TB or not TB: That is no longer the question

Science Translational Medicine

Volumn 5, Issue 213, 2013, Pages

  Modlin, Robert L ^a   Bloom, Barry R ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; BCG VACCINE; GAMMA INTERFERON; GRANULOCYTE MACROPHAGE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; INTERFERON; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 15; INTERLEUKIN 32; PATTERN RECOGNITION RECEPTOR; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 2; VITAMIN D;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY; BCG VACCINATION; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CD8+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; GENE EXPRESSION; HEALTH CARE COST; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INNATE IMMUNITY; LEPROSY; LYMPHOCYTE SUBPOPULATION; MACROPHAGE ACTIVATION; MULTIDRUG RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; REVIEW; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; TUBERCULOSIS; VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION;

ANIMALS; ANTITUBERCULAR AGENTS; HUMANS; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 84890072918     PISSN: 19466234     EISSN: 19466242     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3007402     Document Type: Review

References (189)

1. WHO Global TB Report; http://www.who.int/tb/publications/factsheet- global.pdf.
2. E. L. Corbett, C. J. Watt, N. Walker, D. Maher, B. G. Williams, M. C. Raviglione, C. Dye, The growing burden of tuberculosis: Global trends and interactions with the HIV epidemic. Arch. Intern. Med. 163, 1009-1021 (2003).
3. C. Dye, S. Scheele, P. Dolin, V. Pathania, M. C. Raviglione, Consensus statement. Global burden of tuberculosis: Estimated incidence, prevalence, and mortality by country. WHO Global Surveillance and Monitoring Project. JAMA 282, 677-686 (1999).
4. W. W. Fawzi, G. I. Msamanga, D. Spiegelman, R. Wei, S. Kapiga, E. Villamor, D. Mwakagile, F. Mugusi, E. Hertzmark, M. Essex, D. J. Hunter, A randomized trial of multivitamin supplements and HIV disease progression and mortality. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 23-32 (2004).
5. T. C. Quinn, J. Overbaugh, HIV/AIDS in women: An expanding epidemic. Science 308, 1582-1583 (2005).
6. N. R. Gandhi, A. Moll, A. W. Sturm, R. Pawinski, T. Govender, U. Lalloo, K. Zeller, J. Andrews, G. Friedland, Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area of South Africa. Lancet 368, 1575-1580 (2006).
7. World Health Organization, Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), 2013 update; http://www.who.int/tb/challenges/mdr/MDR-TB-FactSheet.pdf.
8. Institute of Medicine, Developing and Strengthening the Global Supply Chain for Second-Line Drugs for Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis:Workshop Summary (The National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2012).
9. J. L. Flynn, Lessons from experimental Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Microbes Infect. 8, 1179-1188 (2006).
10. P. L. Lin, J. L. Flynn, Understanding latent tuberculosis: A moving target. J. Immunol. 185, 15-22 (2010).
11. J. M. Davis, L. Ramakrishnan, The role of the granuloma in expansion and dissemination of early tuberculous infection. Cell 136, 37-49 (2009).
12. L. Ramakrishnan, Revisiting the role of the granuloma in tuberculosis. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 12, 352-366 (2012).
13. A. O'Garra, P. S. Redford, F. W. McNab, C. I. Bloom, R. J. Wilkinson, M. P. Berry, The immune response in tuberculosis. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 31, 475-527 (2013).
14. J. L. Flynn, J. Chan, K. J. Triebold, D. K. Dalton, T. A. Stewart, B. R. Bloom, An essential role for interferon-γ in resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. J. Exp. Med. 178, 2249-2254 (1993).
15. J. L. Flynn, M. M. Goldstein, J. Chan, K. J. Triebold, K. Pfeffer, C. J. Lowenstein, R. Schreiber, T. W. Mak, B. R. Bloom, Tumor necrosis factor-α is required in the protective immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice. Immunity 2, 561-572 (1995).
16. J. H. Grosset, T. G. Singer, W. R. Bishai, New drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis: Hope and reality. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 16, 1005-1014 (2012).
17. L. Tsenova, A. Bergtold, V. H. Freedman, R. A. Young, G. Kaplan, Tumor necrosis factor α is a determinant of pathogenesis and disease progression in mycobacterial infection in the central nervous system. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96, 5657-5662 (1999).
18. L. Tsenova, K. Sokol, V. H. Freedman, G. Kaplan, A combination of thalidomide plus antibiotics protects rabbits from mycobacterial meningitis-associated death. J. Infect. Dis. 177, 1563-1572 (1998).
19. L. Tsenova, E. Ellison, R. Harbacheuski, A. L. Moreira, N. Kurepina, M. B. Reed, B. Mathema, C. E. Barry III, G. Kaplan, Virulence of selected Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates in the rabbit model of meningitis is dependent on phenolic glycolipid produced by the bacilli. J. Infect. Dis. 192, 98-106 (2005).
20. C. B. Ford, R. R. Shah, M. K. Maeda, S. Gagneux, M. B. Murray, T. Cohen, J. C. Johnston, J. Gardy, M. Lipsitch, S. M. Fortune, Mycobacterium tuberculosis mutation rate estimates from different lineages predict substantial differences in the emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Nat. Genet. 45, 784-790 (2013).
21. D. M. Tobin, F. J. Roca, S. F. Oh, R. McFarland, T. W. Vickery, J. P. Ray, D. C. Ko, Y. Zou, N. D. Bang, T. T. Chau, J. C. Vary, T. R. Hawn, S. J. Dunstan, J. J. Farrar, G. E. Thwaites, M. C. King, C. N. Serhan, L. Ramakrishnan, Host genotype-specific therapies can optimize the inflammatory response to mycobacterial infections. Cell 148, 434-446 (2012).
22. M. J. Newport, C. M. Huxley, S. Huston, C. M. Hawrylowicz, B. A. Oostra, R. Williamso, M. Levin, A mutation in the interferon-γ-receptor gene and susceptibility to mycobacterial infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 335, 1941-1949 (1996).
23. E. Jouanguy, S. Lamhamedi-Cherradi, D. Lammas, S. E. Dorman, M. C. Fondanèche, S. Dupuis, R. Döffinger, F. Altare, J. Girdlestone, J. F. Emile, H. Ducoulombier, D. Edgar, J. Clarke, V. A. Oxelius, M. Brai, V. Novelli, K. Heyne, A. Fischer, S. M. Holland, D. S. Kumararatne, R. D. Schreiber, J. L. Casanova, A human IFNGR1 small deletion hotspot associated with dominant susceptibility to mycobacterial infection. Nat. Genet. 21, 370-378 (1999).
24. F. Altare, A. Durandy, D. Lammas, J. F. Emile, S. Lamhamedi, F. Le Deist, P. Drysdale, E. Jouanguy, R. Döffinger, F. Bernaudin, O. Jeppsson, J. A. Gollob, E. Meinl, A. W. Segal, A. Fischer, D. Kumararatne, J. L. Casanova, Impairment of mycobacterial immunity in human interleukin-12 receptor deficiency. Science 280, 1432-1435 (1998).
25. F. Wolfe, K. Michaud, J. Anderson, K. Urbansky, Tuberculosis infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and the effect of infliximab therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 50, 372-379 (2004).
26. R. L. Hunter, C. Jagannath, J. K. Actor, Pathology of postprimary tuberculosis in humans and mice: Contradiction of long-held beliefs. Tuberculosis 87, 267-278 (2007).
27. G. W. Martens, M. C. Arikan, J. Lee, F. Ren, T. Vallerskog, H. Kornfeld, Hypercholesterolemia impairs immunity to tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 76, 3464-3472 (2008).
28. D. G. Russell, P. J. Cardona, M. J. Kim, S. Allain, F. Altare, Foamy macrophages and the progression of the human tuberculosis granuloma. Nat. Immunol. 10, 943-948 (2009).
29. M. J. Kim, H. C. Wainwright, M. Locketz, L. G. Bekker, G. B. Walther, C. Dittrich, A. Visser, W. Wang, F. F. Hsu, U. Wiehart, L. Tsenova, G. Kaplan, D. G. Russell, Caseation of human tuberculosis granulomas correlates with elevated host lipid metabolism. EMBO Mol. Med. 2, 258-274 (2010).
30. M. C. Tsai, S. Chakravarty, G. Zhu, J. Xu, K. Tanaka, C. Koch, J. Tufariello, J. Flynn, J. Chan, Characterization of the tuberculous granuloma in murine and human lungs: Cellular composition and relative tissue oxygen tension. Cell. Microbiol. 8, 218-232 (2006).
31. R. Teitelbaum, A. Glatman-Freedman, B. Chen, J. B. Robbins, E. Unanue, A. Casadevall, B. R. Bloom, A mAb recognizing a surface antigen of Mycobacterium tuberculosis enhances host survival. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95, 15688-15693 (1998).
32. L. Kozakiewicz, J. Phuah, J. Flynn, J. Chan, The role of B cells and humoral immunity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 783, 225-250 (2013).
33. V. E. Calderon, G. Valbuena, Y. Goez, B. M. Judy, M. B. Huante, P. Sutjita, R. K. Johnston, D. M. Estes, R. L. Hunter, J. K. Actor, J. D. Cirillo, J. J. Endsley, A humanized mouse model of tuberculosis. PLoS One 8, e63331 (2013).
34. H. M. Vordermeier, B. Villarreal-Ramos, P. J. Cockle, M. McAulay, S. G. Rhodes, T. Thacker, S. C. Gilbert, H. McShane, A. V. Hill, Z. Xing, R. G. Hewinson, Viral booster vaccines improve Mycobacterium bovis BCG-induced protection against bovine tuberculosis. Infect. Immun. 77, 3364-3373 (2009).
35. F. A. Verreck, R. A. Vervenne, I. Kondova, K. W. van Kralingen, E. J. Remarque, G. Braskamp, N. M. van der Werff, A. Kersbergen, T. H. Ottenhoff, P. J. Heidt, S. C. Gilbert, B. Gicquel, A. V. Hill, C. Martin, H. McShane, A. W. Thomas, MVA.85A boosting of BCG and an attenuated, phoP deficient M. tuberculosis vaccine both show protective efficacy against tuberculosis in rhesus macaques. PLoS One 4, e5264 (2009).
36. N. P. Goonetilleke, H. McShane, C. M. Hannan, R. J. Anderson, R. H. Brookes, A. V. Hill, Enhanced immunogenicity and protective efficacy against Mycobacterium tuberculosis of bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine using mucosal administration and boosting with a recombinant modified vaccinia virus Ankara. J. Immunol. 171, 1602-1609 (2003).
37. A. Williams, N. P. Goonetilleke, H. McShane, S. O. Clark, G. Hatch, S. C. Gilbert, A. V. Hill, Boosting with poxviruses enhances Mycobacterium bovis BCG efficacy against tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Infect. Immun. 73, 3814-3816 (2005).
38. M. D. Tameris, M. Hatherill, B. S. Landry, T. J. Scriba, M. A. Snowden, S. Lockhart, J. E. Shea, J. B. McClain, G. D. Hussey, W. A. Hanekom, H. Mahomed, H. McShane; MVA85A 020 Trial Study Team, Safety and efficacy of MVA85A, a new tuberculosis vaccine, in infants previously vaccinated with BCG: A randomised, placebo-controlled phase 2b trial. Lancet 381, 1021-1028 (2013).
39. A. R. Rich, Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis (Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1944).
40. C. E. Barry III, H. I. Boshoff, V. Dartois, T. Dick, S. Ehrt, J. Flynn, D. Schnappinger, R. J. Wilkinson, D. Young, The spectrum of latent tuberculosis: Rethinking the biology and intervention strategies. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 7, 845-855 (2009).
41. M. M. Davis, Immunology taught by humans. Sci. Transl. Med. 4, 117fs2 (2012).
42. J. Seok, H. S. Warren, A. G. Cuenca, M. N. Mindrinos, H. V. Baker, W. Xu, D. R. Richards, G. P. Donald-Smith, H. Gao, L. Hennessy, C. C. Finnerty, C. M. López, S. Honari, E. E. Moore, J. P. Minei, J. Cuschieri, P. E. Bankey, J. L. Johnson, J. Sperry, A. B. Nathens, T. R. Billiar, M. A. West, M. G. Jeschke, M. B. Klein, R. L. Gamelli, N. S. Gibran, B. H. Brownstein, C. Miller-Graziano, S. E. Calvano, P. H. Mason, J. P. Cobb, L. G. Rahme, S. F. Lowry, R. V. Maier, L. L. Moldawer, D. N. Herndon, R. W. Davis, W. Xiao, R. G. Tompkins; Inflammation and Host Response to Injury, Large Scale Collaborative Research Program, Genomic responses in mouse models poorly mimic human inflammatory diseases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, 3507-3512 (2013).
43. R. Riley, C. Mills, W. Myka, N. Weinstock, P. Storey, L. Sultan, M. Riley, W. Wells, Aerial dissemination of pulmonary tuberculosis: A two-year study of contagion in a tuberculosis ward. Am. J. Hyg. 70, 185-196 (1959).
44. H. D. Brightbill, D. H. Libraty, S. R. Krutzik, R. B. Yang, J. T. Belisle, J. R. Bleharski, M. Maitland, M. V. Norgard, S. E. Plevy, S. T. Smale, P. J. Brennan, B. R. Bloom, P. J. Godowski, R. L. Modlin, Host defense mechanisms triggered by microbial lipoproteins through Toll-like receptors. Science 285, 732-736 (1999).
45. S. R. Krutzik, M. T. Ochoa, P. A. Sieling, S. Uematsu, Y. W. Ng, A. Legaspi, P. T. Liu, S. T. Cole, P. J. Godowski, Y. Maeda, E. N. Sarno, M. V. Norgard, P. J. Brennan, S. Akira, T. H. Rea, R. L. Modlin, Activation and regulation of Toll-like receptors 2 and 1 in human leprosy. Nat. Med. 9, 525-532 (2003).
46. S. R. Krutzik, B. Tan, H. Li, M. T. Ochoa, P. T. Liu, S. E. Sharfstein, T. G. Graeber, P. A. Sieling, Y. J. Liu, T. H. Rea, B. R. Bloom, R. L. Modlin, TLR activation triggers the rapid differentiation of monocytes into macrophages and dendritic cells. Nat. Med. 11, 653-660 (2005).
47. D. Montoya, D. Cruz, R. M. Teles, D. J. Lee, M. T. Ochoa, S. R. Krutzik, R. Chun, M. Schenk, X. Zhang, B. G. Ferguson, A. E. Burdick, E. N. Sarno, T. H. Rea, M. Hewison, J. S. Adams, G. Cheng, R. L. Modlin, Divergence of macrophage phagocytic and antimicrobial programs in leprosy. Cell Host Microbe 6, 343-353 (2009).
48. Y. Yang, C. Yin, A. Pandey, D. Abbott, C. Sassetti, M. A. Kelliher, NOD2 pathway activation by MDP or Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection involves the stable polyubiquitination of Rip2. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 36223-36229 (2007).
49. S. E. Girardin, I. G. Boneca, J. Viala, M. Chamaillard, A. Labigne, G. Thomas, D. J. Philpott, P. J. Sansonetti, Nod2 is a general sensor of peptidoglycan through muramyl dipeptide (MDP) detection. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 8869-8872 (2003).
50. G. Ferwerda, S. E. Girardin, B. J. Kullberg, B. L. Le, D. J. de Jong, D. M. Langenberg, C. R. van, G. J. Adema, T. H. Ottenhoff, J.W. Van der Meer, M. G. Netea, NOD2 and Toll-like receptors are nonredundant recognition systems of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS Pathog. 1, 279-285 (2005).
51. M. Schenk, S. R. Krutzik, P. A. Sieling, D. J. Lee, R. M. Teles, M. T. Ochoa, E. Komisopoulou, E. N. Sarno, T. H. Rea, T. G. Graeber, S. Kim, G. Cheng, R. L. Modlin, NOD2 triggers an interleukin-32-dependent human dendritic cell program in leprosy. Nat. Med. 18, 555-563 (2012).
52. M. G. Netea, E. C. Lewis, T. Azam, L. A. Joosten, J. Jaekal, S. Y. Bae, C. A. Dinarello, S. H. Kim, Interleukin-32 induces the differentiation of monocytes into macrophage-like cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 3515-3520 (2008).
53. M. G. Netea, T. Azam, E. C. Lewis, L. A. Joosten, M. Wang, D. Langenberg, X. Meng, E. D. Chan, D. Y. Yoon, T. Ottenhoff, S. H. Kim, C. A. Dinarello, Mycobacterium tuberculosis induces interleukin-32 production through a caspase-1/IL-18/interferon-γ-dependent mechanism. PLoS Med. 3, e277 (2006).
54. X. Bai, S. H. Kim, T. Azam, M. T. McGibney, H. Huang, C. A. Dinarello, E. D. Chan, IL-32 is a host protective cytokine against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in differentiated THP-1 human macrophages. J. Immunol. 184, 3830-3840 (2010).
55. O. P. Joffre, E. Segura, A. Savina, S. Amigorena, Cross-presentation by dendritic cells. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 12, 557-569 (2012).
56. J. Chan, K. Tanaka, D. Carroll, J. Flynn, B. R. Bloom, Effects of nitric oxide synthase inhibitors on murine infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Infect. Immun. 63, 736-740 (1995).
57. J. D. MacMicking, R. J. North, R. LaCourse, J. S. Mudgett, S. K. Shah, C. F. Nathan, Identification of nitric oxide synthase as a protective locus against tuberculosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94, 5243-5248 (1997).
58. M. G. Bonecini-Almeida, S. Chitale, I. Boutsikakis, J. Geng, H. Doo, S. He, J. L. Ho, Induction of in vitro human macrophage anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis activity: Requirement for IFN-γ and primed lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 160, 4490-4499 (1998).
59. S. Thoma-Uszynski, S. Stenger, O. Takeuchi, M. T. Ochoa, M. Engele, P. A. Sieling, P. F. Barnes, M. Rollinghoff, P. L. Bolcskei, M. Wagner, S. Akira, M. V. Norgard, J. T. Belisle, P. J. Godowski, B. R. Bloom, R. L. Modlin, Induction of direct antimicrobial activity through mammalian Tolllike receptors. Science 291, 1544-1547 (2001).
60. T. T. Wang, F. P. Nestel, V. Bourdeau, Y. Nagai, Q. Wang, J. Liao, L. Tavera-Mendoza, R. Lin, J. W. Hanrahan, S. Mader, J. H. White, Cutting edge: 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 is a direct inducer of antimicrobial peptide gene expression. J. Immunol. 173, 2909-2912 (2004).
61. A. R. Martineau, K. A. Wilkinson, S. M. Newton, R. A. Floto, A. W. Norman, K. Skolimowska, R. N. Davidson, O. E. Sørensen, B. Kampmann, C. J. Griffiths, R. J. Wilkinson, IFN-{γ}- and TNF-independent vitamin D-inducible human suppression of mycobacteria: The role of cathelicidin LL-37. J. Immunol. 178, 7190-7198 (2007).
62. P. T. Liu, S. Stenger, D. H. Tang, R. L. Modlin, Cutting edge: Vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis is dependent on the induction of cathelicidin. J. Immunol. 179, 2060-2063 (2007).
63. P. T. Liu, S. Stenger, H. Li, L. Wenzel, B. H. Tan, S. R. Krutzik, M. T. Ochoa, J. Schauber, K. Wu, C. Meinken, D. L. Kamen, M. Wagner, R. Bals, A. Steinmeyer, U. Zügel, R. L. Gallo, D. Eisenberg, M. Hewison, B. W. Hollis, J. S. Adams, B. R. Bloom, R. L. Modlin, Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science 311, 1770-1773 (2006).
64. S. R. Krutzik, M. Hewison, P. T. Liu, J. A. Robles, S. Stenger, J. S. Adams, R. L. Modlin, IL-15 links TLR2/1-induced macrophage differentiation to the vitamin D-dependent antimicrobial pathway. J. Immunol. 181, 7115-7120 (2008).
65. A. F. Gombart, N. Borregaard, H. P. Koeffler, Human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) gene is a direct target of the vitamin D receptor and is strongly up-regulated in myeloid cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. FASEB J. 19, 1067-1077 (2005).
66. American Thoracic Society, Treatment of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in adults and children. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 134, 355-363 (1986).
67. D. V. Havlir, P. F. Barnes, Tuberculosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 367-373 (1999).
68. R. de Jong, F. Altare, I. A. Haagen, D. G. Elferink, T. de Boer, P. J. C. van Breda Vriesman, P. J. Kabel, J. M. T. Draaisma, J. T. van Dissel, F. P. Kroon, J. L. Casanova, T. H. M. Ottenhoff, Severe mycobacterial and Salmonella infections in interleukin-12 receptor-deficient patients. Science 280, 1435-1438 (1998).
69. D. Bogunovic, M. Byun, L. A. Durfee, A. Abhyankar, O. Sanal, D. Mansouri, S. Salem, I. Radovanovic, A. V. Grant, P. Adimi, N. Mansouri, S. Okada, V. L. Bryant, X. F. Kong, A. Kreins, M. M. Velez, B. Boisson, S. Khalilzadeh, U. Ozcelik, I. A. Darazam, J. W. Schoggins, C. M. Rice, S. Al-Muhsen, M. Behr, G. Vogt, A. Puel, J. Bustamante, P. Gros, J. M. Huibregtse, L. Abel, S. Boisson-Dupuis, J. L. Casanova, Mycobacterial disease and impaired IFN-γ immunity in humans with inherited ISG15 deficiency. Science 337, 1684-1688 (2012).
70. G. S. Douvas, D. L. Looker, A. E. Vatter, A. J. Crowle, Gamma interferon activates human macrophages to become tumoricidal and leishmanicidal but enhances replication of macrophage-associated mycobacteria. Infect. Immun. 50, 1-8 (1985).
71. G. A. Rook, J. Steele, L. Fraher, S. Barker, R. Karmali, J. O'Riordan, J. Stanford, Vitamin D3, gamma interferon, and control of proliferation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by human monocytes. Immunology 57, 159-163 (1986).
72. G. A. W. Rook, J. Taverne, C. Leveton, J. Steele, The role of gamma-interferon, vitamin D3 metabolites and tumour necrosis factor in the pathogenesis of tuberculosis. Immunology 62, 229-234 (1987).
73. M. Denis, Killing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis within human monocytes: Activation by cytokines and calcitriol. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 84, 200-206 (1991).
74. A. K. Robertson, P. W. Andrew, Interferon gamma fails to activate human monocyte-derived macrophages to kill or inhibit the replication of a non-pathogenic mycobacterial species. Microb. Pathog. 11, 283-288 (1991).
75. O. Olakanmi, B. E. Britigan, L. S. Schlesinger, Gallium disrupts iron metabolism of mycobacteria residing within human macrophages. Infect. Immun. 68, 5619-5627 (2000).
76. D. Kumar, L. Nath, M. A. Kamal, A. Varshney, A. Jain, S. Singh, K. V. Rao, Genome-wide analysis of the host intracellular network that regulates survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Cell 140, 731-743 (2010).
77. J. M. Yuk, D. M. Shin, H. M. Lee, C. S. Yang, H. S. Jin, K. K. Kim, Z. W. Lee, S. H. Lee, J. M. Kim, E. K. Jo, Vitamin D3 induces autophagy in human monocytes/macrophages via cathelicidin. Cell Host Microbe 6, 231-243 (2009).
78. D. M. Shin, J. M. Yuk, H. M. Lee, S. H. Lee, J. W. Son, C. V. Harding, J. M. Kim, R. L. Modlin, E. K. Jo, Mycobacterial lipoprotein activates autophagy via TLR2/1/CD14 and a functional vitamin D receptor signalling. Cell. Microbiol. 12, 1648-1665 (2010).
79. M. Fabri, S. Stenger, D. M. Shin, J. M. Yuk, P. T. Liu, S. Realegeno, H. M. Lee, S. R. Krutzik, M. Schenk, P. A. Sieling, R. Teles, D. Montoya, S. S. Iyer, H. Bruns, D. M. Lewinsohn, B. W. Hollis, M. Hewison, J. S. Adams, A. Steinmeyer, U. Zügel, G. Cheng, E. K. Jo, B. R. Bloom, R. L. Modlin, Vitamin D is required for IFN-γ-mediated antimicrobial activity of human macrophages. Sci. Transl. Med. 3, 104ra102 (2011).
80. T. L. Clemens, J. S. Adams, S. L. Henderson, M. F. Holick, Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3. Lancet 1, 74-76 (1982).
81. W. F. Loomis, Skin-pigment regulation of vitamin-D biosynthesis in man. Science 157, 501-506 (1967).
82. S. S. Harris, B. wson-Hughes, Seasonal changes in plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations of young American black and white women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67, 1232-1236 (1998).
83. S. Nesby-O'Dell, K. S. Scanlon, M. E. Cogswell, C. Gillespie, B. W. Hollis, A. C. Looker, C. Allen, C. Doughertly, E. W. Gunter, B. A. Bowman, Hypovitaminosis D prevalence and determinants among African American and white women of reproductive age: Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76, 187-192 (2002).
84. W. W. Stead, J. W. Senner, W. T. Reddick, J. P. Lofgren, Racial differences in susceptibility to infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 322, 422-427 (1990).
85. K. B. Gibney, S. Mihrshahi, J. Torresi, C. Marshall, K. Leder, B. A. Biggs, The profile of health problems in African immigrants attending an infectious disease unit in Melbourne, Australia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 80, 805-811 (2009).
86. A. Ustianowski, R. Shaffer, S. Collin, R. J. Wilkinson, R. N. Davidson, Prevalence and associations of vitamin D deficiency in foreign-born persons with tuberculosis in London. J. Infect. 50, 432-437 (2005).
87. K. E. Nnoaham, A. Clarke, Low serum vitamin D levels and tuberculosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 37, 113-119 (2008).
88. J. M. Grange, P. D. Davies, R. C. Brown, J. S. Woodhead, T. Kardjito, A study of vitamin D levels in Indonesian patients with untreated pulmonary tuberculosis. Tubercle 66, 187-191 (1985).
89. R. J. Wilkinson, M. Llewelyn, Z. Toossi, P. Patel, G. Pasvol, A. Lalvani, D. Wright, M. Latif, R. N. Davidson, Influence of vitamin D deficiency and vitamin D receptor polymorphisms on tuberculosis among Gujarati Asians in west London: A case-control study. Lancet 355, 618-621 (2000).
90. A. R. Martineau, S. Nhamoyebonde, T. Oni, M. X. Rangaka, S. Marais, N. Bangani, R. Tsekela, L. Bashe, V. de Azevedo, J. Caldwell, T. R. Venton, P. M. Timms, K. A. Wilkinson, R. J. Wilkinson, Reciprocal seasonal variation in vitamin D status and tuberculosis notifications in Cape Town, South Africa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 19013-19017 (2011).
91. R. Bellamy, C. Ruwende, T. Corrah, K. P. McAdam, M. Thursz, H. C. Whittle, A. V. Hill, Tuberculosis and chronic hepatitis B virus infection in Africans and variation in the vitamin D receptor gene. J. Infect. Dis. 179, 721-724 (1999).
92. P. Selvaraj, P. R. Narayanan, A. M. Reetha, Association of vitamin D receptor genotypes with the susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis in female patients & resistance in female contacts. Indian J. Med. Res. 111, 172-179 (2000).
93. W. Liu, W. C. Cao, C. Y. Zhang, L. Tian, X. M. Wu, J. D. Habbema, Q. M. Zhao, P. H. Zhang, Z. T. Xin, C. Z. Li, H. Yang, VDR and NRAMP1 gene polymorphisms in susceptibility to pulmonary tuberculosis among the Chinese Han population: A case-control study. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 8, 428-434 (2004).
94. J. C. Delgado, A. Baena, S. Thim, A. E. Goldfeld, Ethnic-specific genetic associations with pulmonary tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 186, 1463-1468 (2002).
95. A. V. Yamshchikov, N. S. Desai, H. M. Blumberg, T. R. Ziegler, V. Tangpricha, Vitamin D for treatment and prevention of infectious diseases: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Endocr. Pract. 15, 438-449 (2009).
96. M. Green, Cod liver oil and tuberculosis. BMJ 343, d7505 (2011).
97. G. B. Dowling, E. W. Prosser Thomas, Treatment of lupus vulgaris with calciferol. Lancet 247, 919-922 (1946).
98. M. M. Morcos, A. A. Gabr, S. Samuel, M. Kamel, M. el Baz, M. el Beshry, R. R. Michail, Vitamin D administration to tuberculous children and its value. Boll. Chim. Farm. 137, 157-164 (1998).
99. E. W. Nursyam, Z. Amin, C. M. Rumende, The effect of vitamin D as supplementary treatment in patients with moderately advanced pulmonary tuberculous lesion. Acta Med. Indones. 38, 3-5 (2006).
100. N. Salahuddin, F. Ali, Z. Hasan, N. Rao, M. Aqeel, F. Mahmood, Vitamin D accelerates clinical recovery from tuberculosis: Results of the SUCCINCT Study [Supplementary Cholecalciferol in recovery from tuberculosis]. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of vitamin D supplementation in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. BMC Infect. Dis. 13, 22 (2013).
101. A. R. Martineau, P. M. Timms, G. H. Bothamley, Y. Hanifa, K. Islam, A. P. Claxton, G. E. Packe, J. C. Moore-Gillon, M. Darmalingam, R. N. Davidson, H. J. Milburn, L. V. Baker, R. D. Barker, N. J. Woodward, T. R. Venton, K. E. Barnes, C. J. Mullett, A. K. Coussens, C. M. Rutterford, C. A. Mein, G. R. Davies, R. J. Wilkinson, V. Nikolayevskyy, F. A. Drobniewski, S. M. Eldridge, C. J. Griffiths, High-dose vitamin D3 during intensive-phase antimicrobial treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis: A double-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet 377, 242-250 (2011).
102. A. K. Coussens, R. J. Wilkinson, Y. Hanifa, V. Nikolayevskyy, P. T. Elkington, K. Islam, P. M. Timms, T. R. Venton, G. H. Bothamley, G. E. Packe, M. Darmalingam, R. N. Davidson, H. J. Milburn, L. V. Baker, R. D. Barker, C. A. Mein, L. Bhaw-Rosun, R. Nuamah, D. B. Young, F. A. Drobniewski, C. J. Griffiths, A. R. Martineau, Vitamin D accelerates resolution of inflammatory responses during tuberculosis treatment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 15449-15454 (2012).
103. D. Ganmaa, E. Giovannucci, B. R. Bloom, W. Fawzi, W. Burr, D. Batbaatar, N. Sumberzul, M. F. Holick, W. C. Willett, Vitamin D, tuberculin skin test conversion, and latent tuberculosis in Mongolian school-age children: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled feasibility trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 96, 391-396 (2012).
104. J. Turner, C. D. D'Souza, J. E. Pearl, P. Marietta, M. Noel, A. A. Frank, R. Appelberg, I. M. Orme, A. M. Cooper, CD8-and CD95/95L-dependent mechanisms of resistance in mice with chronic pulmonary tuberculosis. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 24, 203-209 (2001).
105. J. Turner, H. M. Dockrell, Stimulation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells with live Mycobacterium bovis BCG activates cytolytic CD8+ T cells in vitro. Immunology 87, 339-342 (1996).
106. J. S. Tan, D. H. Canaday, W. H. Boom, K. N. Balaji, S. K. Schwander, E. A. Rich, Human alveolar T lymphocyte responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens: Role for CD4+ and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells and relative resistance of alveolar macrophages to lysis. J. Immunol. 159, 290-297 (1997).
107. S. Stenger, R. J. Mazzaccaro, K. Uyemura, S. Cho, P. F. Barnes, J. P. Rosat, A. Sette, M. B. Brenner, S. A. Porcelli, B. R. Bloom, R. L. Modlin, Differential effects of cytolytic T cell subsets on intracellular infection. Science 276, 1684-1687 (1997).
108. S. Stenger, D. A. Hanson, R. Teitlebaum, P. Dewan, K. R. Niazi, C. J. Froelich, T. Ganz, S. Thoma-Uszynski, A. Melián, C. Bogdan, S. A. Porcelli, B. R. Bloom, A. M. Krensky, R. L. Modlin, An antimicrobial activity of cytolytic T cells mediated by granulysin. Science 282, 121-125 (1998).
109. H. Bruns, C. Meinken, P. Schauenberg, G. Härter, P. Kern, R. L. Modlin, C. Antoni, S. Stenger, Anti-TNF immunotherapy reduces CD8+ T cell-mediated antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in humans. J. Clin. Invest. 119, 1167-1177 (2009).
110. M. T. Ochoa, S. Stenger, P. A. Sieling, S. Thoma-Uszynski, S. Sabet, S. Cho, A. M. Krensky, M. Rollinghoff, S. E. Nunes, A. E. Burdick, T. H. Rea, R. L. Modlin, T-cell release of granulysin contributes to host defense in leprosy. Nat. Med. 7, 174-179 (2001).
111. H. Mueller, K. C. Faé, K. Magdorf, C. A. Ganoza, U. Wahn, U. Guhlich, C. Feiterna-Sperling, S. H. Kaufmann, Granulysin-expressing CD4+ T cells as candidate immune marker for tuberculosis during childhood and adolescence. PLoS One 6, e29367 (2011).
112. R. Baltussen, K. Floyd, C. Dye, Cost effectiveness analysis of strategies for tuberculosis control in developing countries. BMJ 331, 1364 (2005).
113. S. H. E. Kaufmann, CD8+ T lymphocytes in intracellular microbial infections. Immunol. Today 9, 168-174 (1988).
114. C. J. Martin, M. G. Booty, T. R. Rosebrock, C. Nunes-Alves, D. M. Desjardins, I. Keren, S. M. Fortune, H. G. Remold, S. M. Behar, Efferocytosis is an innate antibacterial mechanism. Cell Host Microbe 12, 289-300 (2012).
115. R. L.Modlin, C. Pirmez, F.M. Hofman, V. Torigian, K. Uyemura, T. H. Rea, B. R. Bloom,M. B. Brenner, Lymphocytes bearing antigen-specific γδ T-cell receptors accumulate in human infectious disease lesions. Nature 339, 544-548 (1989).
116. P. F. Barnes, C. L. Grisso, J. S. Abrams, H. Band, T. H. Rea, R. L. Modlin, γδ T lymphocytes in human tuberculosis. J. Infect. Dis. 165, 506-512 (1992).
117. Y. Tanaka, S. Sano, E. Nieves, G. De Libero, D. Rosa, R. L. Modlin, M. B. Brenner, B. R. Bloom, C. T. Morita, Nonpeptide ligands for human γδ T cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91, 8175-8179 (1994).
118. Z. W. Chen, Multifunctional immune responses of HMBPP-specific Vγ2Vδ2 T cells in M. tuberculosis and other infections. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 10, 58-64 (2013).
119. F. Calabi, A. Bradbury, The CD1 system. Tissue Antigens 37, 1-9 (1991).
120. S. P. Balk, P. A. Bleicher, C. Terhorst, Isolation and expression of cDNA encoding the murine homologues of CD1. J. Immunol. 146, 768-774 (1991).
121. S. Porcelli, C. T. Morita, M. B. Brenner, CD1b restricts the response of human CD4-8-T lymphocytes to a microbial antigen. Nature 360, 593-597 (1992).
122. E. M. Beckman, S. A. Porcelli, C. T. Morita, S. M. Behar, S. T. Furlong, M. B. Brenner, Recognition of a lipid antigen by GDI-restricted αβ+ T cells. Nature 372, 691-694 (1994).
123. P. A. Sieling, D. Chatterjee, S. A. Porcelli, T. I. Prigozy, T. Soriano, M. B. Brenner, M. Kronenberg, P. J. Brennan, R. L. Modlin, CD1-restricted T cell recognition of microbial lipoglycan antigens. Science 269, 227-230 (1995).
124. E. M. Beckman, A. Melián, S. M. Behar, P. A. Sieling, D. Chatterjee, S. T. Furlong, R. Matsumoto, J. P. Rosat, R. L. Modlin, S. A. Porcelli, CD1c restricts responses of mycobacteria-specific T cells. Evidence for antigen presentation by a second member of the human CD1 family. J. Immunol. 157, 2795-2803 (1996).
125. D. B. Moody, B. B. Reinhold, M. R. Guy, E. M. Beckman, D. E. Frederique, S. T. Furlong, S. Ye, V. N. Reinhold, P. A. Sieling, R. L. Modlin, G. S. Besra, S. A. Porcelli, Structural requirements for glycolipid antigen recognition by CD1b-restricted T cells. Science 278, 283-286 (1997).
126. A. Shamshiev, H. J. Gober, A. Donda, Z. Mazorra, L. Mori, G. De Libero, Presentation of the same glycolipid by different CD1 molecules. J. Exp. Med. 195, 1013-1021 (2002).
127. E. Agea, A. Russano, O. Bistoni, R. Mannucci, I. Nicoletti, L. Corazzi, A. D. Postle, G. De Libero, S. A. Porcelli, F. Spinozzi, Human CD1-restricted T cell recognition of lipids from pollens. J. Exp. Med. 202, 295-308 (2005).
128. D. B. Moody, D. C. Young, T. Y. Cheng, J. P. Rosat, C. Roura-Mir, P. B. O'Connor, D. M. Zajonc, A. Walz, M. J. Miller, S. B. Levery, I. A. Wilson, C. E. Costello, M. B. Brenner, T cell activation by lipopeptide antigens. Science 303, 527-531 (2004).
129. M. Gilleron, S. Stenger, Z. Mazorra, F. Wittke, S. Mariotti, G. Böhmer, J. Prandi, L. Mori, G. Puzo, G. de Libero, Diacylated sulfoglycolipids are novel mycobacterial antigens stimulating CD1-restricted T cells during infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Exp. Med. 199, 649-659 (2004).
130. I. Van Rhijn, A. Kasmar, A. de Jong, S. Gras, M. Bhati, M. E. Doorenspleet, N. de Vries, D. I. Godfrey, J. D. Altman, W. de Jager, J. Rossjohn, D. B. Moody, A conserved human T cell population targets mycobacterial antigens presented by CD1b. Nat. Immunol. 14, 706-713 (2013).
131. D. B. Moody, T. Ulrichs,W. Mühlecker, D. C. Young, S. S. Gurcha, E. Grant, J. P. Rosat, M. B. Brenner, C. E. Costello, G. S. Besra, S. A. Porcelli, CD1c-mediated T-cell recognition of isoprenoid glycolipids in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Nature 404, 884-888 (2000).
132. A. S. Heinzel, J. E. Grotzke, R. A. Lines, D. A. Lewinsohn, A. L. McNabb, D. N. Streblow, V. M. Braud, H. J. Grieser, J. T. Belisle, D. M. Lewinsohn, HLA-E-dependent presentation of Mtb-derived antigen to human CD8+ T cells. J. Exp. Med. 196, 1473-1481 (2002).
133. S. A. Joosten, K. E. vanMeijgaarden, P. C. van Weeren, F. Kazi, A. Geluk, N. D. Savage, J. W. Drijfhout, D. R. Flower, W. A. Hanekom,M. R. Klein, T. H. Ottenhoff, Mycobacterium tuberculosis peptides presented by HLA-E molecules are targets for human CD8+T-cells with cytotoxic as well as regulatory activity. PLoS Pathog. 6, e1000782 (2010).
134. J. E. Grotzke, M. J. Harriff, A. C. Siler, D. Nolt, J. Delepine, D. A. Lewinsohn, D. M. Lewinsohn, The Mycobacterium tuberculosis phagosome is a HLA-I processing competent organelle. PLoS Pathog. 5, e1000374 (2009).
135. M. C. Gold, S. Cerri, S. Smyk-Pearson, M. E. Cansler, T. M. Vogt, J. Delepine, E. Winata, G. M. Swarbrick, W. J. Chua, Y. Y. Yu, O. Lantz, M. S. Cook, M. D. Null, D. B. Jacoby, M. J. Harriff, D. A. Lewinsohn, T. H. Hansen, D. M. Lewinsohn, Human mucosal associated invariant T cells detect bacterially infected cells. PLoS Biol. 8, e1000407 (2010).
136. R. Vankayalapati, A. Garg, A. Porgador, D. E. Griffith, P. Klucar, H.
137. R. Dhiman, M. Indramohan, P. F. Barnes, R. C. Nayak, P. Paidipally, L. V. Rao, R. Vankayalapati, IL-22 produced by human NK cells inhibits growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by enhancing phagolysosomal fusion. J. Immunol. 183, 6639-6645 (2009).
138. R. Dhiman, S. Venkatasubramanian, P. Paidipally, P. F. Barnes, A. Tvinnereim, R. Vankayalapati, Interleukin 22 inhibits intracellular growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by enhancing calgranulin A expression. J. Infect. Dis. 10.1093/infdis/jit495 (2013).
139. R. Dhiman, S. Periasamy, P. F. Barnes, A. G. Jaiswal, P. Paidipally, A. B. Barnes, A. Tvinnereim, R. Vankayalapati, NK1.1+ cells and IL-22 regulate vaccine-induced protective immunity against challenge with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J. Immunol. 189, 897-905 (2012).
140. R. Vankayalapati, P. Klucar, B. Wizel, S. E. Weis, B. Samten, H. Safi, H. Shams, P. F. Barnes, NK cells regulate CD8+ T cell effector function in response to an intracellular pathogen. J. Immunol. 172, 130-137 (2004).
141. M. P. Berry, C. M. Graham, F. W. McNab, Z. Xu, S. A. Bloch, T. Oni, K. A. Wilkinson, R. Banchereau, J. Skinner, R. J. Wilkinson, C. Quinn, D. Blankenship, R. Dhawan, J. J. Cush, A. Mejias, O. Ramilo, O. M. Kon, V. Pascual, J. Banchereau, D. Chaussabel, A. O'Garra, An interferon-inducible neutrophil-driven blood transcriptional signature in human tuberculosis. Nature 466, 973-977 (2010).
142. J. Maertzdorf, J. Weiner III, H. J. Mollenkopf; TBornotTB Network, T. Bauer, A. Prasse, J. Müller-Quernheim, S. H. Kaufmann, Common patterns and disease-related signatures in tuberculosis and sarcoidosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 7853-7858 (2012).
143. T. H. Ottenhoff, R. H. Dass, N. Yang, M. M. Zhang, H. E. Wong, E. Sahiratmadja, C. C. Khor, B. Alisjahbana, R. van Crevel, S. Marzuki, M. Seielstad, E. van de Vosse, M. L. Hibberd, Genome-wide expression profiling identifies type 1 interferon response pathways in active tuberculosis. PLoS One 7, e45839 (2012).
144. C. I. Bloom, C. M. Graham, M. P. Berry, K. A. Wilkinson, T. Oni, F. Rozakeas, Z. Xu, J. Rossello-Urgell, D. Chaussabel, J. Banchereau, V. Pascual, M. Lipman, R. J. Wilkinson, A. O'Garra, Detectable changes in the blood transcriptome are present after two weeks of antituberculosis therapy. PLoS One 7, e46191 (2012).
145. S. A. Stanley, J. E. Johndrow, P. Manzanillo, J. S. Cox, The type I IFN response to infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis requires ESX-1-mediated secretion and contributes to pathogenesis. J. Immunol. 178, 3143-3152 (2007).
146. P. S. Manzanillo, M. U. Shiloh, D. A. Portnoy, J. S. Cox, Mycobacterium tuberculosis activates the DNA-dependent cytosolic surveillance pathway within macrophages. Cell Host Microbe 11, 469-480 (2012).
147. C. Manca, L. Tsenova, A. Bergtold, S. Freeman, M. Tovey, J. M. Musser, C. E. Barry III, V. H. Freedman, G. Kaplan, Virulence of a Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolate in mice is determined by failure to induce Th1 type immunity and is associated with induction of IFN-α/β. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 5752-5757 (2001).
148. C. Manca, L. Tsenova, S. Freeman, A. K. Barczak, M. Tovey, P. J. Murray, C. Barry, G. Kaplan, Hypervirulent M. tuberculosis W/Beijing strains upregulate type I IFNs and increase expression of negative regulators of the Jak-Stat pathway. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 25, 694-701 (2005).
149. D. Ordway, M. Henao-Tamayo, M. Harton, G. Palanisamy, J. Troudt, C. Shanley, R. J. Basaraba, I. M. Orme, The hypervirulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain HN878 induces a potent TH1 response followed by rapid down-regulation. J. Immunol. 179, 522-531 (2007).
150. M. B. Reed, P. Domenech, C. Manca, H. Su, A. K. Barczak, B. N. Kreiswirth, G. Kaplan, C. E. Barry III, A glycolipid of hypervirulent tuberculosis strains that inhibits the innate immune response. Nature 431, 84-87 (2004).
151. D. Sinsimer, G. Huet, C. Manca, L. Tsenova, M. S. Koo, N. Kurepina, B. Kana, B. Mathema, S. A. Marras, B. N. Kreiswirth, C. Guilhot, G. Kaplan, The phenolic glycolipid of Mycobacterium tuberculosis differentially modulates the early host cytokine response but does not in itself confer hypervirulence. Infect. Immun. 76, 3027-3036 (2008).
152. L. M. Delbridge, M. X. O'Riordan, Innate recognition of intracellular bacteria. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 19, 10-16 (2007).
153. S. Davila, M. L. Hibberd, R. Hari Dass, H. E. Wong, E. Sahiratmadja, C. Bonnard, B. Alisjahbana, J. S. Szeszko, Y. Balabanova, F. Drobniewski, R. van Crevel, E. van de Vosse, S. Nejentsev, T. H. Ottenhoff, M. Seielstad, Genetic association and expression studies indicate a role of Toll-like receptor 8 in pulmonary tuberculosis. PLoS Genet. 4, e1000218 (2008).
154. C. M. Austin, X. Ma, E. A. Graviss, Common nonsynonymous polymorphisms in the NOD2 gene are associated with resistance or susceptibility to tuberculosis disease in African Americans. J. Infect. Dis. 197, 1713-1716 (2008).
155. J. Bustamante, A. A. Arias, G. Vogt, C. Picard, L. B. Galicia, C. Prando, A. V. Grant, C. C. Marchal, M. Hubeau, A. Chapgier, B. L. de, A. Puel, J. Feinberg, E. Valinetz, L. Janniere, C. Besse, A. Boland, J. M. Brisseau, S. Blanche, O. Lortholary, C. Fieschi, J. F. Emile, S. Boisson-Dupuis, S. Al-Muhsen, B. Woda, P. E. Newburger, A. Condino-Neto, M. C. Dinauer, L. Abel, J. L. Casanova, Germline CYBB mutations that selectively affect macrophages in kindreds with X-linked predisposition to tuberculous mycobacterial disease. Nat. Immunol. 12, 213-221 (2011).
156. B. R. Bloom, Learning from leprosy: A perspective on immunology and the third world. J. Immunol. 137, i-x (1986).
157. D. S. Ridley, W. H. Jopling, Classification of leprosy according to immunity. A five-group system. Int. J. Lepr. Other Mycobact. Dis. 34, 255-273 (1966).
158. R. L. Modlin, F. M. Hofman, C. R. Taylor, T. H. Rea, T lymphocyte subsets in the skin lesions of patients with leprosy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 8, 182-189 (1983).
159. C. L. Cooper, C. Mueller, T. A. Sinchaisri, C. Pirmez, J. Chan, G. Kaplan, S. M. M. Young, I. L.Weissman, B. R. Bloom, T. H. Rea, R. L. Modlin, Analysis of naturally occurring delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions in leprosy by in situ hybridization. J. Exp. Med. 169, 1565-1581 (1989).
160. M. Yamamura, K. Uyemura, R. J. Deans, K. Weinberg, T. H. Rea, B. R. Bloom, R. L. Modlin, Defining protective responses to pathogens: Cytokine profiles in leprosy lesions. Science 254, 277-279 (1991).
161. M. Yamamura, X. H. Wang, J. D. Ohmen, K. Uyemura, T. H. Rea, B. R. Bloom, R. L. Modlin, Cytokine patterns of immunologically mediated tissue damage. J. Immunol. 149, 1470-1475 (1992).
162. R. L. Modlin, V. Mehra, L. Wong, Y. Fujimiya, W. C. Chang, D. A. Horwitz, B. R. Bloom, T. H. Rea, P. K. Pattengale, Suppressor T lymphocytes from lepromatous leprosy skin lesions. J. Immunol. 137, 2831-2834 (1986).
163. R. L. Modlin, H. Kato, V. Mehra, E. E. Nelson, F. Xue-dong, T. H. Rea, P. K. Pattengale, B. R. Bloom, Genetically restricted suppressor T-cell clones derived from lepromatous leprosy lesions. Nature 322, 459-461 (1986).
164. R. L. Modlin, M. B. Brenner, M. S. Krangel, A. D. Duby, B. R. Bloom, T-cell receptors of human suppressor cells. Nature 329, 541-545 (1987).
165. P. Salgame, J. S. Abrams, C. Clayberger, H. Goldstein, J. Convit, R. L. Modlin, B. R. Bloom, Differing lymphokine profiles of functional subsets of human CD4 and CD8 T cell clones. Science 254, 279-282 (1991).
166. R. M. B. Teles, T. G. Graeber, S. R. Krutzik, D. Montoya, M. Schenk, D. J. Lee, E. Komisopoulou, K. Kelly-Scumpia, R. Chun, S. S. Iyer, E. N. Sarno, T. H. Rea, M. Hewison, J. S. Adams, S. J. Popper, D. A. Relman, S. Stenger, B. R. Bloom, G. Cheng, R. L. Modlin, Type I interferon suppresses Type II interferon-triggered human anti-mycobacterial responses. Science 339, 1448-1453 (2013).
167. A. Novikov, M. Cardone, R. Thompson, K. Shenderov, K. D. Kirschman, K. D. Mayer-Barber, T. G. Myers, R. L. Rabin, G. Trinchieri, A. Sher, C. G. Feng, Mycobacterium tuberculosis triggers host type I IFN signaling to regulate IL-1β production in human macrophages. J. Immunol. 187, 2540-2547 (2011).
168. K. D. Mayer-Barber, B. B. Andrade, D. L. Barber, S. Hieny, C. G. Feng, P. Caspar, S. Oland, S. Gordon, A. Sher, Innate and adaptive interferons suppress IL-1α and IL-1β production by distinct pulmonary myeloid subsets during Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Immunity 35, 1023-1034 (2011).
169. R. A. de Paus, A. vanWengen, I. Schmidt,M. Visser, E.M. Verdegaal, J. T. van Dissel, E. van de Vosse, Inhibition of the type I immune responses of human monocytes by IFN-α and IFN-β. Cytokine 61, 645-655 (2013).
170. R. A. de Paus, C. R. van, B. R. van, E. Sahiratmadja, B. Alisjahbana, S. Marzuki, G. F. Rimmelzwaan, J. T. van Dissel, T. H. Ottenhoff, D. van de Vosse, The influence of influenza virus infections on the development of tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 93, 338-342 (2013).
171. P. C. Hopewell, in Tuberculosis, B. R. Bloom, Ed. (ASM Press, Washington, DC, 1994), pp. 25-46.
172. P. F. Barnes, S. J. Fong, P. J. Brennan, P. E. Twomey, A. Mazumder, R. L. Modlin, Local production of tumor necrosis factor and IFN-gamma in tuberculous pleuritis. J. Immunol. 145, 149-154 (1990).
173. P. F. Barnes, R. L. Modlin, D. D. Bikle, J. S. Adams, Transpleural gradient of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in tuberculous pleuritis. J. Clin. Invest. 83, 1527-1532 (1989).
174. B. R. Bloom, P. E. M. Fine, in Tuberculosis: Pathogenesis, Protection and Control, B. R. Bloom, Ed. (ASM Press, Washington, DC, 1994), pp. 531-557.
175. A. Soysal, K. A. Millington, M. Bakir, D. Dosanjh, Y. Aslan, J. J. Deeks, S. Efe, I. Staveley, K. Ewer, A. Lalvani, Effect of BCG vaccination on risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in children with household tuberculosis contact: A prospective community-based study. Lancet 366, 1443-1451 (2005).
176. M. Eisenhut, S. Paranjothy, I. Abubakar, S. Bracebridge, M. Lilley, R. Mulla, K. Lack, D. Chalkley, M. McEvoy, BCG vaccination reduces risk of infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis as detected by gamma interferon release assay. Vaccine 27, 6116-6120 (2009).
177. A. Paolillo, M. G. Buzzi, E. Giugni, U. Sabatini, S. Bastianello, C. Pozzilli, M. Salvetti, G. Ristori, The effect of Bacille Calmette-Guérin on the evolution of new enhancing lesions to hypointense T1 lesions in relapsing remitting MS. J. Neurol. 250, 247-248 (2003).
178. D. L. Faustman, L. Wang, Y. Okubo, D. Burger, L. Ban, G. Man, H. Zheng, D. Schoenfeld, R. Pompei, J. Avruch, D. M. Nathan, Proof-of-concept, randomized, controlled clinical trial of Bacillus- Calmette-Guerin for treatment of long-term type 1 diabetes. PLoS One 7, e41756 (2012).
179. C. Dye, P. Glaziou, K. Floyd, M. Raviglione, Prospects for tuberculosis elimination. Annu. Rev. Public Health 34, 271-286 (2013).
180. D. Jones, Tuberculosis success. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 12, 175-176 (2013). 181. http://www.TBalliance.org
181. M. G. Gutierrez, S. S. Master, S. B. Singh, G. A. Taylor, M. I. Colombo, V. Deretic, Autophagy is a defense mechanism inhibiting BCG and Mycobacterium tuberculosis survival in infected macrophages. Cell 119, 753-766 (2004).
182. E. F. Castillo, A. Dekonenko, J. rko-Mensah, M. A. Mandell, N. Dupont, S. Jiang, M. gado-Vargas, G. S. Timmins, D. Bhattacharya, H. Yang, J. Hutt, C. R. Lyons, K. M. Dobos, V. Deretic, Autophagy protects against active tuberculosis by suppressing bacterial burden and inflammation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, E3168-E3176 (2012).
183. S. Alonso, K. Pethe, D. G. Russell, G. E. Purdy, Lysosomal killing of Mycobacterium mediated by ubiquitin-derived peptides is enhanced by autophagy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 6031-6036 (2007).
184. G. S. Tomlinson, T. J. Cashmore, P. T. Elkington, J. Yates, R. J. Lehloenya, J. Tsang, M. Brown, R. F. Miller, K. Dheda, D. R. Katz, B. M. Chain, M. Noursadeghi, Transcriptional profiling of innate and adaptive human immune responses to mycobacteria in the tuberculin skin test. Eur. J. Immunol. 41, 3253-3260 (2011).
185. A. M. Minassian, E. O. Ronan, H. Poyntz, A. V. Hill, H. McShane, Preclinical development of an in vivo BCG challenge model for testing candidate TB vaccine efficacy. PLoSOne 6, e19840 (2011).
186. A. M. Minassian, I. Satti, I. D. Poulton, J. Meyer, A. V. Hill, H. McShane, A human challenge model for Mycobacterium tuberculosis using Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guérin. J. Infect. Dis. 205, 1035-1042 (2012).
187. http://www.who.int/entity/tb/WHO-GF-TB-financing-factsheet.pdf
188. http://www.theglobalfund.org/en/about/fundingspending/
189. http://www.niaid.nih.gov/about/yearinreview/2011/funding/Pages/ pathogensDiseasesConditions.aspx