Pesticide exposure and Parkinson's disease: Epidemiological evidence of association

NeuroToxicology

Volumn 33, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 947-971

  Freire, Carmen ^a,b   Koifman, Sergio ^a  

^a INSTITUTO OSWALDO CRUZ   (Brazil)

^b HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO SAN CECILIO   (Spain)

Author keywords

Case control; Cohort studies; Incidence; Organochlorines; Organophosphates; Parkinson's disease; Pesticides

Indexed keywords

1,1 DICHLORO 2,2 BIS(4 CHLOROPHENYL)ETHYLENE; ATRAZINE; BETA HEXACHLOROCYCLOHEXANE; CARBAMIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CHLORPHENOTANE; CHLORPYRIFOS; DIELDRIN; DIMETHOATE; DIMPYLATE; DIQUAT; FUNGICIDE; HERBICIDE; HEXACHLOROBENZENE; INSECTICIDE; MALATHION; MANCOZEB; MANEB; MANGANESE SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE; METHOMYL; ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDE; ORGANOPHOSPHATE PESTICIDE; PARAQUAT; PARATHION; PERMETHRIN; PESTICIDE; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL; ROTENONE; WELL WATER; WOOD PROTECTING AGENT;

AGRICULTURAL WORKER; CASE CONTROL STUDY; CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FARMING SYSTEM; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; MORTALITY; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PARKINSON DISEASE; PARKINSONISM; PATHOGENESIS; PESTICIDE SPRAYING; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RURAL AREA; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; WATER CONTAMINATION; WATER SUPPLY;

DATABASES, FACTUAL; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HUMANS; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; PARKINSON DISEASE; PESTICIDES;

EID: 84867230531     PISSN: 0161813X     EISSN: 18729711     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.05.011     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Aguiar P., de C., Lessa P.S., Godeiro C., Barsottini O., Felício A.C., et al. Genetic and environmental findings in early-onset Parkinson's disease Brazilian patients. Mov Disord 2008, 23:1228-1233.
2. Ascherio A., Chen H., Weisskopf M.G., O'Reilly E., McCullough M.L., Calle E.E., et al. Pesticide exposure and risk for Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2006, 60:197-203.
3. Baba M., Nakajo S., Tu P.H., Tomita T., Nakaya K., Lee V.M.Y., et al. Aggregation of α-synuclein in Lewy bodies of sporadic Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Am J Pathol 1998, 152:879-884.
4. Baldereschi M., Di Carlo A., Vanni P., Ghetti A., Carbonin P., Amaducci L., et al. Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging Working Group. Lifestyle-related risk factors for Parkinson's disease: a population-based study. Acta Neurol Scand 2003, 108:239-244.
5. Baldi I., Cantagrel A., Lebailly P., Tison F., Dubroca B., Chrysostome V., et al. Association between Parkinson's disease and exposure to pesticides in southwestern France. Neuroepidemiology 2003, 22:305-310.
6. Baldi I., Lebailly P., Mohammed-Brahim B., Letenneur L., Dartigues J.F., Brochard P. Neurodegenerative diseases and exposure to pesticides in the elderly. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 157:409-414.
7. Barbeau A., Cloutier T., Roy M., Plasse L., Paris S., Poirier J. Ecogenetics of Parkinson's disease: 4-hydroxylation of debrisoquine. Lancet 1985, 2:1213-1216.
8. Barbeau A., Roy M., Bernier G., Campanella G., Paris S. Ecogenetics of Parkinson's disease: prevalence and environmental aspects in rural areas. Can J Neurol Sci 1987, 14:36-41.
9. Barlow B.K., Richfield E.K., Cory-Slechta D.A., Thiruchelvam M. A fetal risk factor for Parkinson's disease. Dev Neurosci 2004, 26:11-23.
10. Barlow B.K., Cory-Slechta D.A., Richfield E.K., Thiruchelvam M. The gestational environment and Parkinson's disease: evidence for neurodevelopmental origins of a neurodegenerative disorder. Reprod Toxicol 2007, 23:457-470.
11. Benmoyal-Segal L., Soreq H. Gene-environment interactions in sporadic Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem 2006, 97:1740-1755.
12. Berry C., La Vecchia C., Nicotera P. Paraquat and Parkinson's disease. Cell Death Differ 2010, 17:1115-1125.
13. Betarbet R., Sherer T.B., MacKenzie G., Garcia-Osuna M., Panov A.V., Greenamyre J.T. Chronic systemic pesticide exposure reproduces features of Parkinson's disease. Nat Neurosci 2000, 3:1301-1306.
14. Brighina L., Frigerio R., Schneider N.K., Lesnick T.G., de Andrade M., Cunningham J.M., et al. Alpha-synuclein, pesticides, and Parkinson's disease: a case-control study. Neurology 2008, 70:1461-1469.
15. Bronstein J., Carvey P., Chen H., Cory-Slechta D., DiMonte D., Duda J., et al. Meeting report: consensus statement-Parkinson's disease and the environment: collaborative on health and the environment and Parkinson's Action Network (CHE PAN) conference 26-28 June 2007. Environ Health Perspect 2009, 117:117-121.
16. Brown T.P., Rumsby P.C., Capleton A.C., Rushton L., Levy L.S. Pesticides and Parkinson's disease-is there a link?. Environ Health;1; Perspect 2006, 114:156-164.
17. CADPR (California Department of Pesticide Regulation). California Code of Regulations (Title 3. Food and Agriculture). Division 6: Pesticides and Pest Control Operations. Chapter 4: Environmental Protection. Subchapter 1: Groundwater. Article 1: Pesticide Contamination Prevention. Section 6800: Groundwater Protection List. Amended 5/13/2009; 2009. Available: [accessed 10 May 2012]. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/legbills/calcode/040101.htm.
18. Caudle W.M., Richardson J.R., Wang M., Miller G.W. Perinatal heptachlor exposure increases expression of presynaptic dopaminergic markers in mouse striatum. Neurotoxicology 2005, 26:721-728.
19. Cho J.W., Jeon B.S., Jeong D., Choi Y.J., Lee J.Y., Lee H.S., et al. Association between parkinsonism and participation in agriculture in Korea. J Clin Neurol 2008, 4:23-28.
20. Cicchetti F., Lapointe N., Roberge-Tremblay A., Saint-Pierre M., Jimenez L., Ficke B.W., et al. Systemic exposure to paraquat and maneb models early Parkinson's disease in young adult rats. Neurobiol Dis 2005, 20:360-371.
21. Costa L.G., Giordano G., Guizzetti M., Vitalone A. Neurotoxicity of pesticides: a brief review. Front Biosci 2008, 13:1240-1249.
22. Costello S., Cockburn M., Bronstein J., Zhang X., Ritz B. Parkinson's disease and residential exposure to maneb and paraquat from agricultural applications in the central valley of California. Am J Epidemiol 2009, 169:919-926.
23. Deng Y., Newman B., Dunne M.P., Silburn P.A., Mellick G.D. Further evidence that interactions between CYP2D6 and pesticide exposure increase risk for Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2004, 55:897.
24. Dhillon A.S., Tarbutton G.L., Levin J.L., Plotkin G.M., Lowry L.K., Nalbone J.T., et al. Pesticide/environmental exposures and Parkinson's disease in East Texas. J Agromedicine 2008, 13:37-48.
25. Dick F.D. Parkinson's disease and pesticide exposures. Br Med Bull 2006, 7:9-80. 219-31.
26. Dick F.D., De Palma G., Ahmadi A., Osborne A., Scott N.W., Prescott G.J., et al. Gene-environment interactions in parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease: the Geoparkinson study. Occup Environ Med 2007, 64:673-680. Geoparkinson Study Group.
27. Dinis-Oliveira R.J., Remiao F., Carmo H., Duarte J.A., Navarro A.S., Bastos M.L., et al. Paraquat exposure as an etiological factor of Parkinson's disease. Neurotoxicology 2006, 27:1110-1122.
28. Dufault B., Klar N. The quality of modern cross-sectional ecologic studies: a bibliometric review. Am J Epidemiol 2011, 174:1101-1107.
29. Dutheil F., Beaune P., Tzourio C., Loriot M.A., Elbaz A. Interaction between ABCB1 and professional exposure to organochlorine insecticides in Parkinson's disease. Arch Neurol 2010, 67:739-745.
30. Edwards T.M., Myers J.P. Environmental exposures and gene regulation in disease etiology. Environ Health Perspect 2007, 115:1264-1270.
31. Elbaz A., Levecque C., Clavel J., Vidal J.S., Richard F., Corrèze J.R., et al. S18Y polymorphism in the UCH-L1 gene and Parkinson's disease: evidence for an age-dependent relationship. Mov Disord 2003, 18:130-137.
32. Elbaz A., Levecque C., Clavel J., Vidal J.S., Richard F., Amouyel P., et al. CYP2D6 polymorphism, pesticide exposure, and Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2004, 55:430-434.
33. Elbaz A., Clavel J., Rathouz P.J., Moisan F., Galanaud J.P., Delemotte B., et al. Professional exposure to pesticides and Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2009, 66:494-504.
34. Engel L.S., Seixas N.S., Keifer M.C., Longstreth W.T.J., Checkoway H. Validity study of self-reported pesticide exposure among orchardists. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2001, 11:359-368.
35. Feldman A.L., Johansson A.L., Nise G., Gatz M., Pedersen N.L., Wirdefeldt K. Occupational exposure in Parkinsonian disorders: a 43-year prospective cohort study in men. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2011, 17:677-682.
36. Filipov N.M., Stewart M.A., Carr L.R., Sistrunk S.C. Dopaminergic toxicity of the herbicide atrazine in rat striatal slices. Toxicology 2007, 232:68-78.
37. Firestone J.A., Lundin J.I., Powers K.M., Smith-Weller T., Franklin G.M., Swanson P.D., et al. Occupational factors and risk of Parkinson's disease: a population-based case-control study. Am J Ind Med 2010, 53:217-223.
38. Fong C.S., Wu R.M., Shieh J.C., Chao Y.T., Fu Y.P., Kuao C.L., et al. Pesticide exposure on southwestern Taiwanese with MnSOD and NQO1 polymorphisms is associated with increased risk of Parkinson's disease. Clin Chim Acta 2007, 378:136-141.
39. Franco R., Li S., Rodriguez-Rocha H., Burns M., Panayiotidis M.I. Molecular mechanisms of pesticide-induced neurotoxicity: relevance to Parkinson's disease. Chem Biol Interact 2010, 188:289-300.
40. Frigerio R., Sanft K.R., Grossardt B.R., Peterson B.J., Elbaz A., Bower J.H., et al. Chemical exposures and Parkinson's disease: a population-based case-control study. Mov Disord 2006, 21:1688-1692.
41. Galanaud J.P., Elbaz A., Clavel J., Vidal J.S., Corrèze J.R., Alpérovitch A., et al. Cigarette smoking and Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in a population characterized by a high prevalence of pesticide exposure. Mov Disord 2005, 20:181-189.
42. Gatto N.M., Cockburn M., Bronstein J., Manthripragada A.D., Ritz B. Well-water consumption and Parkinson's disease in rural California. Environ Health Perspect 2009, 117:1912-1918.
43. Gatto N.M., Rhodes S.L., Manthripragada A.D., Bronstein J., Cockburn M., Farrer M., et al. α-Synuclein gene may interact with environmental factors in increasing risk of Parkinson's disease. Neuroepidemiology 2010, 35:191-195.
44. Gilham D.E., Cairns W., Paine M.J., Modi S., Poulsom R., Roberts G.C., et al. Metabolism of MPTP by cytochrome P4502D6 and the demonstration of 2D6 mRNA in human foetal and adult brain by in situ hybridization. Xenobiotica 1997, 27:111-125.
45. Godeiro C., Aguiar P.M., Felício A.C., Barsottini O.G., Silva S.M., Borges V., et al. PINK1 polymorphism IVS1-7 A(G, exposure to environmental risk factors and anticipation of disease onset in Brazilian patients with early-onset Parkinson's Disease. Neurosci Lett 2010, 469:155-158.
46. Gorell J.M., Peterson E.L., Rybicki B.A., Johnson C.C. Multiple risk factors for Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Sci 2004, 217:169-174.
47. Hancock D.B., Martin E.R., Mayhew G.M., Stajich J.M., Jewett R., Stacy M.A., et al. Pesticide exposure and risk of Parkinson's disease: a family-based case-control study. BMC Neurol 2008, 8:6.
48. Hatcher J.M., Richardson J.R., Guillot T.S., McCormack A.L., Di Monte D.A., Jones D.P., et al. Dieldrin exposure induces oxidative damage in the mouse nigrostriatal dopamine system. Exp Neurol 2007, 204:619-630.
49. Hatcher J.M., Pennell K.D., Miller G.W. Parkinson's disease and pesticides: a toxicological perspective. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2008, 29:322-329.
50. Hubble J.P., Cao T., Hassanein R.E.S., Neuberger J.S., Koller W.C. Risk factors for Parkinson's disease. Neurology 1993, 43:1693-1697.
51. Kamel F., Tanner C.M., Hoppin J.A., Umbach D.M., Goldman S.M., Aston D.A., et al. Pilot study of Parkinson's disease (PD) in the agricultural health study (AHS). Neurotoxicology 2001, 22:883-884.
52. Kamel F., Tanner C., Umbach D., Hoppin J., Alavanja M., Blair A., et al. Pesticide exposure and self-reported Parkinson's disease in the agricultural health study. Am J Epidemiol 2007, 165:364-374.
53. Kanthasamy A.G., Kitazawa M., Kanthasamy A., Anantharam V. Dieldrin induced neurotoxicity: relevance to Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Neurotoxicology 2005, 26:701-719.
54. Koldkjaer O.G., Wermuth L., Bjerregaard P. Parkinson's disease among Inuit in Greenland: organochlorines as risk factors. Int J Circumpolar Health 2004, 63:366-368.
55. Kontakos N., Stokes J. Monograph series on aging-related diseases: XII. Parkinson's disease-recent developments and new directions. Chronic Dis Can 1999, 20:58-76.
56. Kookana R.S., Aylmore L.A.G. Estimating the pollution potential of pesticides to ground water. Aust J Soil Res 1994, 32:1141-1155.
57. Kuh D., Ben-Shlomo Y. A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology 1997, Oxford University Press, New York.
58. Kuopio A.M., Marttila R.J., Helenius H., Rinne U.K. Environmental risk factors in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 1999, 14:928-939.
59. Langston J.W., Ballard P.A. Parkinson's disease in a chemist working with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine. N Engl J Med 1983, 309:310.
60. Lang A.E., Lozano A.M. Parkinson's disease. Second of two parts. N Engl J Med 1998, 339:1130-1143.
61. Le Couteur D.G., McLean A.J., Taylor M.C., Woodham B.L., Board P.G. Pesticides and Parkinson's disease. Biomed Pharmacother 1999, 53:122-130.
62. Le Couteur D.G., Muller M., Yang M.C., Mellick G.D., McLean A.J. Age-environment and gene-environment interactions in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Rev Environ Health 2002, 17:51-64.
63. Li A.A., Mink P.J., McIntosh L.J., Teta M.J., Finley B. Evaluation of epidemiologic and animal data associating pesticides with Parkinson's disease. J Occup Environ Med 2005, 47:1059-1087.
64. Liou H.H., Tsai M.C., Chen C.J., Jeng J.S., Chang Y.C., Chen S.Y., et al. Environmental risk factors and Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in Taiwan. Neurology 1997, 48:1583-1588.
65. Logroscino G. The role of early life environmental risk factors in Parkinson disease: what is the evidence?. Environ Health Perspect 2005, 113:1234-1238.
66. López F.O., Hernández A.F., Rodrigo L., Gil F., Pena G., Serrano J.L., et al. Changes in antioxidant enzymes in humans with long-term exposure to pesticides. Toxicol Lett 2007, 171:146-153.
67. Manning-Bog A.B., Langston J.W. Model fusion, the next phase in developing animal models for Parkinson's disease. Neurotox Res 2007, 11:219-240.
68. Manthripragada A.D., Costello S., Cockburn M.G., Bronstein J.M., Ritz B. Paraoxonase 1, agricultural organophosphate exposure, and Parkinson's disease. Epidemiology 2010, 21:87-94.
69. McCormack A.L., Thiruchelvam M., Manning-Bog A.B., Thiffault C., Langston J.W., Cory-Slechta D.A., et al. Environmental risk factors and Parkinson's disease: selective degeneration of nigral dopaminergic neurons caused by the herbicide paraquat. Neurobiol Dis 2002, 10:119-127.
70. McCormack A.L., Atienza J.G., Johnston L.C., Andersen J.K., Vu S., Di Monte D.A. Role of oxidative stress in paraquat-induced dopaminergic cell degeneration. J Neurochem 2005, 93:1030-1037.
71. Menegon A., Board P.G., Blackburn A.C., Mellick G.D., Le Couteur D.G. Parkinson's disease, pesticides, and glutathione transferase polymorphisms. Lancet 1998, 352:1344-1346.
72. Meredith G.E., Halliday G.M., Totterdell S. A critical review of the development and importance of proteinaceous aggregates in animal models of Parkinson's disease: new insights into Lewy body formation. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2004, 10:191-202.
73. Migliore L., Coppedè F. Genetics, environmental factors and the emerging role of epigenetics in neurodegenerative diseases. Mutat Res 2009, 667:82-97.
74. Moisan F., Spinosi J., Dupupet J.L., Delabre L., Mazurie J.L., Goldberg M., et al. The relation between type of farming and prevalence of Parkinson's disease among agricultural workers in five French districts. Mov Disord 2011, 26:271-279.
75. Moretto A., Colosio C. Biochemical and toxicological evidence of neurological effects of pesticides: the example of Parkinson's disease. Neurotoxicology 2011, 32:383-391.
76. Nuti A., Ceravolo R., Dell'Agnello G., Gambaccini G., Bellini G., Kiferle L., et al. Environmental factors and Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in the Tuscany region of Italy. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2004, 10:481-485.
77. Park J., Yoo C.I., Sim C.S., Kim J.W., Yi Y., Jung K.Y., et al. Occupations and Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in South Korea. Ind Health 2004, 42:352-358.
78. Park J., Yoo C.I., Sim C.S., Kim H.K., Kim J.W., Jeon B.S., et al. Occupations and Parkinson's disease: a multi-center case-control study in South Korea. Neurotoxicology 2005, 26:99-105.
79. Pereira D., Garrett C. Risk factors for Parkinson's disease: an epidemiologic study. Acta Med Port 2010, 23:15-24.
80. Perera F., Herbstman J. Prenatal environmental exposures, epigenetics, and disease. Reprod Toxicol 2011, 31:363-373.
81. Petrovitch H., Ross G.W., Abbott R.D., Sanderson W.T., Sharp D.S., Tanner C.M., et al. Plantation work and risk of Parkinson disease in a population-based longitudinal study. Arch Neurol 2002, 59:1787-1792.
82. Priyadarshi A., Khuder S.A., Schaub E.A., Shrivastava S. A meta-analysis of Parkinson's disease and exposure to pesticides. Neurotoxicology 2000, 21:435-440.
83. Priyadarshi A., Khuder S.A., Schaub E.A., Priyadarshi S.S. Environmental risk factors and Parkinson's disease: a meta-analysis. Environ Res 2001, 86:122-127.
84. Rajput A.H., Uitti R.J., Stern W., Laverty W. Early onset Parkinson's disease and childhood environment. Adv Neurol 1987, 45:295-297.
85. Richardson J.R., Roy A., Shalat S.L., Buckley B., Winnik B., Gearing M., et al. β-Hexachlorocyclohexane levels in serum and risk of Parkinson's disease. Neurotoxicology 2011, 32:640-645.
86. Ritz B., Yu F. Parkinson's disease mortality and pesticide exposure in California 1984-1994. Int J Epidemiol 2000, 29:323-329.
87. Ritz B.R., Manthripragada A.D., Costello S., Lincoln S.J., Farrer M.J., Cockburn M., et al. Dopamine transporter genetic variants and pesticides in Parkinson's disease. Environ Health Perspect 2009, 117:964-969.
88. Roede J.R., Hansen J.M., Go Y.M., Jones D.P. Maneb and paraquat-mediated neurotoxicity: involvement of peroxiredoxin/thioredoxin system. Toxicol Sci 2011, 121:368-375.
89. Ross C.A., Smith W.W. Gene-environment interactions in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2007, 13(Suppl 3):S309-S315.
90. Rugbjerg K., Harris M.A., Shen H., Marion S.A., Tsui J.K., Teschke K. Pesticide exposure and risk of Parkinson's disease-a population-based case-control study evaluating the potential for recall bias. Scand J Work Environ Health 2011, 37:427-436.
91. Salvi R.M., Lara D.R., Ghisolfi E.S., Portela L.V., Dias R.D., Souza D.O. Neuropsychiatric evaluation in subjects chronically exposed to organophosphate pesticides. Toxicol Sci 2003, 72:267-271.
92. Sanyal J., Chakraborty D.P., Sarkar B., Banerjee T.K., Mukherjee S.C., Ray B.C., et al. Environmental and familial risk factors of Parkinson's disease: case-control study. Can J Neurol Sci 2010, 37:637-642.
93. Seidler A., Hellenbrand W., Robra B.P., Vieregge P., Nischan P., Joerg J., et al. Possible environmental, occupational, and other etiologic factors for Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in Germany. Neurology 1996, 46:1275-1284.
94. Semchuk K.M., Love E.J., Lee R.G. Parkinson's disease and exposure to agricultural work and pesticide chemicals. Neurology 1992, 42:1328-1335.
95. Tandberg E., Larsen J.P., Nessler E.G., Riise T., Aarli J.A. The epidemiology of Parkinson's disease in the county of Rogaland, Norway. Mov Disord 1995, 10:541-549.
96. Tanner C.M., Ross G.W., Jewell S.A., Hauser R.A., Jankovic J., Factor S.A., et al. Occupation and risk of parkinsonism: a multicenter case-control study. Arch Neurol 2009, 66:1106-1113.
97. Tanner C.M., Kamel F., Ross G.W., Hoppin J.A., Goldman S.M., Korell M., et al. Rotenone, paraquat, and Parkinson's disease. Environ Health Perspect 2011, 119:866-872.
98. Thiruchelvam M., Brockel B.J., Richfield E.K., Baggs R.B., Cory-Slechta D.A. Potentiated and preferential effects of combined paraquat and maneb on nigrostriatal dopamine systems: environmental risk factors for Parkinson's disease?. Brain Res 2000, 873:225-234.
99. Thiruchelvam M., Richfield E.K., Baggs R.B., Tank A.W., Cory-Slechta D.A. The nigrostriatal dopaminergic system as a preferential target of repeated exposures to combined paraquat and maneb: implications for Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci 2000, 20:9207-9214.
100. Thiruchelvam M., Richfield E.K., Goodman B.M., Baggs R.B., Cory-Slechta D.A. Developmental exposure to the pesticides paraquat and maneb and the Parkinson's disease phenotype. Neurotoxicology 2002, 23:621-633.
101. Tsai C.H., Lo S.K., See L.C., Chen H.Z., Chen R.S., Weng Y.H., et al. Environmental risk factors of young onset Parkinson's disease: a case-control study. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2002, 104:328-333.
102. Tüchsen F., Jensen A.A. Agricultural work and the risk of Parkinson's disease in Denmark, 1981-1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 2000, 26:359-362.
103. Urdinguio R.G., Sanchez-Mut J.V., Esteller M. Epigenetic mechanisms in neurological diseases: genes, syndromes, and therapies. Lancet Neurol 2009, 8:1056-1072.
104. Vlajinac H.D., Sipetic S.B., Maksimovic J.M., Marinkovic J.M., Dzoljic E.D., Ratkov I.S., et al. Environmental factors and Parkinson's disease: a case-control study in Belgrade, Serbia. Int J Neurosci 2010, 120:361-367.
105. Wang S.J., Fuh J.L., Liu C.Y., Lin K.P., Chang R., Yih J.S., et al. Parkinson's disease in Kin-Hu, Kinmen: a community survey by neurologists. Neuroepidemiology 1994, 13:69-74.
106. Wang A., Costello S., Cockburn M., Zhang X., Bronstein J., Ritz B. Parkinson's disease risk from ambient exposure to pesticides. Eur J Epidemiol 2011, 26:547-555.
107. Weisskopf M.G., Knekt P., O'Reilly E.J., Lyytinen J., Reunanen A., Laden F., et al. Persistent organochlorine pesticides in serum and risk of Parkinson's disease. Neurology 2010, 74:1055-1061.
108. Wirdefeldt K., Adami H.O., Cole P., Trichopoulos D., Mandel J. Epidemiology and etiology of Parkinson's disease: a review of the evidence. Eur J Epidemiol 2011, 26(Suppl. 1):S1-S58.
109. Wright J.M., Keller-Byrne J. Environmental determinants of Parkinson's disease. Arch Environ Occup Health 2005, 60:32-38.
110. Yang M.C., McLean A.J., Le Couteur D.G. Age-related alteration in hepatic disposition of the neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and pesticides. Pharmacol Toxicol 2002, 90:203-207.