Variable impedance actuators: A review

Robotics and Autonomous Systems

Volumn 61, Issue 12, 2013, Pages 1601-1614

  Vanderborght, B ^f   Albu Schaeffer, A ^a   Bicchi, A ^b,e   Burdet, E ^d   Caldwell, D G ^e   Carloni, R ^c   Catalano, M ^b,e   Eiberger, O ^a   Friedl, W ^a   Ganesh, G ^d   Garabini, M ^b   Grebenstein, M ^a   Grioli, G ^b   Haddadin, S ^a   Hoppner, H ^a   Jafari, A ^e   Laffranchi, M ^e   Lefeber, D ^f   Petit, F ^a   Stramigioli, S ^c   Tsagarakis, N ^e   Van Damme, M ^f   Van Ham, R ^f   Visser, L C ^c   Wolf, S ^a   more..

^a GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTER DLR   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TWENTE   (Netherlands)

^d IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^e ISTITUTO ITALIANO DI TECNOLOGIA   (Italy)

^f VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT BRUSSEL   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Soft robotics; Variable impedance actuators

Indexed keywords

ACTIVE IMPEDANCE; DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATIONS; DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENTS; INERTIAL ACTUATORS; NOVEL APPLICATIONS; SOFT ROBOTICS; VARIABLE IMPEDANCE; VARIABLE STIFFNESS AND DAMPING;

COMPLIANCE CONTROL; DAMPING;

ACTUATORS;

EID: 84887223229     PISSN: 09218890     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.robot.2013.06.009     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. A. Albu-Schaeffer, A. Bicchi, S. Stramigioli, E. Burdet, P. Smagt, A. Parravicini, D. Lefeber, N. Tsagarakis, VIACTORS-variable impedance actuation systems embodying advanced interaction behaviors, in: European Future Technologies Conference, FET09, 2009.
2. G. Grioli, S. Wolf, M. Garabini, M. Catalano, E. Burdet, D. Caldwell, R. Carloni, W. Friedl, M. Grebenstein, M. Laffranchi, D. Lefeber, S. Stramigioli, N. Tsagarakis, M. Van Damme, B. Vanderborght, A. Albu-Schaeffer, A. Bicchi, Variable stiffness actuators: the user's point of view, International Journal of Robotics Research (submitted).
3. S. Wolf, G. Grioli, O. Eiberger, W. Friedl, M. Grebenstein, H. Hoeppner, E. Burdet, D. Caldwell, R. Carloni, M. Catalano, D. Lefeber, S. Stramigioli, N. Tsagarakis, M. Van Damme, R. Van Ham, B. Vanderborght, L.C. Visser, A. Bicchi, A. Albu-Schaeffer, Variable stiffness actuators: design and components, IEEE/ASM Transactions on Mechatronics (submitted).
4. K. Salisbury, B. Eberman, M. Levin, and W. Townsend The design and control of an experimental whole-arm manipulator The Fifth International Symposium on Robotics Research 1991 MIT Press 233 241
5. N. Hogan Impedance control: an approach to manipulation: part Ill-applications Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control 107 2 1985 17
6. H. Asada, and K. Youcef-Toumi Direct-Drive Robots: Theory and Practice 1987 MIT Press
7. R. Pfeifer, J. Bongard, and S. Grand How The Body Shapes The Way We Think: A New View of Intelligence 2007 The MIT Press
8. J.E. Colgate, and N. Hogan Robust control of dynamically interacting systems International Journal of Control 48 1 1988 65 88
9. V. Duindam, A. Macchelli, S. Stramigioli, and H. Bruyninckx Modeling and Control of Complex Physical Systems: The Port-Hamiltonian Approach 2009 Springer
10. B. Vanderborght, A. Albu-Schaeffer, A. Bicchi, E. Burdet, D. Caldwell, R. Carloni, M. Catalano, G. Ganesh, M. Garabini, G. Grioli, S. Haddadin, A. Jafari, M. Laffranchi, D. Lefeber, F. Petit, S. Stramigioli, M. Grebenstein, N. Tsagarakis, M. Van Damme, R. Van Ham, L. Visser, S. Wolf, Variable impedance actuators: moving the robots of tomorrow, in: IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 2012, 2012.
11. R. Van Ham, S. Thomas, B. Vanderborght, K. Hollander, and D. Lefeber Compliant actuator designs: review of actuators with passive adjustable compliance/controllable stiffness for robotic applications IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine 16 3 2009 81 94
12. A. Albu-Schaffer, S. Haddadin, C. Ott, A. Stemmer, T. Wimbock, and G. Hirzinger The DLR lightweight robot: design and control concepts for robots in human environments Industrial Robot: An International Journal 34 5 2007 376 385
13. J. Pratt, Exploiting inherent robustness and natural dynamics in the control of bipedal walking robots, Ph.D. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2000.
14. R. Bischoff, J. Kurth, G. Schreiber, R. Koeppe, A. Albu-Schäffer, A. Beyer, O. Eiberger, S. Haddadin, A. Stemmer, and G. Grunwald The KUKA-DLR lightweight robot arm-a new reference platform for robotics research and manufacturing 6th German Conference on Robotics, ROBOTIK 2010 VDE 1 8
15. T. Boaventura, C. Semini, J. Buchli, M. Frigerio, M. Focchi, and D.G. Caldwell Dynamic torque control of a hydraulic quadruped robot IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2012 IEEE 1889 1894
16. S.-H. Hyon, J.G. Hale, and G. Cheng Full-body compliant human-humanoid interaction: balancing in the presence of unknown external forces IEEE Transactions on Robotics 23 5 2007 884 898
17. E.D. Fasse, N. Hogan, S.R. Gomez, and N.R. Mehta A novel variable mechanical impedance electromechanical actuator Dynamic Systems and Control 55 1 1994 311 318
18. F. Petit, A. Albu-Schaffer, State feedback damping control for a multi DOF variable stiffness robot arms, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2011, 2011, pp. 5561-5567.
19. G. Pratt, M. Williamson, Series elastic actuators, in: IEEE International Workshop on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 1990, 1990, pp. 399-406.
20. T. Sugar A novel selective compliant actuator Mechatronics 12 9 2002 1157 1171
21. N. Tsagarakis, M. Laffranchi, B. Vanderborght, D. Caldwell, A compact soft actuator unit for small scale human friendly robots, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2009, 2009, pp. 4356-4362.
22. M. Zinn, O. Khatib, B. Roth, and J. Salisbury Playing it safe [human-friendly robots] IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 11 2 2004 12 21
23. D. Shin, I. Sardellitti, Y. Park, O. Khatib, and M. Cutkosky Design and control of a bio-inspired human-friendly robot The International Journal of Robotics Research 29 5 2010 571 584
24. A. Seyfarth, H. Geyer, R. Blickhan, S. Lipfert, J. Rummel, Y. Minekawa, and F. Iida Fast Motions in Biomechanics and Robotics, Vol. 340 2006 Springer Berlin, Heidelberg 383 401 (Chapter Running and walking with compliant legs)
25. I. Thorson, D.G. Caldwell, A nonlinear series elastic actuator for highly dynamic motions, in: IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 2011, 2011, pp. 390-394.
26. J. Park, B. Kim, J. Song, and H. Kim Safe link mechanism based on nonlinear stiffness for collision safety Mechanism and Machine Theory 43 10 2008 1332 1348
27. S. Stramigioli, G. van Oort, E. Dertien, A concept for a new energy efficient actuator, in: IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics, AIM 2008, 2008, pp. 671-675.
28. N. Hogan Adaptive control of mechanical impedance by coactivation of antagonist muscles IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control 29 8 1984 681 690
29. B. Verrelst, R. Van Ham, B. Vanderborght, D. Lefeber, F. Daerden, and M. Van Damme Second generation pleated pneumatic artificial muscle and its robotic applications Advanced Robotics 20 7 2006 783 805
30. G. Tonietti, R. Schiavi, A. Bicchi, Design and control of a variable stiffness actuator for safe and fast physical human/robot interaction, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2005, 2005, pp. 526-531.
31. R. Schiavi, G. Grioli, S. Sen, A. Bicchi, VSA-II: a novel prototype of variable stiffness actuator for safe and performing robots interacting with humans, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2008, 2008, pp. 2171-2176.
32. M. Catalano, G. Grioli, M. Garabini, F. Bonomo, M. Mancini, N. Tsagarakis, A. Bicchi, VSA-CubeBot: a modular variable stiffness platform for multiple degrees of freedom robots, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2011, 2011, pp. 5090-5095.
33. S. Wolf, G. Hirzinger, A new variable stiffness design: matching requirements of the next robot generation, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2008, 2008, pp. 1741-1746.
34. F. Petit, M. Chalon, W. Friedl, M. Grebenstein, A. Albu-Schaeffer, G. Hirzinger, Bidirectional antagonistic variable stiffness actuation: analysis, design and implementation, in: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2010, 2010, pp. 4189-4196.
35. E.C. Martinez-Villalpando, and H. Herr Agonist-antagonist active knee prosthesis: a preliminary study in level-ground walking Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development 46 3 2009 361 373
36. N. Vitiello, T. Lenzi, S. Roccella, S.M.M. De Rossi, E. Cattin, F. Giovacchini, F. Vecchi, and M.C. Carrozza Neuroexos: a powered elbow exoskeleton for physical rehabilitation IEEE Transactions on Robotics 29 1 2013 220 235
37. D.G. Caldwell, G. Medrano-Cerda, and M. Goodwin Control of pneumatic muscle actuators IEEE Control Systems Magazine 15 1 1995 40 48
38. O. Eiberger, S. Haddadin, M. Weis, A. Albu-Schäffer, G. Hirzinger, On joint design with intrinsic variable compliance: derivation of the DLR QA-joint, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2010, 2010, pp. 1687-1694.
39. J.W. Hurst, and A.A. Rizzi Series compliance for robot actuation: application on the electric cable differential leg IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 15 3 2008 2008
40. C. English, and D. Russell Mechanics and stiffness limitations of a variable stiffness actuator for use in prosthetic limbs Mechanism and Machine Theory 34 1 1999 7 25
41. C. English, and D. Russell Implementation of variable joint stiffness through antagonistic actuation using rolamite springs Mechanism and Machine Theory 34 1 1999 27 40
42. M. Grebenstein, and P. van der Smagt Antagonism for a highly anthropomorphic handarm system Advanced Robotics 22 1 2008 39 55
43. M. Grebenstein, A. Albu-Schäffer, T. Bahls, M. Chalon, O. Eiberger, W. Friedl, R. Gruber, U. Hagn, R. Haslinger, H. Höppner, et al. The DLR hand arm system, in: International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2011, Vol. 11, 2010.
44. T. Huang, J. Kuan, and H. Huang Design of a new variable stiffness actuator and application for assistive exercise control IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 2011 2011 IEEE 372 377
45. B. Tondu, and P. Lopez Modeling and control of mckibben artificial muscle robot actuators IEEE Control Systems Magazine, 20 2 2000 15 38
46. D.C. Villegas, M. Van Damme, B. Vanderborght, and D. Lefeber Third generation pleated pneumatic artificial muscles for robotic applications: development and comparison with McKibben muscles Advanced Robotics 26 2012 1205 1227
47. M. Randazzo, M. Fumagalli, G. Metta, G. Sandini, Closed loop control of a rotational joint driven by two antagonistic dielectric elastomer actuators, in: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Vol. 7642, 2010, p. 68.
48. F. Carpi, D.D. Rossi, R. Kornbluh, R. Pelrine, and P. Sommer-Larsen Dielectric Elastomers as Electromechanical Transducers: Fundamentals, Materials, Devices, Models and Applications of an Emerging Electroactive Polymer Technology 2008 Elsevier Oxford
49. B. Vanderborght, T. Sugar, R. Van Ham, K. Hollander, and D. Lefeber Comparison of mechanical design and energy consumption of adaptable passive compliant actuators International Journal of Robotics Research 28 1 2008 90 103
50. R. Carloni, L.C. Visser, and S. Stramigioli Variable stiffness actuators: a port-based power-flow analysis IEEE Transactions on Robotics 28 1 2012 1 11
51. R. Van Ham, B. Vanderborght, M. Van Damme, B. Verrelst, and D. Lefeber MACCEPA, the mechanically adjustable compliance and controllable equilibrium position actuator: design and implementation in a biped robot Robotics and Autonomous Systems 55 10 2007 761 768
52. J. Sulzer, M. Peshkin, J. Patton, MARIONET: an exotendon-driven, rotary series elastic actuator for exerting joint torque, in: International Conference on Robotics for Rehabilitation, ICORR 2005, 2005, pp. 103-108.
53. B. Vanderborght, N. Tsagarakis, R. Van Ham, I. Thorson, and D. Caldwell Maccepa 2.0: compliant actuator used for energy efficient hopping robot chobino1d Autonomous Robots 2009 1 11
54. Y. Mao, J. Wang, P. Jia, S. Li, Z. Qiu, L. Zhang, Z. Han, A reinforcement learning based dynamic walking control, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2007, 2007, pp. 3609-3614.
55. D. Braun, M. Howard, and S. Vijayakumar Exploiting variable stiffness in explosive movement tasks Robotics Science and Systems (RSS) 2011
56. S. Wolf, O. Eiberger, G. Hirzinger, The DLR FSJ: energy based design of a variable stiffness joints, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2011, 2011, pp. 5082-5089.
57. L.C. Visser, R. Carloni, and S. Stramigioli Energy efficient variable stiffness actuators IEEE Transactions on Robotics 27 5 2011 865 875
58. A. Jafari, N. Tsagarakis, B. Vanderborght, D. Caldwell, A novel actuator with adjustable stiffness (AwAS), in: IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 2010, 2010, pp. 4201-4206.
59. B.-S. Kim, and J.-B. Song Design and control of a variable stiffness actuator based on adjustable moment arm IEEE Transactions on Robotics 28 5 2012 1145 1151
60. A. Jafari, N. Tsagarakis, D.G. Caldwell, AwAS-II: a new actuator with adjustable stiffness based on the novel principle of adaptable pivot point and variable lever ratio, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA, 2011, pp. 4638-4643.
61. N. Tsagarakis, I. Sardellitti, C.D.G., A new variable stiffness actuator (CompAct-VSA): design and modelling (2011) 378-383.
62. S.S. Groothuis, G. Rusticelli, A. Zucchelli, S. Stramigioli, R. Carloni, The vsaUT-II: a novel rotational variable stiffness actuator, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2012, 2012.
63. M. Fumagalli, E. Barrett, S. Stramigioli, R. Carloni, The mVSA-UT: a miniaturized differential mechanism for a continuous rotational variable stiffness actuator, in: 4th IEEE RAS & EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics, BioRob 2012, 2012, pp. 1943-1948.
64. B. Vanderborght, R. Van Ham, B. Verrelst, M. Van Damme, and D. Lefeber Overview of the lucy project: dynamic stabilization of a biped powered by pneumatic artificial muscles Advanced Robotics 22 25 2008 1027 1051
65. M. Van Damme, B. Vanderborght, B. Verrelst, R. Van Ham, F. Daerden, and D. Lefeber Proxy-based sliding mode control of a planar pneumatic manipulator International Journal of Robotics Research 28 2 2009 266 284
66. P. Beyl, M. Van Damme, R. Van Ham, B. Vanderborght, and D. Lefeber Design and control of a lower limb exoskeleton for robot-assisted gait training Applied Bionics and Biomechanics 6 2 2009 229 243
67. D. Shin, X. Yeh, O. Khatib, Variable radius pulley design methodology for pneumatic artificial muscle-based antagonistic actuation systems, in: IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 2011, 2011, pp. 1830-1835.
68. N. Sclater Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook 2011 McGraw-Hill Professional
69. K. Hollander, T. Sugar, Concepts for compliant actuation in wearable robotic systems, in: US-Korea Conference on Science, Technology and Entrepreneurship, UKC2004, 2004.
70. S. Kawamura, T. Yamamoto, D. Ishida, T. Ogata, Y. Nakayama, O. Tabata, S. Sugiyama, Development of passive elements with variable mechanical impedance for wearable robots, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2002, Vol. 1, 2002, pp. 248-253.
71. O. Tabata, S. Konishi, P. Cusin, Y. Ito, F. Kawai, S. Hirai, S. Kawamura, Microfabricated tunable bending stiffness device, in: The Thirteenth Annual International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, MEMS 2000, 2000, pp. 23-27.
72. T. Morita, S. Sugano, Design and development of a new robot joint using a mechanical impedance adjuster, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 1995, Vol. 3, 1995, pp. 2469-2475.
73. J. Choi, S. Hong, W. Lee, S. Kang, and M. Kim A robot joint with variable stiffness using leaf springs IEEE Transactions on Robotics 27 2 2011 229 238
74. S. Sugano, S. Tsuto, I. Kato, Force control of the robot finger joint equipped with mechanical compliance adjuster, in: lEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 1992, Vol. 3, 1992, pp. 2005-2013.
75. A. De, and U. Tasch A two-DOF manipulator with adjustable compliance capabilities and comparison with the human finger Journal of Robotic System 13 1996 25 34 Wiley, New York, NY
76. J. Schuy, P. Beckerle, J. Wojtusch, S. Rinderknecht, O. von Stryk, Conception and evaluation of a novel variable torsion stiffness for biomechanical applications, in: 4th IEEE RAS & EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics, BioRob, 2012, pp. 713-718.
77. K. Hollander, T. Sugar, D. Herring, Adjustable robotic tendon using a "jack spring"™, in: 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, ICORR 2005, 2005, pp. 113-118.
78. M. Laffranchi, N.G. Tsagarakis, and D.G. Caldwell Analysis and development of a semiactive damper for compliant actuation systems IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 18 2 2013 744 753
79. M. Laffranchi, N. Tsagarakis, A compact compliant actuator (CompAct™) with variable physical damping, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2011, 2011, pp. 4644-4650.
80. M. Laffranchi, N. Tsagarakis, D. Caldwell, A variable physical damping actuator (VPDA) for compliant robotic joints, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2010, 2010, pp. 1668-1674.
81. J. Hurst, A. Rizzi, D. Hobbelen, Series elastic actuation: potential and pitfalls, in: International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots, 2004.
82. A. De Luca, and W. Book Robots with flexible elements B. Siciliano, O. Khatib, Handbook of Robotics 2008 Springer 287 319
83. C. Chew, G. Hong, W. Zhou, Series damper actuator: a novel force/torque control actuator, in: 4th IEEE/RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots, Vol. 2, 2004, pp. 533-546.
84. H. Iwata, S. Sugano, Design of human symbiotic robot TWENDY-ONE, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2009, 2009, pp. 580-586.
85. E. Guglielmino, C. Stammers, K. Edge, Damp-by-wire: magnetorheological vs friction dampers, in: 16th IFAC World.
86. J.C. Dixon The Shock Absorber Handbook Senior Lecture in Engineering Mechanics 2007 PEP, Wiley
87. R.J. Farris, and M. Goldfarb Design of a multidisc electromechanical brake IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 16 6 2011 985 993
88. M.R. Tucker, R. Gassert, Differential-damper topologies for actuators in rehabilitation robotics, in: Annual International Conference of Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, EMBC 2012, 2012, pp. 3081-3085.
89. E. Garcia, J. Arevalo, F. Sanchez, J. Sarria, P. Gonzalez-de Santos, Design and development of a biomimetic leg using hybrid actuators, in: IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 2011, 2011, pp. 1507-1512.
90. K. Gunura, J. Bocanegra, and F. Iida Design and control of a novel visco-elastic braking mechanism using HMA Intelligent Robotics and Applications 2011 416 425
91. D. Chapuis, R. Gassert, E. Burdet, and H. Bleuler A hybrid ultrasonic motor and electrorheological fluid clutch actuator for force-feedback in MRI/fMRI 30th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, EMBS 2008 2008 IEEE 3438 3442
92. P. Fauteux, M. Lauria, B. Heintz, and F. Michaud Dual-differential rheological actuator for high-performance physical robotic interaction IEEE Transactions on Robotics 26 4 2010 607 618
93. J. Li, D. Jin, X. Zhang, J. Zhang, W. Gruver, An electrorheological fluid damper for robots, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 1995, 1995, pp. 2631-2636.
94. J. Desrosiers, J.L. Bigué, M. Denninger, G. Julió, J. Plante, and F. Charron Preliminary investigation of magneto-rheological fluid durability in continuous slippage clutch Journal of Physics: Conference Series 412 2013 012022
95. B. Ebrahimi, M.B. Khamesee, and F. Golnaraghi A novel eddy current damper: theory and experiment Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 42 7 2009 075001
96. A.H.C. Gosline, and V. Hayward Eddy current brakes for haptic interfaces: design, identification, and control IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 13 6 2008 669 677
97. H.A. Sodano, J.-S. Bae, D. Inman, and K. Belvin Improved concept and model of eddy current damper Transaction of the ASME 128 2006 294 302
98. A. Mohand-Ousaid, G. Millet, S. Régnier, S. Haliyo, and V. Hayward Haptic interface transparency achieved through viscous coupling The International Journal of Robotics Research 31 3 2012 319 329
99. M. Catalano, G. Grioli, M. Garabini, F.W. Belo, A. di Basco, N. Tsagarakis, A. Bicchi, Implementing a variable impedance actuator, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2012, 2012.
100. N.G. Tsagarakis, M. Lafranchi, and D.G. Caldwell Developing actuators with rich motor properties for emerging humanoids Proceedings of SIMPAR 2010 113 125
101. T. Milner, and C. Cloutier Compensation for mechanically unstable loading in voluntary wrist movement Experimental Brain Research 94 3 1993 522 532
102. M.G. Catalano, G. Grioli, VSA-CubeBot: a modular variable stiffness platform for multiple degrees of freedom robots, in: IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, ICRA 2011, 2011, pp. 5090-5095.
103. A. Radulescu, M. Howard, D. Braun, S. Vijayakumar, Exploiting variable physical damping in rapid movement tasks, in: IEEE/ASME International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics, AIM 2012, 2012, pp. 141-148.
104. M. Garabini, A. Passaglia, F. Belo, P. Salaris, A. Bicchi, Optimality principles in variable stiffness control: the VSA hammer, in: IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, IROS 2011, 2011, pp. 3770-3775.
105. Y. Xu, and S. Au Stabilization and path following of a single wheel robot IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 9 2 2004 407 419
106. K. Pullen, and C. Ellis Kinetic energy storage for vehicles Hybrid Vehicle Conference, IET The Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2006 2006 IET 91 108