Angiotensin II type 1 and type 2 receptor-induced cell signaling

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 19, Issue 17, 2013, Pages 2988-2995

  Akazawa, Hiroshi ^a,b   Yano, Masamichi ^a   Yabumoto, Chizuru ^a   Kudo Sakamoto, Yoko ^a   Komuro, Issei ^a,b  

^a OSAKA UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (Japan)

^b JAPAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AGENCY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Angiotensin II; Mechanical stress; Receptor dimerization; Renin angiotensin system; Signal transduction

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR; ANGIOTENSIN II; ANGIOTENSINOGEN; G PROTEIN COUPLED RECEPTOR; MYOSIN HEAVY CHAIN ALPHA; PROTEIN KINASE C; PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE;

ARTICLE; BINDING AFFINITY; CONFORMATIONAL TRANSITION; CRYSTAL STRUCTURE; HEART MUSCLE CELL; HUMAN; LIGAND BINDING; MECHANICAL STRESS; NONHUMAN; OLIGOMERIZATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROMOTER REGION; PROTEIN BINDING; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; PROTEIN PROTEIN INTERACTION; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

ANIMALS; CALCIUM; HUMANS; PROTEIN CONFORMATION; RECEPTOR, ANGIOTENSIN, TYPE 1; RECEPTOR, ANGIOTENSIN, TYPE 2; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STRESS, MECHANICAL;

EID: 84878659065     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: 18734286     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612811319170003     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Re RN. Mechanisms of disease: local renin-angiotensinaldosterone systems and the pathogenesis and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2004; 1: 42-7.
2. Paul M, Poyan Mehr A, Kreutz R. Physiology of local reninangiotensin systems. Physiol Rev 2006; 86: 747-803.
3. Timmermans PB, Wong PC, Chiu AT, et al. Angiotensin II receptors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists. Pharmacol Rev 1993; 45: 205-51.
4. Jones ES, Vinh A, McCarthy CA, Gaspari TA, Widdop RE. AT2 receptors: functional relevance in cardiovascular disease. Pharmacol Ther 2008; 120: 292-316.
5. Gether U, Kobilka BK. G protein-coupled receptors. II. Mechanism of agonist activation. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 17979-82.
6. Gether U. Uncovering molecular mechanisms involved in activation of G protein-coupled receptors. Endocr Rev 2000; 21: 90-113.
7. Miura S, Saku K, Karnik SS. Molecular analysis of the structure and function of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Hypertens Res 2003; 26: 937-43.
8. Guthrie GP, Jr. Angiotensin receptors: physiology and pharmacology. Clin Cardiol 1995; 18: III 29-34.
9. Akazawa H, Yabumoto C, Yano M, Kudo-Sakamoto Y, Komuro I. ARB and Cardioprotection. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. in press. DOI 10.1007/s10557-012-6392-2.
10. Zaman MA, Oparil S, Calhoun DA. Drugs targeting the reninangiotensin-aldosterone system. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002; 1: 621-36.
11. Steckelings UM, Larhed M, Hallberg A, et al. Non-peptide AT2-receptor agonists. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2011; 11: 187-92.
12. Steckelings UM, Paulis L, Namsolleck P, Unger T. AT2 receptor agonists: hypertension and beyond. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2012; 21: 142-6.
13. Timmermans PB, Wong PC, Chiu AT, Herblin WF. Nonpeptide angiotensin II receptor antagonists. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1991; 12: 55-62.
14. Miura S, Karnik SS. Angiotensin II type 1 and type 2 receptors bind angiotensin II through different types of epitope recognition. J Hypertens 1999; 17: 397-404.
15. Hansen JL, Servant G, Baranski TJ, Fujita T, Iiri T, Sheikh SP. Functional reconstitution of the angiotensin II type 2 receptor and G(i) activation. Circ Res 2000; 87: 753-9.
16. Heitsch H, Brovkovych S, Malinski T, Wiemer G. Angiotensin-(1-7)-Stimulated Nitric Oxide and Superoxide Release From Endothelial Cells. Hypertension 2001; 37: 72-6.
17. Castro CH, Santos RA, Ferreira AJ, Bader M, Alenina N, Almeida AP. Evidence for a functional interaction of the angiotensin-(1-7) receptor Mas with AT1 and AT2 receptors in the mouse heart. Hypertension 2005; 46: 937-42.
18. Walters PE, Gaspari TA, Widdop RE. Angiotensin-(1-7) acts as a vasodepressor agent via angiotensin II type 2 receptors in conscious rats. Hypertension 2005; 45: 960-6.
19. Dudley DT, Panek RL, Major TC, et al. Subclasses of angiotensin II binding sites and their functional significance. Mol Pharmacol 1990; 38: 370-7.
20. Mukoyama M, Horiuchi M, Nakajima M, Pratt RE, Dzau VJ. Characterization of a rat type 2 angiotensin II receptor stably expressed in 293 cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 1995; 112: 61-8.
21. Bouley R, Perodin J, Plante H, et al. N-and C-terminal structureactivity study of angiotensin II on the angiotensin AT2 receptor. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 343: 323-31.
22. Rosenstrom U, Skold C, Lindeberg G, et al. Synthesis and AT2 receptor-binding properties of angiotensin II analogues. J Pept Res 2004; 64: 194-201.
23. Lorenzo O, Ruiz-Ortega M, Suzuki Y, et al. Angiotensin III activates nuclear transcription factor-kappaB in cultured mesangial cells mainly via AT(2) receptors: studies with AT(1) receptorknockout mice. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 1162-71.
24. Padia SH, Howell NL, Siragy HM, Carey RM. Renal angiotensin type 2 receptors mediate natriuresis via angiotensin III in the angiotensin II type 1 receptor-blocked rat. Hypertension 2006; 47: 537-44.
25. Padia SH, Kemp BA, Howell NL, et al. Intrarenal aminopeptidase N inhibition augments natriuretic responses to angiotensin III in angiotensin type 1 receptor-blocked rats. Hypertension 2007; 49: 625-30.
26. Padia SH, Kemp BA, Howell NL, Fournie-Zaluski MC, Roques BP, Carey RM. Conversion of renal angiotensin II to angiotensin III is critical for AT2 receptor-mediated natriuresis in rats. Hypertension 2008; 51: 460-5.
27. Loufrani L, Henrion D, Chansel D, Ardaillou R, Levy BI. Functional evidence for an angiotensin IV receptor in rat resistance arteries. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; 291: 583-8.
28. Faure S, Chapot R, Tallet D, Javellaud J, Achard JM, Oudart N. Cerebroprotective effect of angiotensin IV in experimental ischemic stroke in the rat mediated by AT(4) receptors. J Physiol Pharmacol 2006; 57: 329-42.
29. Vinh A, Widdop RE, Chai SY, Gaspari TA. Angiotensin IVevoked vasoprotection is conserved in advanced atheroma. Atherosclerosis 2008; 200: 37-44.
30. Vinh A, Widdop RE, Drummond GR, Gaspari TA. Chronic angiotensin IV treatment reverses endothelial dysfunction in ApoEdeficient mice. Cardiovasc Res 2008; 77: 178-87.
31. Dechend R, Viedt C, Muller DN, et al. AT1 receptor agonistic antibodies from preeclamptic patients stimulate NADPH oxidase. Circulation 2003; 107: 1632-9.
32. Thway TM, Shlykov SG, Day MC, et al. Antibodies from preeclamptic patients stimulate increased intracellular Ca2+ mobilization through angiotensin receptor activation. Circulation 2004; 110: 1612-9.
33. Dragun D, Muller DN, Brasen JH, et al. Angiotensin II type 1-receptor activating antibodies in renal-allograft rejection. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 558-69.
34. Zhou CC, Zhang Y, Irani RA, et al. Angiotensin receptor agonistic autoantibodies induce pre-eclampsia in pregnant mice. Nat Med 2008; 14: 855-61.
35. Miura S, Karnik SS. Ligand-independent signals from angiotensin II type 2 receptor induce apoptosis. EMBO J 2000; 19: 4026-35.
36. D'Amore A, Black MJ, Thomas WG. The angiotensin II type 2 receptor causes constitutive growth of cardiomyocytes and does not antagonize angiotensin II type 1 receptor-mediated hypertrophy. Hypertension 2005; 46: 1347-54.
37. Falcon BL, Veerasingham SJ, Sumners C, Raizada MK. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor-mediated gene expression profiling in human coronary artery endothelial cells. Hypertension 2005; 45: 692-7.
38. Yasuda N, Miura S, Akazawa H, et al. Conformational switch of angiotensin II type 1 receptor underlying mechanical stress-induced activation. EMBO Rep 2008; 9: 179-86.
39. Qin Y, Yasuda N, Akazawa H, et al. Multivalent ligand-receptor interactions elicit inverse agonist activity of AT(1) receptor blockers against stretch-induced AT(1) receptor activation. Hypertens Res 2009; 32: 875-83.
40. Akazawa H, Yasuda N, Komuro I. Mechanisms and functions of agonist-independent activation in the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2009; 302: 140-7.
41. Yasuda N, Akazawa H, Ito K, et al. Agonist-Independent Constitutive Activity of Angiotensin II Receptor Promotes Cardiac Remodeling in Mice. Hypertension 2012; 59: 627-33.
42. Zou Y, Akazawa H, Qin Y, et al. Mechanical stress activates angiotensin II type 1 receptor without the involvement of angiotensin II. Nat Cell Biol 2004; 6: 499-506.
43. Mederos y Schnitzler M, Storch U, et al. Gq-coupled receptors as mechanosensors mediating myogenic vasoconstriction. EMBO J 2008; 27: 3092-103.
44. Rakesh K, Yoo B, Kim IM, Salazar N, Kim KS, Rockman HA. beta-Arrestin-biased agonism of the angiotensin receptor induced by mechanical stress. Sci Signal 2010; 3: ra46.
45. Miura S, Fujino M, Hanzawa H, et al. Molecular mechanism underlying inverse agonist of angiotensin II type 1 receptor. J Biol Chem 2006; 281: 19288-95.
46. Noda K, Feng YH, Liu XP, Saad Y, Husain A, Karnik SS. The active state of the AT1 angiotensin receptor is generated by angiotensin II induction. Biochemistry 1996; 35: 16435-42.
47. Groblewski T, Maigret B, Larguier R, Lombard C, Bonnafous JC, Marie J. Mutation of Asn111 in the third transmembrane domain of the AT1A angiotensin II receptor induces its constitutive activation. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 1822-6.
48. Balmforth AJ, Lee AJ, Warburton P, Donnelly D, Ball SG. The conformational change responsible for AT1 receptor activation is dependent upon two juxtaposed asparagine residues on transmembrane helices III and VII. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 4245-51.
49. Feng YH, Miura S, Husain A, Karnik SS. Mechanism of constitutive activation of the AT1 receptor: influence of the size of the agonist switch binding residue Asn(111). Biochemistry 1998; 37: 15791-8.
50. Hunyady L, Vauquelin G, Vanderheyden P. Agonist induction and conformational selection during activation of a G-protein-coupled receptor. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2003; 24: 81-6.
51. Noda K, Saad Y, Karnik SS. Interaction of Phe8 of angiotensin II with Lys199 and His256 of AT1 receptor in agonist activation. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 28511-4.
52. Miura S, Feng YH, Husain A, Karnik SS. Role of aromaticity of agonist switches of angiotensin II in the activation of the AT1 receptor. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 7103-10.
53. Yamano Y, Ohyama K, Chaki S, Guo DF, Inagami T. Identification of amino acid residues of rat angiotensin II receptor for ligand binding by site directed mutagenesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1992; 187: 1426-31.
54. Noda K, Saad Y, Kinoshita A, et al. Tetrazole and carboxylate groups of angiotensin receptor antagonists bind to the same subsite by different mechanisms. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 2284-9.
55. Feng YH, Noda K, Saad Y, Liu XP, Husain A, Karnik SS. The docking of Arg2 of angiotensin II with Asp281 of AT1 receptor is essential for full agonism. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 12846-50.
56. Miura S, Karnik SS. Constitutive activation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor alters the orientation of transmembrane Helix-2. J Biol Chem 2002; 277: 24299-305.
57. Chen S, Lin F, Xu M, Graham RM. Phe(303) in TMVI of the alpha(1B)-adrenergic receptor is a key residue coupling TM helical movements to G-protein activation. Biochemistry 2002; 41: 588-96.
58. Boucard AA, Roy M, Beaulieu ME, et al. Constitutive activation of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor alters the spatial proximity of transmembrane 7 to the ligand-binding pocket. J Biol Chem 2003; 278: 36628-36.
59. Miura S, Zhang J, Boros J, Karnik SS. TM2-TM7 interaction in coupling movement of transmembrane helices to activation of the angiotensin II type-1 receptor. J Biol Chem 2003; 278: 3720-5.
60. Lemaire K, Van de Velde S, Van Dijck P, Thevelein JM. Glucose and sucrose act as agonist and mannose as antagonist ligands of the G protein-coupled receptor Gpr1 in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell 2004; 16: 293-9.
61. Jongejan A, Bruysters M, Ballesteros JA, et al. Linking agonist binding to histamine H1 receptor activation. Nat Chem Biol 2005; 1: 98-103.
62. Martin SS, Holleran BJ, Escher E, Guillemette G, Leduc R. Activation of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor leads to movement of the sixth transmembrane domain: analysis by the substituted cysteine accessibility method. Mol Pharmacol 2007; 72: 182-90.
63. Parma J, Duprez L, Van Sande J, et al. Somatic mutations in the thyrotropin receptor gene cause hyperfunctioning thyroid adenomas. Nature 1993; 365: 649-51.
64. Shenker A, Laue L, Kosugi S, Merendino JJ, Jr., Minegishi T, Cutler GB, Jr. A constitutively activating mutation of the luteinizing hormone receptor in familial male precocious puberty. Nature 1993; 365: 652-4.
65. Davies E, Bonnardeaux A, Plouin PF, Corvol P, Clauser E. Somatic mutations of the angiotensin II (AT1) receptor gene are not present in aldosterone-producing adenoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 611-5.
66. Sachse R, Shao XJ, Rico A, et al. Absence of angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene mutations in human adrenal tumors. Eur J Endocrinol 1997; 137: 262-6.
67. Morisset S, Rouleau A, Ligneau X, et al. High constitutive activity of native H3 receptors regulates histamine neurons in brain. Nature 2000; 408: 860-4.
68. Nickenig G, Jung O, Strehlow K, et al. Hypercholesterolemia is associated with enhanced angiotensin AT1-receptor expression. Am J Physiol 1997; 272: H2701-7.
69. Nickenig G, Roling J, Strehlow K, Schnabel P, Bohm M. Insulin induces upregulation of vascular AT1 receptor gene expression by posttranscriptional mechanisms. Circulation 1998; 98: 2453-60.
70. Sodhi CP, Kanwar YS, Sahai A. Hypoxia and high glucose upregulate AT1 receptor expression and potentiate ANG II-induced proliferation in VSM cells. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2003; 284: H846-52.
71. Nickenig G, Strehlow K, Wassmann S, et al. Differential effects of estrogen and progesterone on AT(1) receptor gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circulation 2000; 102: 1828-33.
72. Sasamura H, Nakazato Y, Hayashida T, Kitamura Y, Hayashi M, Saruta T. Regulation of vascular type 1 angiotensin receptors by cytokines. Hypertension 1997; 30: 35-41.
73. Wassmann S, Stumpf M, Strehlow K, et al. Interleukin-6 induces oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction by overexpression of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. Circ Res 2004; 94: 534-41.
74. Wassmann S, Nickenig G. Pathophysiological regulation of the AT1-receptor and implications for vascular disease. J Hypertens Suppl 2006; 24: S15-21.
75. Griendling KK, Lassegue B, Alexander RW. Angiotensin receptors and their therapeutic implications. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1996; 36: 281-306.
76. Hein L, Stevens ME, Barsh GS, Pratt RE, Kobilka BK, Dzau VJ. Overexpression of angiotensin AT1 receptor transgene in the mouse myocardium produces a lethal phenotype associated with myocyte hyperplasia and heart block. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 6391-6.
77. Paradis P, Dali-Youcef N, Paradis FW, Thibault G, Nemer M. Overexpression of angiotensin II type I receptor in cardiomyocytes induces cardiac hypertrophy and remodeling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000; 97: 931-6.
78. Billet S, Bardin S, Verp S, et al. Gain-of-function mutant of angiotensin II receptor, type 1A, causes hypertension and cardiovascular fibrosis in mice. J Clin Invest 2007; 117: 1914-25.
79. Suzuki J, Matsubara H, Urakami M, Inada M. Rat angiotensin II (type 1A) receptor mRNA regulation and subtype expression in myocardial growth and hypertrophy. Circ Res 1993; 73: 439-47.
80. Fujii N, Tanaka M, Ohnishi J, et al. Alterations of angiotensin II receptor contents in hypertrophied hearts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1995; 212: 326-33.
81. Nio Y, Matsubara H, Murasawa S, Kanasaki M, Inada M. Regulation of gene transcription of angiotensin II receptor subtypes in myocardial infarction. J Clin Invest 1995; 95: 46-54.
82. Komuro I, Yazaki Y. Control of cardiac gene expression by mechanical stress. Annu Rev Physiol 1993; 55: 55-75.
83. Sadoshima J, Izumo S. The cellular and molecular response of cardiac myocytes to mechanical stress. Annu Rev Physiol 1997; 59: 551-71.
84. Sadoshima J, Xu Y, Slayter HS, Izumo S. Autocrine release of angiotensin II mediates stretch-induced hypertrophy of cardiac myocytes in vitro. Cell 1993; 75: 977-84.
85. Yamazaki T, Komuro I, Kudoh S, et al. Angiotensin II partly mediates mechanical stress-induced cardiac hypertrophy. Circ Res 1995; 77: 258-65.
86. Le MT, Vanderheyden PM, Szaszak M, Hunyady L, Kersemans V, Vauquelin G. Peptide and nonpeptide antagonist interaction with constitutively active human AT1 receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 2003; 65: 1329-38.
87. George SR, O'Dowd BF, Lee SP. G-protein-coupled receptor oligomerization and its potential for drug discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002; 1: 808-20.
88. Lohse MJ. Dimerization in GPCR mobility and signaling. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2010; 10: 53-8.
89. Miura S, Karnik SS, Saku K. Constitutively active homooligomeric angiotensin II type 2 receptor induces cell signaling independent of receptor conformation and ligand stimulation. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 18237-44.
90. Kim S, Iwao H. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of angiotensin II-mediated cardiovascular and renal diseases. Pharmacol Rev 2000; 52: 11-34.
91. Hunyady L, Catt KJ. Pleiotropic AT1 receptor signaling pathways mediating physiological and pathogenic actions of angiotensin II. Mol Endocrinol 2006; 20: 953-70.
92. Rajagopalan S, Kurz S, Munzel T, et al. Angiotensin II-mediated hypertension in the rat increases vascular superoxide production via membrane NADH/NADPH oxidase activation. Contribution to alterations of vasomotor tone. J Clin Invest 1996; 97: 1916-23.
93. Ushio-Fukai M, Zafari AM, Fukui T, Ishizaka N, Griendling KK. p22phox is a critical component of the superoxide-generating NADH/NADPH oxidase system and regulates angiotensin IIinduced hypertrophy in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biol Chem 1996; 271: 23317-21.
94. Zafari AM, Ushio-Fukai M, Akers M, et al. Role of NADH/NADPH oxidase-derived H2O2 in angiotensin II-induced vascular hypertrophy. Hypertension 1998; 32: 488-95.
95. Mehta PK, Griendling KK. Angiotensin II cell signaling: physiological and pathological effects in the cardiovascular system. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2007; 292: C82-97.
96. Zou Y, Komuro I, Yamazaki T, et al. Protein kinase C, but not tyrosine kinases or Ras, plays a critical role in angiotensin IIinduced activation of Raf-1 kinase and extracellular signalregulated protein kinases in cardiac myocytes. J Biol Chem 1996; 271: 33592-7.
97. Kudoh S, Komuro I, Mizuno T, et al. Angiotensin II stimulates c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase in cultured cardiac myocytes of neonatal rats. Circ Res 1997; 80: 139-46.
98. Nishida M, Tanabe S, Maruyama Y, et al. G alpha 12/13-and reactive oxygen species-dependent activation of c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase by angiotensin receptor stimulation in rat neonatal cardiomyocytes. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 18434-41.
99. Yin G, Yan C, Berk BC. Angiotensin II signaling pathways mediated by tyrosine kinases. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2003; 35: 780-3.
100. Eguchi S, Dempsey PJ, Frank GD, Motley ED, Inagami T. Activation of MAPKs by angiotensin II in vascular smooth muscle cells. Metalloprotease-dependent EGF receptor activation is required for activation of ERK and p38 MAPK but not for JNK. J Biol Chem 2001; 276: 7957-62.
101. Seta K, Sadoshima J. Phosphorylation of tyrosine 319 of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor mediates angiotensin II-induced trans-activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor. J Biol Chem 2003; 278: 9019-26.
102. Marrero MB, Schieffer B, Paxton WG, et al. Direct stimulation of Jak/STAT pathway by the angiotensin II AT1 receptor. Nature 1995; 375: 247-50.
103. Ali MS, Sayeski PP, Dirksen LB, Hayzer DJ, Marrero MB, Bernstein KE. Dependence on the motif YIPP for the physical association of Jak2 kinase with the intracellular carboxyl tail of the angiotensin II AT1 receptor. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 23382-8.
104. Ali MS, Sayeski PP, Bernstein KE. Jak2 acts as both a STAT1 kinase and as a molecular bridge linking STAT1 to the angiotensin II AT1 receptor. J Biol Chem 2000; 275: 15586-93.
105. Patel CB, Noor N, Rockman HA. Functional selectivity in adrenergic and angiotensin signaling systems. Mol Pharmacol 2010; 78: 983-92.
106. Shukla AK, Xiao K, Lefkowitz RJ. Emerging paradigms of betaarrestin-dependent seven transmembrane receptor signaling. Trends Biochem Sci 2011; 36: 457-69.
107. Lefkowitz RJ. G protein-coupled receptors. III. New roles for receptor kinases and beta-arrestins in receptor signaling and desensitization. J Biol Chem 1998; 273: 18677-80.
108. McDonald PH, Lefkowitz RJ. Beta-Arrestins: new roles in regulating heptahelical receptors' functions. Cell Signal 2001; 13: 683-9.
109. Thomas WG, Qian H. Arresting angiotensin type 1 receptors. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2003; 14: 130-6.
110. DeWire SM, Ahn S, Lefkowitz RJ, Shenoy SK. Beta-arrestins and cell signaling. Ann Rev Physiol 2007; 69: 483-510.
111. Daviet L, Lehtonen JY, Tamura K, Griese DP, Horiuchi M, Dzau VJ. Cloning and characterization of ATRAP, a novel protein that interacts with the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 17058-62.
112. Cui T, Nakagami H, Iwai M, et al. ATRAP, novel AT1 receptor associated protein, enhances internalization of AT1 receptor and inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell growth. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2000; 279: 938-41.
113. Tanaka Y, Tamura K, Koide Y, et al. The novel angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R)-associated protein ATRAP downregulates AT1R and ameliorates cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. FEBS letters 2005; 579: 1579-86.
114. Wakui H, Tamura K, Tanaka Y, et al. Cardiac-specific activation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor-associated protein completely suppresses cardiac hypertrophy in chronic angiotensin II-infused mice. Hypertension 2010; 55: 1157-64.
115. Steckelings UM, Kaschina E, Unger T. The AT2 receptor--a matter of love and hate. Peptides 2005; 26: 1401-9.
116. Kang J, Posner P, Sumners C. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor stimulation of neuronal K+ currents involves an inhibitory GTP binding protein. Am J Physiol 1994; 267: C1389-97.
117. Zhang J, Pratt RE. The AT2 receptor selectively associates with Gialpha2 and Gialpha3 in the rat fetus. J Biol Chem 1996; 271: 15026-33.
118. Huang XC, Richards EM, Sumners C. Angiotensin II type 2 receptor-mediated stimulation of protein phosphatase 2A in rat hypothalamic/brainstem neuronal cocultures. J Neurochem 1995; 65: 2131-7.
119. Horiuchi M, Hayashida W, Kambe T, Yamada T, Dzau VJ. Angiotensin type 2 receptor dephosphorylates Bcl-2 by activating mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphatase-1 and induces apoptosis. J Biol Chem 1997; 272: 19022-6.
120. Bedecs K, Elbaz N, Sutren M, et al. Angiotensin II type 2 receptors mediate inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade and functional activation of SHP-1 tyrosine phosphatase. Biochem J 1997; 325: 449-54.
121. Siragy HM, Carey RM. The subtype-2 (AT2) angiotensin receptor regulates renal cyclic guanosine 3', 5'-monophosphate and AT1 receptor-mediated prostaglandin E2 production in conscious rats. J Clin Invest 1996; 97: 1978-82.
122. Siragy HM, Carey RM. The subtype 2 (AT2) angiotensin receptor mediates renal production of nitric oxide in conscious rats. J Clin Invest 1997; 100: 264-9.
123. Widdop RE, Jones ES, Hannan RE, Gaspari TA. Angiotensin AT2 receptors: cardiovascular hope or hype? Br J Pharmacol 2003; 140: 809-24.
124. Lokuta AJ, Cooper C, Gaa ST, Wang HE, Rogers TB. Angiotensin II stimulates the release of phospholipid-derived second messengers through multiple receptor subtypes in heart cells. J Biol Chem 1994; 269: 4832-8.
125. Gallinat S, Busche S, Schutze S, Kronke M, Unger T. AT2 receptor stimulation induces generation of ceramides in PC12W cells. FEBS letters 1999; 443: 75-9.
126. Lehtonen JY, Horiuchi M, Daviet L, Akishita M, Dzau VJ. Activation of the de novo biosynthesis of sphingolipids mediates angiotensin II type 2 receptor-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem 1999; 274: 16901-6.
127. Nouet S, Amzallag N, Li JM, et al. Trans-inactivation of receptor tyrosine kinases by novel angiotensin II AT2 receptor-interacting protein, ATIP. J Biol Chem 2004; 279: 28989-97.
128. Senbonmatsu T, Saito T, Landon EJ, et al. A novel angiotensin II type 2 receptor signaling pathway: possible role in cardiac hypertrophy. EMBO J 2003; 22: 6471-82.
129. Rasmussen SG, Choi HJ, Rosenbaum DM, et al. Crystal structure of the human beta2 adrenergic G-protein-coupled receptor. Nature 2007; 450: 383-7.
130. Cherezov V, Rosenbaum DM, Hanson MA, et al. High-resolution crystal structure of an engineered human beta2-adrenergic G protein-coupled receptor. Science 2007; 318: 1258-65.
131. Rosenbaum DM, Cherezov V, Hanson MA, et al. GPCR engineering yields high-resolution structural insights into beta2-adrenergic receptor function. Science 2007; 318: 1266-73.