Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in physical performance optimization

International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 83-96

  Mickleborough, Timothy D ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Exercise; Fish oil; Inflammation; PUFAs

Indexed keywords

CYTOKINE; ICOSANOID; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE;

DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; ENDURANCE TRAINING; ERYTHROCYTE DEFORMABILITY; EXERCISE; FATTY ACID METABOLISM; GLUCONEOGENESIS; GLUCOSE UTILIZATION; HEART FUNCTION; HUMAN; LIPID PEROXIDATION; MUSCLE FATIGUE; MUSCLE INJURY; NONHUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; OXYGEN SATURATION; PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE; REVIEW;

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACIDS; EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID; EXERCISE; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; SPORTS;

EID: 84873391443     PISSN: 1526484X     EISSN: 15432742     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.23.1.83     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Albert, C.M., Campos, H., Stampfer, M.J., Ridker, P.M., Manson, J.E., Willett, W.C., & Ma, J. (2002). Blood levels of long-chain n-3 fatty acids and the risk of sudden death. The New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 1113-1118. PubMed doi:10.1056/NEJMoa012918
2. Allard, J.P., Kurian, R., Aghdassi, E., Muggli, R., & Royall, D. (1997). Lipid peroxidation during n-3 fatty acid and vitamin E supplementation in humans. Lipids, 32, 535-541. PubMed doi:10.1007/s11745-997-0068-2
3. Andersson, A., Nalsen, C., Tengblad, S., & Vessby, B. (2002). Fatty acid composition of skeletal muscle reflects dietary fat composition in humans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76, 1222-1229. PubMed
4. Andersson, A., Sjodin, A., Hedman, A., Olsson, R., & Vessby, B. (2000). Fatty acid profile of skeletal muscle phospholipids in trained and untrained young men. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism, 279, E744-E751. PubMed
5. Andrade, P.M., Ribeiro, B.G., Bozza, M.T., Costa Rosa, L.F., & Tavares do Carmo, M.G. (2007). Effects of the fishoil supplementation on the immune and inflammatory responses in elite swimmers. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 77, 139-145. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2007.08.010
6. Armstrong, R.B., Warren, G.L., & Warren, J.A. (1991). Mechanisms of exercise-induced muscle fibre injury. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 12, 184-207. PubMed doi:10.2165/00007256-199112030-00004
7. Ayre, K.J., & Hulbert, A.J. (1997). Dietary fatty acid profile affects endurance in rats. Lipids, 32, 1265-1270. PubMed doi:10.1007/s11745-006- 0162-5
8. Baskurt, O.K., Hardeman, M.R., Uyuklu, M., Ulker, P., Cengiz, M., Nemeth, N.,... Meiselman, H.J. (2009). Comparison of three commercially available ektacytometers with different shearing geometries. Biorheology, 46, 251-264. PubMed
9. Bell-Parikh, L.C., Ide, T., Lawson, J.A., McNamara, P., Reilly, M., & FitzGerald, G.A. (2003). Biosynthesis of 15-deoxydelta12, 14-PGJ2 and the ligation of PPARλ. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 112, 945-955. PubMed
10. Benquet, C., Krzystyniak, K., Savard, R., Guertin, F., Oth, D., & Fournier, M. (1994). Modulation of exercise-induced immunosuppression by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids in mice. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 43, 225-237. PubMed doi:10.1080/15287399409531917
11. Bergeron, K., Julien, P., Davis, T.A., Myre, A., & Thivierge, M.C. (2007). Long-chain n-3 fatty acids enhance neonatal insulin-regulated protein metabolism in piglets by differentially altering muscle lipid composition. Journal of Lipid Research, 48, 2396-2410. PubMed doi:10.1194/jlr. M700166-JLR200
12. Billman, G.E., Kang, J.X., & Leaf, A. (1997). Prevention of ischemia-induced cardiac sudden death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in dogs. Lipids, 32, 1161-1168. PubMed doi:10.1007/s11745-997-0149-2
13. Bishop, C.M., Butler, P.J., Egginton, S., el Haj, A.J., & Gabrielsen, G.W. (1995). Development of metabolic enzyme activity in locomotor and cardiac muscles of the migratory barnacle goose. The American Journal of Physiology, 269, R64-R72. PubMed
14. Bloomer, R.J., Larson, D.E., Fisher-Wellman, K.H., Galpin, A.J., & Schilling, B.K. (2009). Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid on resting and exercise-induced inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers: A randomized, placebo controlled, cross-over study. Lipids in Health and Disease, 8, 36. PubMed doi:10.1186/1476-511X-8-36
15. Boss, A., Lecoultre, V., Ruffieux, C., Tappy, L., & Schneiter, P. (2010). Combined effects of endurance training and dietary unsaturated fatty acids on physical performance, fat oxidation and insulin sensitivity. The British Journal of Nutrition, 103, 1151-1159. PubMed
16. Brenner, I.K., Shek, P.N., & Shephard, R.J. (1994). Infection in athletes. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 17, 86-107. PubMed doi:10.2165/00007256-199417020-00002
17. Brilla, L.R., & Landerholm, T.E. (1990). Effect of fish oil supplementation and exercise on serum lipids and aerobic fitness. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 30, 173-180. PubMed
18. Bruckner, G., Webb, P., Greenwell, L., Chow, C., & Richardson, D. (1987). Fish oil increases peripheral capillary blood cell velocity in humans. Atherosclerosis, 66, 237-245. PubMed doi:10.1016/0021-9150(87)90067-0
19. Buckley, J.D., Burgess, S., Murphy, K.J., & Howe, P.R. (2009). DHA-rich fish oil lowers heart rate during submaximal exercise in elite Australian Rules footballers. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12, 503-507. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.01.011
20. Calabresi, L., Villa, B., Canavesi, M., Sirtori, C.R., James, R.W., Bernini, F., & Franceschini, G. (2004). An omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrate increases plasma high-density lipoprotein 2 cholesterol and paraoxonase levels in patients with familial combined hyperlipidemia. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 53, 153-158. PubMed doi:10.1016/j. metabol.2003.09.007
21. Calder, P.C. (2006). n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83, 1505S-1519S. PubMed
22. Calder, P.C. (2007). Immunomodulation by omega-3 fatty acids. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 77, 327-335. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2007.10.015
23. Calder, P.C. (2009). Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: New twists in an old tale. Biochimie, 91, 791-795. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2009.01.008
24. Cartwright, I.J., Pockley, A.G., Galloway, J.H., Greaves, M., & Preston, F.E. (1985). The effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on erythrocyte membrane phospholipids, erythrocyte deformability and blood viscosity in healthy volunteers. Atherosclerosis, 55, 267-281. PubMed doi:10.1016/0021-9150(85)90106-6
25. Clarke, S.D. (2001). Polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of gene transcription: A molecular mechanism to improve the metabolic syndrome. The Journal of Nutrition, 131, 1129-1132. PubMed
26. Clarke, S.D., & Jump, D. (1997). Polyunsaturated fatty acids regulate lipogenic and peroxisomal gene expression by independent mechanisms. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 57, 65-69. PubMed doi:10.1016/S0952-3278(97)90494-4
27. Clavel, S., Farout, L., Briand, M., Briand, Y., & Jouanel, P. (2002). Effect of endurance training and/or fish oil supplemented diet on cytoplasmic fatty acid binding protein in rat skeletal muscles and heart. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 87, 193-201. PubMed doi:10.1007/s00421-002-0612-6
28. Coggan, A.R., Kohrt, W.M., Spina, R.J., Bier, D.M., & Holloszy, J.O. (1990). Endurance training decreases plasma glucose turnover and oxidation during moderate-intensity exercise in men. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 68, 990-996. PubMed
29. Delarue, J., Labarthe, F., & Cohen, R. (2003). Fish-oil supplementation reduces stimulation of plasma glucose fluxes during exercise in untrained males. The British Journal of Nutrition, 90, 777-786. PubMed doi:10.1079/BJN2003964
30. Demaison, L., Blet, J., Sergiel, J.P., Gregoire, S., & Argaud, D. (2000). Effect of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on contractile function of hearts isolated from sedentary and trained rats. Reproduction, Nutrition, Development, 40, 113-125. PubMed doi:10.1051/rnd:2000124
31. Dyerberg, J., Bang, H.O., & Hjorne, N. (1975). Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids in Greenland Eskimos. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 28, 958-966. PubMed
32. Ernst, E., Saradeth, T., & Achhammer, G. (1991). n-3 fatty acids and acute-phase proteins. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 21, 77-82. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1365-2362.1991.tb01362.x
33. Filaire, E., Massart, A., Rouveix, M., Portier, H., Rosado, F., & Durand, D. (2011). Effects of 6 weeks of n-3 fatty acids and antioxidant mixture on lipid peroxidation at rest and postexercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 111 (8), 1829-1839. PubMed doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1807-x
34. Fisher-Wellman, K., & Bloomer, R.J. (2009). Acute exercise and oxidative stress: A 30 year history. Dynamic Medicine, 8, 1. PubMed doi:10.1186/1476-5918-8-1
35. Fleischhauer, F.J., Yan, W.D., & Fischell, T.A. (1993). Fish oil improves endothelium-dependent coronary vasodilation in heart transplant recipients. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 21, 982-989. PubMed doi:10.1016/0735-1097(93)90357-7
36. Fontani, G., Corradeschi, F., Felici, A., Alfatti, F., Migliorini, S., & Lodi, L. (2005). Cognitive and physiological effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in healthy subjects. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 35, 691-699. PubMed doi:10.1111/j.1365-2362.2005. 01570.x
37. Galea, G., & Davidson, R.J. (1985). Hemorrheology of marathon running. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 6, 136-138. PubMed doi:10.1055/s-2008-1025826
38. Gans, R.O., Bilo, H.J., Weersink, E.G., Rauwerda, J.A., Fonk, T., Popp-Snijders, C., & Donker, A.J. (1990). Fish oil supplementation in patients with stable claudication. American Journal of Surgery, 160, 490-495. PubMed doi:10.1016/S0002-9610(05)81012-8
39. Gingras, A.A., White, P.J., Chouinard, P.Y., Julien, P., Davis, T.A., Dombrowski, L.,... Thivierge, M.C. (2007). Longchain omega-3 fatty acids regulate bovine whole-body protein metabolism by promoting muscle insulin signalling to the Akt-mTOR-S6K1 pathway and insulin sensitivity. The Journal of Physiology, 579, 269-284. PubMed doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2006.121079
40. Guezennec, C.Y., Nadaud, J.F., Satabin, P., Leger, F., & Lafargue, P. (1989). Influence of polyunsaturated fatty acid diet on the hemorrheological response to physical exercise in hypoxia. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 10, 286-291. PubMed doi:10.1055/s-2007-1024917
41. Guglielmo, C.G., Haunerland, N.H., Hochachka, P.W., & Williams, T.D. (2002). Seasonal dynamics of flight muscle fatty acid binding protein and catabolic enzymes in a migratory shorebird. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 282, R1405-R1413. PubMed
42. Guzman, J.F., Esteve, H., Pablos, C., Pablos, A., & Villegas, J.A. (2011). DHA-rich fish oil improves complex reaction time in female elite soccer players. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 10, 301-305.
43. Harris, W.S. (1989). Fish oils and plasma lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in humans: A critical review. Journal of Lipid Research, 30, 785-807. PubMed
44. Helge, J.W., Wu, B.J., Willer, M., Daugaard, J.R., Storlien, L.H., & Kiens, B. (2001). Training affects muscle phospholipid fatty acid composition in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 90, 670-677. PubMed
45. Heller, A., Koch, T., Schmeck, J., & van Ackern, K. (1998). Lipid mediators in inflammatory disorders. Drugs, 55, 487-496. PubMed doi:10.2165/00003495-199855040-00001
46. Herrmann, W., Biermann, J., & Kostner, G.M. (1995). Comparison of effects of N-3 to N-6 fatty acids on serum level of lipoprotein(a) in patients with coronary artery disease. The American Journal of Cardiology, 76, 459-462. PubMed doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80130-1
47. Hostetler, H.A., Petrescu, A.D., Kier, A.B., & Schroeder, F. (2005). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha interacts with high affinity and is conformationally responsive to endogenous ligands. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 280, 18667-18682. PubMed doi:10.1074/jbc. M412062200
48. Hu, F.B., Bronner, L., Willett, W.C., Stampfer, M.J., Rexrode, K.M., Albert, C.M.,... Manson, J.E. (2002). Fish and omega-3 fatty acid intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 1815-1821. PubMed doi:10.1001/jama.287.14.1815
49. Huffman, D.M., Altena, T.S., Mawhinney, T.P., & Thomas, T.R. (2004). Effect of n-3 fatty acids on free tryptophan and exercise fatigue. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 92, 584-591. PubMed doi:10.1007/s00421-004-1069-6
50. Ide, T., Egan, K., Bell-Parikh, L.C., & FitzGerald, G.A. (2003). Activation of nuclear receptors by prostaglandins. Thrombosis Research, 110, 311-315. PubMed doi:10.1016/S0049-3848(03)00418-3
51. Infante, J.P., Kirwan, R.C., & Brenna, J.T. (2001). High levels of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3)-containing phospholipids in high-frequency contraction muscles of hummingbirds and rattlesnakes. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, 130, 291-298. PubMed doi:10.1016/S1096-4959(01)00443-2
52. Jouris, K.B., McDaniel, J.L., & Weiss, E.P. (2011). The effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on the inflammatory response to eccentric strength exercise. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 10, 432-438.
53. Jump, D.B., Clarke, S.D., Thelen, A., & Liimatta, M. (1994). Coordinate regulation of glycolytic and lipogenic gene expression by polyunsaturated fatty acids. Journal of Lipid Research, 35, 1076-1084. PubMed
54. Kris-Etherton, P.M., Grieger, J.A., & Etherton, T.D. (2009). Dietary reference intakes for DHA and EPA. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 81, 99-104. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2009.05.011
55. Kris-Etherton, P.M., Harris, W.S., & Appel, L.J. (2002). Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation, 106, 2747-2757. PubMed doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94
56. Leaf, A., Kang, J.X., Xiao, Y.F., & Billman, G.E. (2003). Clinical prevention of sudden cardiac death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and mechanism of prevention of arrhythmias by n-3 fish oils. Circulation, 107, 2646-2652. PubMed doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000069566.78305.33
57. Lee, T.H., Hoover, R.L., Williams, J.D., Sperling, R.I., Ravalese, J., 3rd, Spur, B.W.,... Austen, K.F. (1985). Effect of dietary enrichment with eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on in vitro neutrophil and monocyte leukotriene generation and neutrophil function. The New England Journal of Medicine, 312, 1217-1224. PubMed doi:10.1056/NEJM198505093121903
58. Lemaitre, R.N., King, I.B., Mozaffarian, D., Kuller, L.H., Tracy, R.P., & Siscovick, D.S. (2003). n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, fatal ischemic heart disease, and nonfatal myocardial infarction in older adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 77, 319-325. PubMed
59. Lenn, J., Uhl, T., Mattacola, C., Boissonneault, G., Yates, J., Ibrahim, W., & Bruckner, G. (2002). The effects of fish oil and isoflavones on delayed onset muscle soreness. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 1605-1613. PubMed doi:10.1097/00005768-200210000-00012
60. Lin, Q., Ruuska, S.E., Shaw, N.S., Dong, D., & Noy, N. (1999). Ligand selectivity of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha. Biochemistry, 38, 185-190. PubMed doi:10.1021/bi9816094
61. Lortet, S., & Verger, P. (1995). Alteration of cardiovascular function in trained rats fed with fish oil. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16, 519-521. PubMed doi:10.1055/s-2007-973047
62. Maillet, D., & Weber, J.M. (2006). Performance-enhancing role of dietary fatty acids in a long-distance migrant shorebird: The semipalmated sandpiper. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 209, 2686-2695. PubMed doi:10.1242/jeb.02299
63. Maillet, D., & Weber, J.M. (2007). Relationship between n-3 PUFA content and energy metabolism in the flight muscles of a migrating shorebird: Evidence for natural doping. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 210, 413-420. PubMed doi:10.1242/jeb.02660
64. Malaguti, M., Baldini, M., Angeloni, C., Biagi, P., & Hrelia, S. (2008). High-protein-PUFA supplementation, red blood cell membranes, and plasma antioxidant activity in volleyball athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 18, 301-312. PubMed
65. McAnulty, S.R., Nieman, D.C., Fox-Rabinovich, M., Duran, V., McAnulty, L.S., Henson, D.A.,... Landram, M.J. (2010). Effect of n-3 fatty acids and antioxidants on oxidative stress after exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42, 1704-1711. PubMed doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181d85bd1
66. Mckenzie, D.J., Higg, D.A., Dosanjh, B.S., Deacon, G., & Randell, D.J. (1998). Dietary fatty acid composition influences swimming performance in Atlantic salmon in seawater. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry, 19, 111-122. doi:10.1023/A:1007779619087
67. McLennan, P.L. (2001). Myocardial membrane fatty acids and the antiarrhythmic actions of dietary fish oil in animal models. Lipids, 36(Suppl.), S111-S114. PubMed doi:10.1007/s11745-001-0692-x
68. Meydani, S.N., Endres, S., Woods, M.M., Goldin, B.R., Soo, C., Morrill-Labrode, A.,... Gorbach, S.L. (1991). Oral (n-3) fatty acid supplementation suppresses cytokine production and lymphocyte proliferation: Comparison between young and older women. The Journal of Nutrition, 121, 547-555. PubMed
69. Mickleborough, T.D. (2008). A nutritional approach to managing exercise-induced asthma. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 36, 135-144. PubMed doi:10.1097/JES.0b013e31817be827
70. Mickleborough, T.D., Lindley, M.R., Ionescu, A.A., & Fly, A.D. (2006). Protective effect of fish oil supplementation on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in asthma. Chest, 129, 39-49. PubMed doi:10.1378/chest.129. 1.39
71. Mickleborough, T.D., Murray, R.L., Ionescu, A.A., & Lindley, M.R. (2003). Fish oil supplementation reduces severity of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in elite athletes. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 168, 1181-1189. PubMed doi:10.1164/rccm.200303-373OC
72. Mishra, A., Chaudhary, A., & Sethi, S. (2004). Oxidized omega-3 fatty acids inhibit NF-κB activation via a PPARα-dependent pathway. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 24, 1621-1627. PubMed doi:10.1161/01. ATV.0000137191.02577.86
73. Mori, T.A., & Beilin, L.J. (2001). Long-chain omega 3 fatty acids, blood lipids and cardiovascular risk reduction. Current Opinion in Lipidology, 12, 11-17. PubMed doi:10.1097/00041433-200102000-00003
74. Mori, T.A., Beilin, L.J., Burke, V., Morris, J., & Ritchie, J. (1997). Interactions between dietary fat, fish, and fish oils and their effects on platelet function in men at risk of cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology, 17, 279-286. PubMed doi:10.1161/01. ATV.17.2.279
75. Mozaffarian, D., Geelen, A., Brouwer, I.A., Geleijnse, J.M., Zock, P.L., & Katan, M.B. (2005). Effect of fish oil on heart rate in humans: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Circulation, 112, 1945-1952. PubMed doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.556886
76. Nagahuedi, S., Popesku, J.T., Trudeau, V.L., & Weber, J.M. (2009). Mimicking the natural doping of migrant sandpipers in sedentary quails: Effects of dietary n-3 fatty acids on muscle membranes and PPAR expression. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 212, 1106-1114. PubMed doi:10.1242/jeb.027888
77. Neschen, S., Morino, K., Dong, J., Wang-Fischer, Y., Cline, G.W., Romanelli, A.J.,... Shulman, G.I. (2007). n-3 fatty acids preserve insulin sensitivity in vivo in a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha- dependent manner. Diabetes, 56, 1034-1041. PubMed doi:10.2337/db06-1206
78. Nieman, D.C., Henson, D.A., McAnulty, S.R., Jin, F., & Maxwell, K.R. (2009). n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not alter immune and inflammation measures in endurance athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 19 (5), 536-546. PubMed
79. Ninio, D.M., Hill, A.M., Howe, P.R., Buckley, J.D., & Saint, D.A. (2008). Docosahexaenoic acid-rich fish oil improves heart rate variability and heart rate responses to exercise in overweight adults. The British Journal of Nutrition, 100, 1097-1103. PubMed doi:10.1017/S0007114508959225
80. Northoff, H., & Berg, A. (1991). Immunologic mediators as parameters of the reaction to strenuous exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 12(Suppl. 1), S9-S15. PubMed doi:10.1055/s-2007-1024743
81. O'Connor, C.I., Lawrence, L.M., Lawrence, A.C., Janicki, K.M., Warren, L.K., & Hayes, S. (2004). The effect of dietary fish oil supplementation on exercising horses. Journal of Animal Science, 82, 2978-2984. PubMed
82. Oomen, C.M., Feskens, E.J., Rasanen, L., Fidanza, F., Nissinen, A.M., Menotti, A.,... Kromhout, D. (2000). Fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality in Finland, Italy, and The Netherlands. American Journal of Epidemiology, 151, 999-1006. PubMed doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010144
83. Oostenbrug, G.S., Mensink, R.P., Hardeman, M.R., De Vries, T., Brouns, F., & Hornstra, G. (1997). Exercise performance, red blood cell deformability, and lipid peroxidation: Effects of fish oil and vitamin E. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 83, 746-752. PubMed
84. Overney, L.S., Blanke, O., & Herzog, M.H. (2008). Enhanced temporal but not attentional processing in expert tennis players. PLoS ONE, 3, e2380. PubMed doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002380
85. Paschos, G.K., Magkos, F., Panagiotakos, D.B., Votteas, V., & Zampelas, A. (2007). Dietary supplementation with flaxseed oil lowers blood pressure in dyslipidaemic patients. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, 1201-1206. PubMed doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602631
86. Pedersen, H., Petersen, M., Major-Pedersen, A., Jensen, T., Nielsen, N.S., Lauridsen, S.T., & Marckmann, P. (2003). Influence of fish oil supplementation on in vivo and in vitro oxidation resistance of low-density lipoprotein in Type 2 diabetes. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57, 713-720. PubMed doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601602
87. Peoples, G.E., McLennan, P.L., Howe, P.R., & Groeller, H. (2008). Fish oil reduces heart rate and oxygen consumption during exercise. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, 52, 540-547. PubMed doi:10.1097/FJC. 0b013e3181911913
88. Phang, M., Sinclair, A.J., Lincz, L.F., & Garg, M.L. (2012). Gender-specific inhibition of platelet aggregation following omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases, 22, 109-114. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2010.04.012
89. Pierce, B.J., McWilliams, S.R., O'Connor, T.P., Place, A.R., & Guglielmo, C.G. (2005). Effect of dietary fatty acid composition on depot fat and exercise performance in a migrating songbird, the red-eyed vireo. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 208, 1277-1285. PubMed doi:10.1242/jeb.01493
90. Poprzecki, S., Zajac, A., Chalimoniuk, M., Waskiewicz, Z., & Langfort, J. (2009). Modification of blood antioxidant status and lipid profile in response to high-intensity endurance exercise after low doses of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation in healthy volunteers. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 60(Suppl. 2), 67-79. PubMed doi:10.1080/09637480802406161
91. Prasad, K. (2009). Flaxseed and cardiovascular health. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, 54, 369-377. PubMed doi:10.1097/FJC. 0b013e3181af04e5
92. Price, E.R. (2010). Dietary lipid composition and avian migratory flight performance: Development of a theoretical framework for avian fat storage. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 157, 297-309. PubMed doi:10.1016/j. cbpa.2010.05.019
93. Puhakainen, I., Ahola, I., & Yki-Jarvinen, H. (1995). Dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids increases gluconeogenesis from glycerol but not hepatic glucose production in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 61, 121-126. PubMed
94. Raastad, T., Hostmark, A.T., & Stromme, S.B. (1997). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation does not improve maximal aerobic power, anaerobic threshold and running performance in well-trained soccer players. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 7, 25-31. PubMed
95. Rissanen, T., Voutilainen, S., Nyyssonen, K., Lakka, T.A., & Salonen, J.T. (2000). Fish oil-derived fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid and docosapentaenoic acid, and the risk of acute coronary events: The Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor study. Circulation, 102, 2677-2679. PubMed doi:10.1161/01.CIR.102.22.2677
96. Robinson, J.G., & Stone, N.J. (2006). Antiatherosclerotic and antithrombotic effects of omega-3 fatty acids. The American Journal of Cardiology, 98, 39i-49i. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.12.026
97. Ruf, T., Valencak, T., Tataruch, F., & Arnold, W. (2006). Running speed in mammals increases with muscle n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid content. PLoS ONE, 1, e65. PubMed doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000065
98. Ryan, A.M., Reynolds, J.V., Healy, L., Byrne, M., Moore, J., Brannelly, N.,... Flood, P. (2009). Enteral nutrition enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) preserves lean body mass following esophageal cancer surgery: Results of a double-blinded randomized controlled trial. Annals of Surgery, 249, 355-363. PubMed doi:10.1097/SLA.0b013e31819a4789
99. Schoeller, D.A. (1995). Limitations in the assessment of dietary energy intake by self-report. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 44, 18-22. PubMed
100. Sen, C.K. (1995). Oxidants and antioxidants in exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 79, 675-686. PubMed
101. Sen, C.K., Atalay, M., Agren, J., Laaksonen, D.E., Roy, S., & Hanninen, O. (1997). Fish oil and vitamin E supplementation in oxidative stress at rest and after physical exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 83, 189-195. PubMed
102. Shaffer, S.A., Tremblay, Y., Weimerskirch, H., Scott, D., Thompson, D.R., Sagar, P.M.,... Costa, D.P. (2006). Migratory shearwaters integrate oceanic resources across the Pacific Ocean in an endless summer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 12799-12802. PubMed doi:10.1073/pnas.0603715103
103. Silvers, K.M., & Scott, K.M. (2002). Fish consumption and self-reported physical and mental health status. Public Health Nutrition, 5, 427-431. PubMed doi:10.1079/PHN2001308
104. Simchon, S., Jan, K.M., & Chien, S. (1987). Influence of reduced red cell deformability on regional blood flow. The American Journal of Physiology, 253, H898-H903. PubMed
105. Simopoulos, A.P. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acids and athletics. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 6, 230-236. PubMed doi:10.1007/s11932-007-0037-4
106. Solomon, S.A., Cartwright, I., Pockley, G., Greaves, M., Preston, F.E., Ramsay, L.E., & Waller, P.C. (1990). A placebo-controlled, double-blind study of eicosapentanoic acid-rich fish oil in patients with stable angina pectoris. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 12, 1-11. doi:10.1185/ 03007999009111485
107. Stebbins, C.L., Hammel, L.E., Marshal, B.J., Spangenberg, E.E., & Musch, T.I. (2010). Effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the skeletal-muscle blood-flow response to exercise in rats. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 20, 475-486. PubMed
108. Su, W., & Jones, P.J. (1993). Dietary fatty acid composition influences energy accretion in rats. The Journal of Nutrition, 123, 2109-2114. PubMed
109. Suarez, R.K., Lighton, J.R., Moyes, C.D., Brown, G.S., Gass, C.L., & Hochachka, P.W. (1990). Fuel selection in rufous hummingbirds: Ecological implications of metabolic biochemistry. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 87, 9207-9210. PubMed doi:10.1073/pnas.87.23.9207
110. Tartibian, B., Maleki, B.H., & Abbasi, A. (2009). The effects of ingestion of omega-3 fatty acids on perceived pain and external symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness in untrained men. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 19, 115-119. PubMed doi:10.1097/JSM.0b013e31819b51b3
111. Terano, T., Hirai, A., Hamazaki, T., Kobayashi, S., Fujita, T., Tamura, Y., & Kumagai, A. (1983). Effect of oral administration of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid on platelet function, blood viscosity and red cell deformability in healthy human subjects. Atherosclerosis, 46, 321-331. PubMed doi:10.1016/0021-9150(83)90181-8
112. Toft, A.D., Thorn, M., Ostrowski, K., Asp, S., Moller, K., Iversen, S.,... Pedersen, B.K. (2000). N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids do not affect cytokine response to strenuous exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 89, 2401-2406. PubMed
113. Trimmer, J.K., Schwarz, J.M., Casazza, G.A., Horning, M.A., Rodriguez, N., & Brooks, G.A. (2002). Measurement of gluconeogenesis in exercising men by mass isotopomer distribution analysis. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 93, 233-241. PubMed
114. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2004). 21 CFR Part 184 [Docket No.1999P-5332]. Federal Register, 69, 2313-2317.
115. 2+ - ATPase activity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum of rainbow trout skeletal muscle. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biolog y, 118, 681-691. doi:10.1016/S0305-0491(97)00229-0
116. Valencak, T.G., Arnold, W., Tataruch, F., & Ruf, T. (2003). High content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in muscle phospholipids of a fast runner, the European brown hare (Lepus europaeus). Journal of Comparative Physiology. B, Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology, 173, 695-702. PubMed doi:10.1007/s00360-003-0382-4
117. van der Brug, G.E., Peters, H.P., Hardeman, M.R., Schep, G., & Mosterd, W.L. (1995). Hemorrheological response to prolonged exercise - No effects of different kinds of feedings. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16, 231-237. PubMed doi:10.1055/s-2007-972997
118. von Schacky, C., Angerer, P., Kothny, W., Theisen, K., & Mudra, H. (1999). The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on coronary atherosclerosis. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 130, 554-562. PubMed
119. Walser, B., Giordano, R.M., & Stebbins, C.L. (2006). Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augments brachial artery dilation and blood flow during forearm contraction. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 97, 347-354. PubMed doi:10.1007/s00421-006-0190-0
120. Walser, B., & Stebbins, C.L. (2008). Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation enhances stroke volume and cardiac output during dynamic exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 104, 455-461. PubMed doi:10.1007/s00421-008-0791-x
121. Warner, J.G., Jr., Ullrich, I.H., Albrink, M.J., & Yeater, R.A. (1989). Combined effects of aerobic exercise and omega-3 fatty acids in hyperlipidemic persons. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 498-505. PubMed doi:10.1249/00005768-198910000-00003
122. Yalcin, O., Bor-Kucukatay, M., Senturk, U.K., & Baskurt, O.K. (2000). Effects of swimming exercise on red blood cell rheology in trained and untrained rats. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md.), 88, 2074-2080. PubMed
123. Yamori, Y., Nara, Y., Iritani, N., Workman, R.J., & Inagami, T. (1985). Comparison of serum phospholipid fatty acids among fishing and farming Japanese populations and American inlanders. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 31, 417-422. PubMed doi:10.3177/jnsv.31.417
124. Zhao, G., Etherton, T.D., Martin, K.R., West, S.G., Gillies, P.J., & Kris-Etherton, P.M. (2004). Dietary alpha-linolenic acid reduces inflammatory and lipid cardiovascular risk factors in hypercholesterolemic men and women. The Journal of Nutrition, 134, 2991-2997. PubMed.