. (2004). Regarding the last frontier of bigotry (online resource). Logos, 4(2). http://www. logosjournal. com/issue_4. 2/degrazia. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
53. DeGrazia, D. (2009). Moral vegetarianism from a very broad basis. Journal of Moral Philosophy, 6, 143-165.
54. Dewell, A., Weidner, G., Sumner, M., et al. (2008). A very-low-fat vegan diet increases intake of protective dietary factors and decreases intake of pathogenic dietary factors. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 108(2), 347-356.
55. Donovan, J. (2007/1st published 1990). Animal rights and feminist theory. In J. Donovan & C. Adams (Eds.), The feminist care tradition in animal ethics (pp. 58-86). New York: Columbia University Press.
56. Donovan, J., & Adams, C. (Eds.). (2007). The Feminist Care Tradition in Animal Ethics. New York: Columbia University Press.
57. Duncan, I. J. H. (2004). Welfare problems of poultry. In G. J. Benson & B. E. Rollin (Eds.), The well-being of farm animals: Challenges and solutions (pp. 307-323). Oxford: Blackwell.
58. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). (2009). Major crops grown in the United States. http://www. epa. gov/agriculture/ag101/cropmajor. html. Accessed November 4, 2013.
59. Finegold, J. A., Asaria, P., & Francis, D. P., (2013). Mortality from ischaemic heart disease by country, region, and age: Statistics from World Health Organisation and United Nations. International Journal of Cardiology, 168(2), 934-945.
60. Fitzgerald, D. (2003). Every farm a factory: The industrial ideal in American agriculture. New Haven: Yale University Press.
61. Foer, J. S. (2009). Eating animals. New York: Little, Brown and Company.
62. Fraser, G. E. (1999). Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-hispanic white California Seventh-Day Adventists. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70(3), 532S-538S.
63. Fraser, G. E. (2003). Diet, life expectancy, and chronic disease: Studies of Seventh-Day Adventists and other vegetarians. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
64. Frattaroli, J., Weidner, G., Dnistrian, A. M., et al. (2008). Clinical events in prostate cancer lifestyle trial: Results from two years of follow-up. Urology, 72(6), 1319-1323.
65. Frey, R. G. (1983). Rights, killing and suffering. Oxford: Blackwell.
66. Fulwider, W. K., Grandin, T., Rollin, B. E., et al. (2008). Survey of dairy management practices on one-hundred thirteen north central and northeastern United States dairies. Journal of Dairy Science, 91, 1686-1692.
67. Fung, T. T., Schulze, M., Manson, J. E., et al. (2004). Dietary patterns, meat intake, and the risk of type 2 diabetes in women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 164(20), 2235-2240.
68. Gaard, G. (2002). Vegetarian ecofeminism: A review essay. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 23(3), 117-146.
69. GAO (United States General Accounting Office). (2003). Report #GAO-03-285: Increased EPA oversight will improve environmental program for concentrated animal feeding operations. Washington, DC: U. S. General Accounting Office.
70. GAO (United States General Accounting Office). (2008). Report#GAO-08-944: EPA needs more information and a clearly defined strategy to protect air and water quality from pollutants of concern. Washington, DC: U. S. General Accounting Office.
71. GAO (United States General Accounting Office). (2010). Report #GAO-10-487T: Humane methods of slaughter act: Weaknesses in USDA enforcement. Washington, DC: U. S. General Accounting Office. http://www. gao. gov. Accessed October 17, 2012.
72. Garner, R. (2005). Animal ethics. Malden: Polity Press.
73. Garrett, T. (2000). Cutting the gordian knot. Animal Welfare Institute Quarterly, 49(4). http://awionline. org/pubs/Quarterly/fall00/f00gordian. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
74. Garrett, J. R. (2007). Utilitarianism, vegetarianism and human health: A response to the causal impotence objection. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 24(3), 223-237.
75. Garry, F. B. (2004). Animal well-being in the U. S. dairy industry. In G. J. Benson & B. E. Rollin (Eds.), The well-being of farm animals: Challenges and solutions (pp. 207-240). Oxford: Blackwell.
76. Garten, R. J., Davis, C. T., Russell, C. A., et al. (2009). Antigenic and genetic characteristics of the early isolates of swine-origin 2009 A(H1N1) influenza viruses circulating in humans. Science, 325(5937), 197-201.
77. Gebreyes, W. A., Bahnson, P. B., Funk, J. A., et al. (2008). Seroprevalence of Trichinella, Toxoplasma and Salmonella in antimicrobial-free and conventional swine production systems. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 5(2), 199-203.
78. George, K. P. (1994). Discrimination and bias in the vegan ideal. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 7(1), 19-28.
79. Goodland, R., & Anhang, J. (2009). Livestock and climate change. World Watch, 22(6), 10-19.
80. Greger, M. (2006). Bird flu: A virus of our own hatching. Herndon: Lantern Books.
81. Gruen, L. (2007). Empathy and vegetarian commitments. In J. Donovan & C. Adams (Eds.), The feminist care tradition in animal ethics (pp. 333-343). New York: Columbia University Press.
82. Guttman, A., & Thompson, D. (2004). Why deliberative democracy?. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
83. Hardeman, E., & Jochemsen, H. (2012). Are there ideological aspects to the mechanization of agriculture? Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 25, 657-674.
84. Harman, E. (2011). The moral significance of animal pain and animal death. In T. L. Beauchamp & R. G. Frey (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of animal ethics (pp. 726-737). New York: Oxford University Press.
85. Harris, J. R., & Galvin, R. (2012). Pass the cocoamone, please: Causal impotence, opportunistic vegetarianism and act-utilitarianism. Ethics, Policy and Environment, 15(3), 368-383.
86. Havenstein, G. B., Ferket, P. R., & Qureshi, M. A. (2003a). Growth, livability, and feed conversion of 1957 versus 2001 broilers when fed representative 1957 and 2001 broiler diets. Poultry Science, 82(10), 1500-1508.
87. Havenstein, G. B., Ferket, P. R., & Qureshi, M. A. (2003b). Carcass composition and yield of 1957 versus 2001 broilers when fed representative 1957 and 2001 broiler diets. Poultry Science, 82(10), 1509-1518.
88. Hendrickson, M. K., & James, H. S., Jr. (2005). The ethics of constrained choice: How the industrialization of agriculture impacts farming and farmer behavior. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 18, 269-291.
89. Hirsch, V. (2003). Legal protections of the domestic chicken in the United States and Europe (online resource). Lansing: Animal Legal and Historical Center, Michigan State University College of Law. http://www. animallaw. info/articles/dduschick. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
90. Holtug, N. (2002). The harm principle. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 5, 357-389.
91. Horrigan, L., Lawrence, R. S., & Walker, P. (2002). How sustainable agriculture can address the environmental and human health harms of industrial agriculture. Environmental Health Perspectives, 110, 445-456.
92. Human Rights Watch. (2004). Blood, sweat and fear. New York: Human Rights Watch. http://www. hrw. org/reports/2005/01/24/blood-sweat-and-fear-0. Accessed November 4, 2012.
93. Humane Methods of Slaughter Act (United States of America). 7 USC 1901-1907. http://www. animallaw. info/statutes/stusfd7usca1901. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
94. Humane Slaughter Association. (2006). Gas killing of chicks in hatcheries. http://www. hsa. org. uk. Accessed November 4, 2013.
95. HSUS (Humane Society of the United States). (2013). Farm animal statistics: Slaughter totals. http://www. humanesociety. org/news/resources/research/stats_slaughter_totals. html. Accessed November 4, 2013.
96. HSUS (Humane Society of the United States). (n. d.[1]). As HSUS report: The welfare of intensively confined animals in battery cages, gestation crates, and veal crates. http://www. humanesociety. org. Accessed November 4, 2013.
97. HSUS (Humane Society of the United States). (n. d.[2]). An HSUS report: The welfare of animals in the egg industry. http://www. humanesociety. org. Accessed November 4, 2013.
98. Hyder, J. A., et al. (2009). Adopting a plant-based diet minimally increased food costs in WHEL study. American Journal of Health Behavior, 33(5), 530-539.
99. Ikerd, J. E. (1996). Sustaining the profitability of agriculture. Presented at: "The economist's role in the agricultural sustainability paradigm," San Antonio, TX, July 27, 1996. http://web. missouri. edu/ikerdj/papers/AAE-SASA. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
100. Ikerd, J. E. (2009). Current status and future trends in American agriculture: Farming with grass. In A. J. Franzluebbers (Ed.), Farming with grass: Achieving sustainable mixed agricultural landscapes (pp. 12-25). Ankeny: Soil and Water Conservation Society. http://web. missouri. edu/ikerdj/papers/Oklahoma%20Farming%20with%20Grass%20-%20Status%20%20Trends. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
101. Jamieson, D. (2003). Animal liberation is an environmental ethic. In D. Jameson (Ed.), Morality's progress (pp. 197-212). New York: Oxford University Press.
102. Jones, S. D. (2003). Valuing animals: Veterinarians and their patients in modern America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
103. Julian, R. J. (2005). Production and growth-related disorders and other metabolic diseases of poultry: A review. The Veterinary Journal, 169, 350-369.
104. Keeney, R. (2008). Community impacts of CAFOs: Property values. Purdue Extension, 4/2008. http://extension. missouri. edu/ex-plore/miscpubs/mp0748. htm. Accessed November 4, 2013.
105. Key, T. J., Appleby, P. N., Spencer, E. A., et al. (2009). Cancer incidence in vegetarians: Results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Oxford). American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1620S-1626S.
106. Leahy, M. P. T. (1993). Against liberation: Putting animals in perspective. New York: Routledge.
107. Lewis, E., Boyle, L. A., Lynch, P. B., et al. (2005). The effect of two teeth resection procedures on the welfare of piglets in farrowing crates. Part 1. Applied Animal Behavior Science, 90, 233-249.
108. Llorente, R. (2004). Utilitarianism and vegetarianism reconsidered. Telos, 13(1-2), 163-176.
109. Llorente, R. (2009). The moral framework of Peter Singer's animal liberation. Ethical Perspectives, 16(1), 61-80.
110. Ma, W., Kahn, R. E., & Richt, J. A. (2009). The pig as a mixing vessel for influenza viruses: Human and veterinary implications. Journal of Molecular and Genetic Medicine, 3(1), 158-166.
111. Manale, A. P. (2006). Trends in agricultural management and land use and the risk of foodborne disease. In M. Potter (Ed.), Food consumption and disease risk: Consumer-pathogen interactions (pp. 55-74). Philadelphia: Woodhead.
112. Matheny, G. (2003). Least harm: A defense of vegetarianism from Stephen Davis' omnivorous proposal. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 16, 505-511.
113. McGlone, J. (2006). Comparison of sow welfare in the Swedish deep-bedded system and the US crated-sow system. JAVMA, 229(9), 1377-1380.
114. McMichael, A. J., Powles, J. W., Butler, C. D., & Uauy, R. (2007). Food, livestock production, energy, climate change, and health. Lancet, 370, 1253-1263.
115. McWilliams, J. (2009). Just food: Where Locavores get it wrong and how we can truly eat responsibly. New York: Little, Brown and Company.
116. Mellema, G. (2006). Enabling harm. Journal of Social Philosophy, 37(2), 214-220.
117. Mellon, M., Benbrook, C., & Benbrook, K. L. (2001). Hogging it: Estimates of antimicrobial abuse in livestock. Cambridge, MA: University of Concerned Scientists. http://www. ucsusa. org/food_and_agriculture/our-failing-food-system/industrial-agriculture/hogging-it-estimates-of. html. Accessed November 4, 2013.
118. Merchant, J., Kline, J., Donham, K. J., et al. (2002). Human health effects. In Iowa concentrated animal feeding operations air quality study (pp. 121-145). Iowa State University and The University of Iowa Study Group. http://www. public-health. uiowa. edu/ehsrc/CAFOstudy/CAFO_final2-14. pdf. Accessed October 22, 2013.
119. Minteer, B. A. (2008). Biocentric farming? Liberty Hyde Bailey and environmental ethics. Environmental Ethics, 30, 341-359.
120. National Cattleman's Beef Association. (2006). Fact sheet: Feedlot finishing cattle. http://www. beefusa. org/uDocs/Feedlot%20finishing%20fact%20sheet%20FINAL_4%2026%2006. pdf. Accessed September 16, 2013.
121. Nebraska Appleseed. (2009). "The speed kills you": The voice of Nebraska's meatpacking workers. http://boldnebraska. org/uploaded/pdf/the_speed_kills_you_030910. pdf.
122. Neumann, G., Noda, T., & Kawaoka, Y. (2009). Emergence and pandemic potential of swine-origin H1N1 influenza virus. Nature, 459, 931-939.
123. Newby, P. (2009). Plant foods and plant-based diets: Protective against childhood obesity? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1572S-1587S.
124. NIAA (National Institute for Animal Agriculture). (2013). Animal agriculture's vision to feed the world: Merging values and technology. http://www. animalagriculture. org/documents/2013AnnualConferenceWhitePaper_Final. pdf. Accessed October 30, 2013.
125. Nobis, N. (2004). Carl Cohen's 'kind' argument for animal rights and against human rights. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 24, 43-59.
126. Ornish, D. (1990). Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? The lifestyle heart trial. The Lancet, 336(8708), 129-133.
127. Ornish, D., Scherwitz, L., Billings, J., et al. (1998). Intensive lifestyle changes for reversal of coronary heart disease. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 280(23), 2001-2007.
128. Ornish, D., Weidner, G., Fair, W. R., et al. (2005). Intensive lifestyle changes may affect the progression of prostate cancer. The Journal of Urology, 174(3), 1065-1070.
129. Pasek, J. (1992). Obligations to future generations: A philosophical note. World Development, 20(4), 513-521.
130. Perry, S. (2007). Risk, harm, interests and rights. In T. Lewens (Ed.), Risk: Philosophical perspectives (pp. 190-209). New York: Routledge.
131. Pettersen, B. J., Anousheh, R., Fan, J., et al. (2012). Diets and blood pressure among white subjects: Results from the Adventist Health Study-2 (AHS-2). Public Health Nutrition, 15(10), 1909-1916.
132. PCRM (Physicians' Committee for Responsible Medicine). (n. d.). Agriculture and health policies in conflict: How food subsidies affect our health. http://www. pcrm. org/health/reports/agriculture-and-health-policies-unhealthful-foods.
133. Pennsylvania Soybean Board. (2013). Animal agriculture. http://pasoybean. org/checkoff-at-work/animal-agriculture/. Accessed October 22, 2013.
134. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. (2008a). Putting meat on the table: Industrial farm animal production in America. Baltimore: Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. http://www. ncifap. org.
135. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. (2008b). Antimicrobial resistance and human health. Baltimore: Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. http://www. ncifap. org.
136. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. (2008c). Environmental impact of industrial farm animal production. Baltimore: Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. http://www. ncifap. org.
137. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. (2008d). Recent changes in food animal production and impacts on animal waste management. Baltimore: Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. http://www. ncifap. org.
138. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. (2008e). The welfare of animals in concentrated animal feeding operations. Baltimore: Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. http://www. ncifap. org.
139. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. (2008f). Occupational and community public health impacts of industrial farm animal production. Baltimore: Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. http://www. ncifap. org.
140. Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. (2008g). Community and social impacts of concentrated animal feeding operations. Baltimore: Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production. http://www. ncifap. org.
141. Pimentel, D., & Pimentel, M. (2003). Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 660S-663S.
142. Place, S. E., & Mitloehner, F. M. (2010). Contemporary environmental issues: A review of the dairy industry's role in climate change and air quality and the potential of mitigation through increased production efficiency. Journal of Dairy Science, 93, 3407-3416.
143. Pluhar, E. (1995). Beyond prejudice. Durham: Duke University Press.
144. Pollan, M. (2006). The omnivore's dilemma: A natural history of four meals. New York: Penguin.
145. Popescu, S., Borda, C., Diugan, E. A., et al. (2013). Dairy cows welfare quality in tie-stall housing system with or without access to exercise. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 55, 43.
146. Rachels, J. (1990). Created from animals: The moral implications of Darwinism. New York: Oxford University Press.
147. Rasschaert, G., Houf, K., Godard, C., et al. (2008). Contamination of carcasses with Salmonella during poultry slaughter. Journal of Food Protection, 71(1), 146-152.
148. Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
149. Realini, C. E., Duckett, S. K., Brito, G. W., et al. (2004). Effect of pasture versus concentrate feeding with or without antioxidants on carcass characteristics, fatty acid composition, and quality of Uruguayan beef. Meat Science, 66, 567-577.
150. Regan, T. (1975). The moral basis of vegetarianism. Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 5(2), 181-214.
151. Regan, T. (2001). The case for animal rights. In C. Cohen & T. Regan (Eds.), The animal rights debate (pp. 127-222). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
152. Regan, T. (2004/1st ed. 1983). The case for animal rights. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
153. Reichenbach, B. (1992). On obligations to future generations. Public Affairs Quarterly, 6(2), 207-225.
154. Rinsky, J. L., Nadimpalli, M., Wing, S., et al. (2013). Livestock-associated methicillin and multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus is present among industrial, not antibiotic-free livestock operation workers in North Carolina. PLoS One, 8(7), e67641.
155. Rollin, B. E. (1995). Farm animal welfare: Social, bioethical and research issues. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
156. Rollin, B. E. (2001). Ethics, science and antimicrobial resistance. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 14(1), 29-37.
157. Rollin, B. E. (2006). An Introduction to veterinary medical ethics: Theory and cases. Ames, IA: Blackwell.
158. Rollin, B. (2009). Veterinary ethics and production diseases. Animal Health Research Reviews, 10(2), 125-130.
159. Rollin, B. E. (2010). The double-standard in veterinary medicine. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 51, 1068-1069.
160. Rolston, H. (1989). Philosophy gone wild. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.
161. Rosell, M., Appleby, P., Spencer, E., et al. (2006). Weight gain over 5 Years in 21, 966 meat-eating, fish-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men and women in EPIC-Oxford. International Journal of Obesity, 30(9), 1389-1396.
162. Rowlands, M. (2002). Animals like us. London: Verso.
163. Rowlands, M. (2009). Animal rights: Moral theory and practice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
164. Rushen, J. (1991). Problems associated with the interpretation of physiologic data in the assessment of animal welfare. Applied Animal Behavior Science, 28, 381-386.
165. Sabate, J., & Wien, M. (2010). Vegetarian diets and childhood obesity prevention. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 91(5), 1525S-1529S.
166. Sapkota, A. R., Lefferts, L. Y., McKenzie, S., & Walker, P. (2007). What do we feed to food production animals? A review of animal feed Ingredients and their potential impacts on human health. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(5), 663-670.
167. Sapkota, A. R., Hulet, R. M., Zhang, G., et al. (2011). Lower prevalence of antibiotic-resistant enterococci on U. S. conventional poultry farms that transitioned to organic practices. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119, 1622-1628.
168. Sapontzis, S. (1987). Morals, reason and animals. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
169. Schrum, C. (2005). Hog confinement kills communities. The Iowa Source, September 5. http://www. iowasource. com/health/CAFO_people_0905. html. Accessed October 22, 2013.
170. Singer, P. (1980). Utilitarianism and vegetarianism. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 9(4), 325-337.
171. Singer, P. (1993). Practical ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
172. Singer, P. (2002/1st ed. 1975). Animal liberation. New York: HarperCollins.
173. Singer, P., & Mason, J. (2006). The ethics of what we eat: Why our food choices matter. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press.
174. SIWI (Stockholm International Water Institute). (2012). Feeding a thirsty world: Challenges and opportunities for a food-secure world. Stockholm: SIWI.
175. Smiley, M. (2010). From moral agency to collective wrongs: Rethinking collective moral responsibility. Journal of Law & Policy, 19, 171-202.
176. Smith, W. (2010). A rat is a pig is a dog is a boy: The human cost of the animal rights movement. New York: Encounter Books.
177. Smith, R., & Coast, J. (2013). The true cost of antimicrobial resistance. BMJ, 346, f1493.
178. Song, Y., Manson, J. E., Buring, J. E., et al. (2004). A prospective study of red meat consumption and type 2 diabetes in middle-aged and elderly women: The women's health study. Diabetes Care, 27(9), 2108-2115.
179. Star, L., Ellen, E. D., Uitdehaag, K., & Brom, F. W. A. (2008). A plea to implement robustness into a breeding goal: Poultry as an example. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 21, 109-125.
180. Stehfest, E., Bouwman, L., van Vuuren, D. P., et al. (2009). Climate benefits of changing diet. Climatic Change, 95, 83-102.
181. Swartz, K. (2010). Projected costs of chronic diseases-Health care cost monitor. Health Care Cost Monitor. The Hastings Center. http://healthcarecostmonitor. thehastingscenter. org/kimberlyswartz/projected-costs-of-chronic-diseases.
182. Tantamango-Bartley, Y., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., Fan, J., & Fraser, G. (2013). Vegetarian diets and the incidence of cancer in a low-risk population. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 22(2), 286-294.
183. Taylor, E. F., Burley, V. J., Greenwood, D. C., et al. (2007). Meat consumption and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women's Cohort Study. British Journal of Cancer, 96(7), 1139-1146.
184. Telfer, E. (2004). 'Animals do it too!' The Franklin defence of meat-eating. Journal of Moral Philosophy, 1(1), 51-67.
185. Thompson, P. (1995). The spirit of the soil: Agriculture and environmental ethics. New York: Routledge.
186. Thompson, P. (2010). The agrarian vision: Sustainability and environmental ethics. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
187. Todd, E. C. D., & Narrod, C. (2006). Understanding the links between agriculture and health: Agriculture, food safety, and foodborne diseases. 2020 Focus Brief, 13(5), 1-2. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. http://www. ifpri. org/publication/agriculture-food-safety-and-foodborne-diseases. Accessed September 20, 2013.
188. Tonstad, S., Butler, T., Yan, R., et al. (2009). Type of vegetarian diet, body weight, and prevalence of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 32(5), 791-796.
189. Tonstad, S., Stewart, K., Oda, K., et al. (2013). Vegetarian diets and incidence of diabetes in the Adventist Health Study-2. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 23(4), 292-299.
190. Turner-McGrievy, G. M., Barnard, N. D., & Scialli, A. R. (2007). A two-year randomized weight loss trial comparing a vegan diet to a more moderate low-fat diet. Obesity, 15(9), 2276-2281.
191. UN FAO (United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization). (2002). World agriculture towards 2015/2013: Summary report. Rome: UN FAO. ftp://fao. org/docrep/fao/004/y3557e/y3557e. pdf. Accessed on October 22, 2013.
192. U. N. F. A. O. (United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization). (2006). Livestock's long shadow: Environmental issues and options. Rome: U. N. F. A. O. ftp://fao. org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e00. pdf. Accessed on October 16, 2012.
193. U. N. F. A. O. (United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization). (2012). Balanced feeding for improving livestock productivity. Rome: U. N. F. A. O. http://www. fao. org/docrep/016/i3014e/i3014e00. pdf. Accessed September 16, 2013.
194. USDA APHIS (United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service). (2003). Bovine somatotrophin. Fort Collins, CO: USDA APHIS. http://www. aphis. usda. gov/animal_health/nahms/dairy/downloads/dairy02/Dairy02_is_BST. pdf. Accessed September 16, 2013.
195. USDA ERS (United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service). (2011). Food expenditures by families and individuals as a share of disposable personal income. http://www. ers. usda. gov/data-products/food-expenditures. aspx#. UnF7wygci0s.
196. Urban-Chmiel, R., & Grooms, D. L. (2012). Prevention and control of bovine respiratory disease. Journal of Livestock Science, 3, 27-36.
197. Vanderheiden, S. (2006). Conservation, foresight, and the future generations problem. Inquiry, 49(4), 337-352.
198. Varner, G. (1998). In nature's interests? Interests, animal rights, and environmental ethics. New York: Oxford University Press.
199. Von Essen, S. G., & McCurdy, S. (1998). Health and safety risks in production agriculture. Western Journal of Medicine, 169, 214-220.
200. Walker, P., Rhubart-Berg, P., McKenzie, S., et al. (2005). Public health implications of meat production and consumption. Public Health Nutrition, 8(4), 348-356.
201. Wallinga, D. (2009). Today's food system: How healthy is it? Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 4, 251-281.
202. Weaver, S. A., & Morris, M. C. (2004). Science, pigs and politics: A New Zealand perspective on the phase-out of sow stalls. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 17, 51-66.
203. Wolfson, D., & Sullivan, M. (2004). Foxes in the henhouse: Animals, agribusiness and the law: A modern American fable. In C. R. Sunstein & M. C. Nussbaum (Eds.), Animal rights: Current debates and new directions (pp. 205-233). New York: Oxford University Press.
204. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. (2007). Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: A global perspective. Washington, DC: American Institute for Cancer Research.
205. Yach, D., Hawkes, C., Gould, L., et al. (2004). The global burden of chronic diseases: Overcoming impediments to prevention and control. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 291(21), 2616-2622.
206. Zamir, T. (2007). Ethics and the beast: A speciesist argument for animal liberation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.