Role of proopiomelanocortin-derived peptides and their receptors in the osteoarticular system: From basic to translational research

Endocrine Reviews

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 623-651

  Böhm, Markus ^a   Grässel, Susanne ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MÜNSTER   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF REGENSBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BETA ENDORPHIN; CORTICOTROPIN; MELANOCORTIN; PROOPIOMELANOCORTIN;

ARTICLE; BONE; BONE MINERALIZATION; CARTILAGE; CARTILAGE CELL; CELL CULTURE; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL TYPE; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOMODULATION; NONHUMAN; OSSIFICATION; OSTEOARTHRITIS; OSTEOBLAST; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN FUNCTION; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SYNOVIUM; TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH;

ANIMALS; ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; BETA-ENDORPHIN; BONE AND BONES; CARTILAGE; HUMANS; JOINTS; MELANOCORTINS; OSTEOARTHRITIS; PRO-OPIOMELANOCORTIN; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 84865972217     PISSN: 0163769X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/er.2011-1016     Document Type: Article

References (236)

1. Slominski A, Wortsman J, Luger T, Paus R, Solomon S, 2000 Corticotropin releasing hormone and proopiomelanocortin involvement in the cutaneous response to stress. Physiol Rev 80: 979-1020
2. Brzoska T, Luger TA, Maaser C, Abels C, Bohm M, 2008 α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone and related tripeptides: biochemistry, antiinflammatory and protective effects in vitro and in vivo, and future perspectives for the treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Endocr Rev 29: 581-602
3. Autelitano DJ, Lundblad JR, Blum M, Roberts JL, 1989 Hormonal regulation of POMC gene expression. Annu Rev Physiol 51: 715-726
4. Clark AJ, Lavender PM, Coates P, Johnson MR, Rees LH, 2009 In vitro and in vivo analysis of the processing and fate of the peptide products of the short proopiomelanocortin mRNA. Mol Endocrinol 4: 1737-1743
5. Jenks BG, 2009 Regulation of proopiomelanocortin gene expression: an overview of the signaling cascades, transcription factors, and responsive elements involved. Ann NY Acad Sci 1163: 17-30
6. Slominski A, Tobin DJ, Shibahara S, Wortsman J, 2004 Melanin pigmentation in mammalian skin and its hormonal regulation. Physiol Rev 84: 1155-1228
7. Newell-Price J, 2003 Proopiomelanocortin gene expression and DNA methylation: implications for Cushing's syndrome and beyond. J Endocrinol 177: 365-372
8. Seidah NG, Benjannet S, Hamelin J, Mamarbachi AM, Basak A, Marcinkiewicz J, Mbikay M, Chréétien M, MarcinkiewiczM, 1999 The subtilisin/kexin family of precursor convertases. Emphasis on PC1, PC2/7B2, POMC and the novel enzyme SKI-1. Ann NY Acad Sci 885: 57-74
9. Rousseau K, Kauser S, Pritchard LE, Warhurst A, Oliver RL, Slominski A, Wei ET, Thody AJ, Tobin DJ, White A, 2007 Proopiomelanocortin (POMC), the ACTH/melanocortin precursor, is secreted by human epidermal keratin-ocytes and melanocytes and stimulates melanogenesis. FASEB J 21: 1844-1856
10. Schiöth HB, 2001 The physiological role of melanocortin receptors. Vitam Horm 63: 195-232
11. Cone RD, Lu D, Koppula S, Vage DI, Klungland H, Boston B, Chen W, Orth DN, Pouton C, Kesterson RA, 1996 The melanocortin receptors: agonists, antagonists, and the hormonal control of pigmentation. Recent Prog Horm Res 51: 287-317; discussion 318
12. Zhong Q, Sridhar S, Ruan L, Ding KH, Xie D, Insogna K, Kang B, Xu J, Bollag RJ, Isales CM, 2005 Multiple melanocortin receptors are expressed in bone cells. Bone 36: 820-831
13. Böhm M, Apel M, Sugawara K, Brehler R, Jurk K, Luger TA, Haas H, Paus R, Eiz-Vesper B, Walls AF, Ponimaskin E, Gehring M, Kapp A, Raap U, 2012 Modulation of basophil activity: a novel function of the neuropeptide α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone. J Allergy Clin Immunol 129: 1085-1093
14. Mountjoy KG, Kong PL, Taylor JA, Willard DH, Wilkison WO, 2001 Melanocortin receptor-mediated mobilization of intracellular free calcium in HEK293 cells. Physiol Genomics 5: 11-19
15. Coyne MD, Rodriguez O, Wilson Y, Wang G, Lemos JR, 1997 Voltage dependent calcium and potassium currents in Y-1 adrenocortical cells are unresponsive to ACTH. Endocr Res 23: 245-275
16. Omura M, Suematsu S, NishikawaT, 2007 Role of calcium messenger systems in ACTH-induced cortisol production in bovine adrenal fasciculo-reticularis cells. Endocr J 54: 585-592
17. Evans JF, Shen CL, Pollack S, Aloia JF, Yeh JK, 2005 Adrenocorticotropin evokes transient elevations in intracellular free calcium ([Ca2α]i) and increases basal [Ca2α]i in resting chondrocytes through a phospholipase C-dependent mechanism. Endocrinology 146: 3123-3132
18. Sutton GM, Duos B, Patterson LM, Berthoud HR, 2005 Melanocortinergic modulation of cholecystokinin-induced suppression of feeding through extracellular signalregulated kinase signaling in rat solitary nucleus. Endocrinology 146: 3739-3747
19. Bellei B, Maresca V, Flori E, Pitisci A, Larue L, PicardoM, 2010 p38 regulates pigmentation via proteasomal degradation of tyrosinase. J Biol Chem 285: 7288-7299
20. Herraiz C, Journé F, Abdel-Malek Z, Ghanem G, Jiménez-Cervantes C, García-Borróón JC, 2011 Signaling from the human melanocortin 1 receptor to ERK1 and ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinases involves transactivation of cKIT. Mol Endocrinol 25: 138-156
21. Cone RD, 2006 Studies on the physiological functions of the melanocortin system. Endocr Rev 27: 736-749
22. BohmM, Eickelmann M, Li Z, Schneider SW, Oji V, Diederichs S, Barsh GS, Vogt A, Stieler K, Blume-Peytavi U, Luger TA, 2005 Detection of functionally active melanocortin receptors and evidence for an immunoregulatory activity of β-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in human dermal papilla cells. Endocrinology 146: 4635-4646
23. Spencer JD, Schallreuter KU, 2009 Regulation of pigmentation inhumanepidermal melanocytes by functional highaffinity β-melanocyte-stimulating hormone/melanocortin-4 receptor signaling. Endocrinology 150: 1250-1258
24. Ballet S, Pietsch M, Abell AD, 2008 Multiple ligands in opioid research. Protein Pept Lett 15: 668-682
25. Sarne Y, Fields A, Keren O, Gafni M, 1996 Stimulatory effects of opioids on transmitter release and possible cellular mechanisms: overview and original results. Neurochem Res 11: 1353-1361
26. Hashimoto K, Amano T, Kasakura A, Uhl GR, Sora I, Sakai N, Kuzumaki N, Suzuki T, NaritaM, 2009α-Opioid receptor-independent fashion of the suppression of sodium currents by α-opioid analgesics in thalamic neurons. Neurosci Lett 453: 62-67
27. Duncan H, Jundt J, Riddle JM, Pitchford W, Christopherson T, 1987 The tibial subchondral plate. A scanning electron microscopic study. J Bone Joint Surg Am 69: 1212- 1220
28. Madry H, van Dijk CN, Mueller-GerblM, 2010 The basic science of the subchondral bone. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 18: 419-433
29. Armstrong SJ, Read RA, Price R, 1995 Topographical variation within the articular cartilage and subchondral bone of the normal ovine knee joint: a histological approach. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 3: 25-33
30. Bullough PG, Yawitz PS, Tafra L, Boskey AL, 1985 Topographical variations in the morphology and biochemistry of adult canine tibial plateau articular cartilage. J Orthop Res 3: 1-16
31. Poole AR, Kojima T, Yasuda T, Mwale F, Kobayashi M, Laverty S, 2001 Composition and structure of articular cartilage: a template for tissue repair. Clin Orthop Relat Res S26-S33
32. Eikenberry EF, Bruckner P, 1999 Supramolecular structure of cartilage matrix. In: Seibel MJ, Robins SP, Bilezikian JP, eds. Bone and cartilage metabolism. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 289-300
33. Wu JJ, Woods PE, Eyre DR, 1992 Identification of crosslinking sites in bovine cartilage type IX collagen reveals an antiparallel type II-type IX molecular relationship and type IX to type IX bonding. J Biol Chem 267: 23007-23014
34. Buckwalter JA, Mankin HJ, Grodzinsky AJ, 2005 Articular cartilage and osteoarthritis. Instr Course Lect 54: 465-480
35. Goldring MB, Marcu KB, 2009 Cartilage homeostasis in health and rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Res Ther 11: 224
36. Poole CA, 1997 Articular cartilage chondrons: form, function and failure. J Anat 191(Pt 1): 1-13
37. Poole AR, Kojima T, Yasuda T, Mwale F, Kobayashi M, Laverty S, 2001 Composition and structure of articular cartilage. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 391S: S26-S33
38. Wiberg C, Klatt AR, Wagener R, Paulsson M, Bateman JF, Heinegård D, Mörgelin M, 2003 Complexes of matrilin-1 and biglycan or decorin connect collagen VI microfibrils to both collagen II and aggrecan. J Biol Chem 278: 37698- 37704
39. Klatt AR, Nitsche DP, Kobbe B,Mörgelin M, Paulsson M, Wagener R, 2000 Molecular structure and tissue distribution of matrilin-3, a filament-forming extracellular matrix protein expressed during skeletal development. J Biol Chem 275: 3999-4006
40. Eyre DR, Weis MA, Wu JJ, 2006 Articular cartilage collagen: an irreplaceable framework? Eur Cell Mater 12: 57-63
41. Budde B, Blumbach K, Ylo stalo J, Zaucke F, Ehlen HW,Wagener R, Ala-Kokko L, Paulsson M, Bruckner P, Grassel S, 2005 Altered integration of matrilin-3 into cartilage extracellular matrix in the absence of collagen IX. Mol Cell Biol 25: 10465-10478
42. Kvist AJ, Johnson AE, Mörgelin M, Gustafsson E, Bengtsson E, Lindblom K, Aszódi A, Fa ssler R, Sasaki T, Timpl R, Aspberg A, 2006 Chondroitin sulfate perlecan enhances collagen fibril formation. Implications for perlecan chondrodysplasias. J Biol Chem 281: 33127-33139
43. Mackie EJ,AhmedYA, Tatarczuch L, Chen KS, MiramsM, 2008 Endochondral ossification: how cartilage is converted into bone in the developing skeleton. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 40: 46-62
44. Yin T, Li L, 2006 The stem cell niches in bone. J Clin Invest 116: 1195-1201
45. Moore KA, Lemischka IR, 2006 Stem cells and their niches. Science 311: 1880-1885
46. Goldring MB, Tsuchimochi K, Ijiri K, 2006 The control of chondrogenesis. J Cell Biochem 97: 33-44
47. Kronenberg HM, 2003 Developmental regulation of the growth plate. Nature 423: 332-336
48. Lefebvre V, Smits P, 2005 Transcriptional control of chondrocyte fate and differentiation. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today 75: 200-212
49. Olsen BR, 1996 Role of cartilage collagens in formation of the skeleton. Ann NY Acad Sci 785: 124-130
50. Pitsillides AA, Beier F, 2011 Cartilage biology in osteoarthritis-lessons from developmental biology. Nat Rev Rheumatol 7: 654-663
51. Quintana L, zur Nieden NI, Semino CE, 2009 Morphogenetic and regulatory mechanisms during developmental chondrogenesis: new paradigms for cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part B Rev 15: 29-41
52. Olsen BR, Reginato AM, Wang W, 2000 Bone development. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 16: 191-220
53. Woods A, Wang G, Dupuis H, Shao Z, Beier F, 2007 Rac1 signaling stimulates N-cadherin expression, mesenchymal condensation, and chondrogenesis. J Biol Chem 282: 23500-23508
54. DeLise AM, Tuan RS, 2002 Alterations in the spatiotemporal expression pattern and function of N-cadherin inhibit cellular condensation and chondrogenesis of limb mesenchymal cells in vitro. J Cell Biochem 87: 342-359
55. DeliseAM,Tuan RS, 2002 Analysis of N-cadherin function in limb mesenchymal chondrogenesis in vitro. Dev Dyn 225: 195-204
56. Benito MJ, Veale DJ, FitzGerald O, van den Berg WB, Bresnihan B, 2005 Synovial tissue inflammation in early and late osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 64: 1263-1267
57. Loeser RF 2006 Molecular mechanisms of cartilage destruction: mechanics, inflammatory mediators, and aging collide. Arthritis Rheum 54: 1357-1360
58. Cawston TE, Wilson AJ, 2006 Understanding the role of tissue degrading enzymes and their inhibitors in development and disease. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 20: 983- 1002
59. Murphy G, Nagase H, 2008 Reappraising metalloproteinases in rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis: destruction or repair? Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 4: 128-135
60. WuCW, Tchetina EV, Mwale F, Hasty K, Pidoux I, Reiner A, Chen J, Van Wart HE, Poole AR, 2002 Proteolysis involving matrix metalloproteinase 13 (collagenase-3) is required for chondrocyte differentiation that is associated with matrix mineralization. J Bone Miner Res 17: 639-651
61. Kane D, Jensen LE, Grehan S, Whitehead AS, Bresnihan B, FitzgeraldO, 2004 Quantitation of metalloproteinase gene expression in rheumatoid and psoriatic arthritis synovial tissue distal and proximal to the cartilage-pannus junction. J Rheumatol 31: 1274-1280
62. Aigner T, Fundel K, Saas J, Gebhard PM, Haag J, Weiss T, Zien A, Obermayr F, Zimmer R, Bartnik E 2006 Largescale gene expression profiling reveals major pathogenetic pathways of cartilage degeneration in osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 54: 3533-3544
63. HermanssonM,Sawaji Y, BoltonM,Alexander S, Wallace A, Begum S, Wait R, Saklatvala J 2004 Proteomic analysis of articular cartilage shows increased type II collagen synthesis in osteoarthritis and expression of inhibin βA (activin A), a regulatory molecule for chondrocytes. J Biol Chem 279: 43514-43521
64. Hunter DJ, Li J, LaValley M, Bauer DC, Nevitt M, De-Groot J, Poole R, Eyre D, Guermazi A, Gale D, Felson DT, 2007 Cartilage markers and their association with cartilage loss on magnetic resonance imaging in knee osteoarthritis: the Boston Osteoarthritis Knee Study. Arthritis Res Ther 9: R108
65. Otero M, Lago R, Gomez R, Dieguez C, Lago F, Gomez-Reino J, GualilloO, 2006 Towards a pro-inflammatory and immunomodulatory emerging role of leptin. Rheumatology (Oxford) 45: 944-950
66. Dumond H, Presle N, Terlain B, Mainard D, Loeuille D, Netter P, Pottie P, 2003 Evidence for a key role of leptin in osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 48: 3118-3129
67. Popa C, Netea MG, Radstake TR, van Riel PL, Barrera P, van der Meer JW, 2005 Markers of inflammation are negatively correlated with serum leptin in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 64: 1195-1198
68. Lago F, Dieguez C, Gó mez-Reino J, Gualillo O, 2007 The emerging role of adipokines as mediators of inflammation and immune responses. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 18: 313-325
69. Senolt L, Housa D, Vernerová Z, Jirásek T, Svobodová R, Veigl D, Anderlová K,Müller-Ladner U, Pavelka K, HaluzíkM, 2007 Resistin in rheumatoid arthritis synovial tissue, synovial fluid and serum. Ann Rheum Dis 66: 458- 463
70. Loeser RF, 2009 Aging and osteoarthritis: the role of chondrocyte senescence and aging changes in the cartilage matrix. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 17: 971-979
71. LoeserRF, 2011 Aging and osteoarthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 23: 492-496
72. van der Kraan PM, Blaney Davidson EN, van den BergWB, 2010 A role for age-related changes in TGFβ signaling in aberrant chondrocyte differentiation and osteoarthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 12: 201
73. Yin W, Park JI, Loeser RF, 2009 Oxidative stress inhibits insulin-like growth factor-I induction of chondrocyte proteoglycan synthesis through differential regulation of phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase-Akt and MEK-ERK MAPK signaling pathways. J Biol Chem 284: 31972-31981
74. Krejci P, Prochazkova J, Smutny J, Chlebova K, Lin P, Aklian A, Bryja V, Kozubik A, Wilcox WR, 2010 FGFR3signaling induces a reversible senescence phenotype in chondrocytes similar to oncogene-induced premature senescence. Bone 47: 102-110
75. LindstromTM, RobinsonWH, 2010 Rheumatoid arthritis: A role for immunosenescence? J Am Geriatr Soc 58: 1565- 1575
76. DoranMF,Pond GR, Crowson CS, O'FallonWM,Gabriel SE, 2002 Trends in incidence and mortality in rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota, over a forty-year period. Arthritis Rheum 46: 625-631
77. Pedersen JK, Svendsen AJ, Hørslev-Petersen K, 2007 Incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in the southern part of Denmark from 1995 to 2001. Open Rheumatol J 1: 18-23
78. Riise T, Jacobsen BK, Gran JT, 2000 Incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in the county of Troms, northern Norway. J Rheumatol 27: 1386-1389
79. Baecklund E, Iliadou A, Askling J, Ekbom A, Backlin C, Granath F, Catrina AI, Rosenquist R, Feltelius N, Sundström C, Klareskog L, 2006 Association of chronic inflammation, not its treatment, with increased lymphoma risk in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 54: 692-701
80. Colmegna I, Diaz-Borjon A, Fujii H, Schaefer L, Goronzy JJ, Weyand CM. 2008 Defective proliferative capacity and accelerated telomeric loss of hematopoietic progenitor cells in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 58: 990-1000
81. Koetz K, Bryl E, Spickschen K, O'Fallon WM, Goronzy JJ, WeyandCM, 2000 Tcell homeostasis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97: 9203-9208
82. Weng NP, Akbar AN, Goronzy J, 2009 CD28(α) T cells: their role in the age-associated decline of immune function. Trends Immunol 30: 306-312
83. VallejoAN, 2005CD28extinction inhumanTcells: altered functions and the program of T-cell senescence. Immunol Rev 205: 158-169
84. Kannu P, Bateman JF, Randle S, Cowie S, du Sart D, McGrath S, Edwards M, Savarirayan R, 2010 Premature arthritis is a distinct type II collagen phenotype. Arthritis Rheum 62: 1421-1430
85. Baker-LePain JC, Lane NE, 2010 Relationship between joint shape and the development of osteoarthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 22: 538-543
86. Andreas K, Lübke C, Haupl T, Dehne T, Morawietz L, Ringe J, Kaps C, Sittinger M, 2008 Key regulatory molecules of cartilage destruction in rheumatoid arthritis: an in vitro study. Arthritis Res Ther 10: R9
87. Drissi H, Zuscik M, Rosier R, O'Keefe R, 2005 Transcriptional regulation of chondrocyte maturation: potential involvement of transcription factors in OA pathogenesis. Mol Aspects Med 26: 169-179
88. Fuerst M, Bertrand J, Lammers L, Dreier R, Echtermeyer F, Nitschke Y, Rutsch F, Schafer FK, Niggemeyer O, Steinhagen J, Lohmann CH, Pap T, Rüther W, 2009 Calcification of articular cartilage in human osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 60: 2694-2703
89. Kamekura S, Kawasaki Y, Hoshi K, Shimoaka T, Chikuda H, Maruyama Z, Komori T, Sato S, Takeda S, Karsenty G, Nakamura K, Chung UI, KawaguchiH, 2006 Contribution of runt-related transcription factor 2 to the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis in mice after induction of knee joint instability. Arthritis Rheum 54: 2462-2470
90. Kawaguchi H, 2008 Endochondral ossification signals in cartilage degradation during osteoarthritis progression in experimental mouse models. Mol Cells 25: 1-6
91. Lee JH, Fitzgerald JB, Dimicco MA, Grodzinsky AJ, 2005 Mechanical injury of cartilage explants causes specific time-dependent changes in chondrocyte gene expression. Arthritis Rheum 52: 2386-2395
92. Guilak F, Fermor B, Keefe FJ, Kraus VB, Olson SA, Pisetsky DS, Setton LA, Weinberg JB, 2004 The role of biomechanics and inflammation in cartilage injury and repair. Clin Orthop Relat Res 423: 17-26
93. Fitzgerald JB, Jin M, Dean D, Wood DJ, Zheng MH, Grodzinsky AJ, 2004 Mechanical compression of cartilage explants induces multiple time-dependent gene expression patterns and involves intracellular calcium and cyclic AMP. J Biol Chem 279: 19502-19511
94. Kurz B, Lemke AK, Fay J, Pufe T, Grodzinsky AJ, Schunke M, 2005 Pathomechanisms of cartilage destruction by mechanical injury. Ann Anat 187: 473-485
95. Millward-Sadler SJ, Salter DM, 2004 Integrin-dependent signal cascades in chondrocyte mechanotransduction. Ann Biomed Eng 32: 435-446
96. Pulai JI, Chen H, Im HJ, Kumar S, Hanning C, Hegde PS, Loeser RF, 2005 NF-αB mediates the stimulation of cytokine and chemokine expression by human articular chondrocytes in response to fibronectin fragments. J Immunol 174: 5781-5788
97. Abdulghani S, Caetano-Lopes J, Canhãão H, Fonseca JE, 2009 Biomechanical effects of inflammatory diseases on bone-rheumatoid arthritis as a paradigm. Autoimmun Rev 8: 668-671
98. Xu L, Peng H, Glasson S, Lee PL, Hu K, Ijiri K, Olsen BR, Goldring MB, Li Y, 2007 Increased expression of the collagen receptor discoidin domain receptor 2 in articular cartilage as a key event in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 56: 2663-2673
99. Lee DM, Kiener HP, Agarwal SK, Noss EH, Watts GF, Chisaka O, Takeichi M, BrennerMB, 2007 Cadherin-11 in synovial lining formation and pathology in arthritis. Science 315: 1006-1010
100. Vandooren B, Cantaert T, ter Borg M, Noordenbos T, Kuhlman R, Gerlag D, Bongartz T, Reedquist K, Tak PP, BaetenD, 2008 Tumor necrosis factorβ drives cadherin 11 expression in rheumatoid inflammation. Arthritis Rheum 58: 3051-3062
101. Bao JP, Chen WP,WuLD, 2011 Lubricin: a novel potential biotherapeutic approaches for the treatment of osteoarthritis. Mol Biol Rep 38: 2879-2885
102. Jüsten HP, Grünewald E, Totzke G, Gouni-Berthold I, Sachinidis A, Wessinghage D, Vetter H, Schulze-Osthoff K, Ko Y, 2000 Differential gene expression in synovium of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Mol Cell Biol Res Commun 3: 165-172
103. Goldring MB, Goldring SR, 2010 Articular cartilage and subchondral bone in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1192: 230-237
104. Komuro H, Olee T, Kuhn K, Quach J, Brinson DC, Shikhman A, Valbracht J, Creighton-Achermann L, Lotz M, 2001 The osteoprotegerin/receptor activator of nuclear factor αB/receptor activator of nuclear factor αB ligand system in cartilage. Arthritis Rheum 44: 2768-2776
105. Schett G, Hayer S, Zwerina J, Redlich K, Smolen JS, 2005Mechanisms of disease: the link between RANKL and arthritic bone disease. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 1: 47-54
106. Diarra D, Stolina M, Polzer K, Zwerina J, Ominsky MS, Dwyer D, Korb A, Smolen J, Hoffmann M, Scheinecker C, van der Heide D, Landewe R, Lacey D, Richards WG, Schett G, 2007 Dickkopf-1 is a master regulator of joint remodeling. Nat Med 13: 156-163
107. Kishimoto K, Kitazawa R, Kurosaka M, Maeda S, Kitazawa S, 2006 Expression profile of genes related to osteoclastogenesis in mouse growth plate and articular cartilage. Histochem Cell Biol 125: 593-602
108. Zhu M, Tang D,WuQ, Hao S, Chen M, Xie C, Rosier RN, O'Keefe RJ, Zuscik M, Chen D, 2009 Activation of -catenin signaling in articular chondrocytes leads to osteoarthritis-like phenotype in adult β-catenin conditional activation mice. J Bone Miner Res 24: 12-21
109. Rousseau JC, Delmas PD, 2007 Biological markers in osteoarthritis. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 3: 346-356
110. Sumer EU, Sondergaard BC, Rousseau JC, Delmas PD, Fosang AJ, Karsdal MA, Christiansen C, Qvist P, 2007 MMPand non-MMP-mediated release of aggrecan and its fragments from articular cartilage: a comparative study of three different aggrecan and glycosaminoglycan assays. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 15: 212-221
111. Dayer E, Dayer JM, Roux-Lombard P, 2007 Primer: the practical use of biological markers of rheumatic and systemic inflammatory diseases. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol 3: 512-520
112. Lindqvist E, Eberhardt K, Bendtzen K, Heinegård D, Saxne T, 2005 Prognostic laboratory markers of joint damage in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 64: 196-201
113. Saito S, Kondo S, Mishima S, Ishiguro N, Hasegawa Y, Sandell LJ, IwataH, 2002 Analysis of cartilage-derived retinoic-acid-sensitive protein (CD-RAP) in synovial fluid from patients with osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. J Bone Joint Surg Br 84: 1066-1069
114. Clark AJ, WeberA, 1998 Adrenocorticotropin insensitivity syndromes. Endocr Rev 19: 828-843
115. Chan LF, Clark AJ, Metherell LA, 2008 Familial glucocorticoid deficiency: advances in the molecular understanding of ACTH action. Horm Res 69: 75-82
116. Chan LF, Webb TR, Chung TT, Meimaridou E, Cooray SN, Guasti L, Chapple JP, Egertová M, Elphick MR, Cheetham ME, Metherell LA, Clark AJ, 2009 MRAP and MRAP2 are bidirectional regulators of the melanocortin receptor family. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 6146-6151
117. Migeon CJ, Kenny EM, Kowarski A, Snipes CA, Spaulding JS, Finkelstein JW, Blizzard RM, 1968 The syndrome of congenital adrenocortical unresponsiveness to ACTH. Report of six cases. Pediatr Res 2: 501-513
118. Weber A, Toppari J, Harvey RD, Klann RC, Shaw NJ, Ricker AT, Nanto -Salonen K, Bevan JS, Clark AJ, 1995 Adrenocorticotropin receptor gene mutations in familial glucocorticoid deficiency: relationships with clinical features in four families. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80: 65-71
119. Kelch RP, Kaplan SL, Biglieri EG, Daniels GH, Epstein CJ, Grumbach MM, 1972 Hereditary adrenocortical unresponsiveness to adrenocorticotropic hormone. J Pediatr 81: 726-736
120. Franks RC, Nance WE, 1970 Hereditary adrenocortical unresponsiveness to ACTH. Pediatrics 45: 43-48
121. Stempfel RS, Engel FL, 1960 A congenital, familial syndrome of adrenocortical insufficiency without hypoaldosteronism. J Pediatr 57: 443-451
122. Thistlethwaite D, Darling JA, Fraser R, Mason PA, Rees LH, HarknessRA, 1975 Familial glucocorticoid deficiency. Studies of diagnosis and pathogenesis. Arch Dis Child 50: 291-297
123. Soltesz G, Dillon MJ, Jenkins PA,MooreA, Aynsley-Green A, 1985 Isolated glucocorticoid deficiency: metabolic and endocrine studies in a 5 year old boy. Eur J Pediatr 143: 297-300
124. Shepard TH, Landing BH, Mason DG, 1959 Familial Addison's disease: case reports of two sisters with corticoid deficiency unassociated with hypoaldosteronism.AmJ Dis Child 97: 154-162
125. Elias LL, Huebner A, Metherell LA, Canas A, Warne GL, Bitti ML, Cianfarani S, Clayton PE, Savage MO, Clark AJ, 2000 Tall stature in familial glucocorticoid deficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 53: 423-430
126. Imamine H, Mizuno H, Sugiyama Y, Ohro Y, Sugiura T, Togari H, 2005 Possible relationship between elevated plasma ACTH and tall stature in familial glucocorticoid deficiency. Tohoku J Exp Med 205: 123-131
127. Elias LL, Clark AL, 2009 The molecular basis of adrenocorticotrophin resistance syndrome. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci 88: 155-171
128. Farooqi IS, Yeo GS, Keogh JM, Aminian S, Jebb SA, Butler G, Cheetham T, O'Rahilly S, 2000 Dominant and recessive inheritance of morbid obesity associated with melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency. J Clin Invest 106: 271-279
129. Ahn JD, Dubern B, Lubrano-Berthelier C, Clement K, Karsenty G, 2006 Cart overexpression is the only identifiable cause of high bone mass in melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency. Endocrinology 147: 3196-3202
130. Elefteriou F, Ahn JD, Takeda S, Starbuck M, Yang X, Liu X, Kondo H, Richards WG, Bannon TW, Noda M, Clement K, Vaisse C, KarsentyG, 2005 Leptin regulation of bone resorption by the sympathetic nervous system and CART. Nature 434: 514-520
131. Jarvis JL, Jenkins D, Sosman MC, ThornGW, 1954 Roentgenologic observations in Addison's disease; a review of 120 cases. Radiology 62: 16-29
132. Gordon DL 1964 Calcification of auricular cartilage. Arch Intern Med 113: 23-27
133. Bedsole A 1966 Calcified auricular cartilages in Addison's disease. South Med J 59: 1268-1270
134. Siebenmann RE 1977 The ossification of the ear cartilage in Addison's disease. Schweiz Med Wochenschr 107: 468- 474
135. Talmi YP, Cohen AM, Finkelstein Y, Fluro S, Zohar Y, 1989 Ossification of the auricular cartilages in patients with adrenal insufficiency. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 115: 1254-1255
136. Cohen AM, Talmi YP, Floru S, Bar Ziv J, Zohar Y, Djaldetti M, 1989 Ossification of the auricle in Addison's disease. J Laryngol Otol 103: 885-886
137. Talmi YP, Cohen AM, Bar-Ziv J, Finkelstein Y, Floru S, Zohar Y, 1990 Ossified auricle in Addison's disease. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 99: 499-500
138. Rodríguez Rodríguez R, Ontanilla Ló pez A, Rodríguez Rodríguez C, Herrera Silva J, Echevarría Moreno M, Mar-tínez Diestre MD, 1991 [Bilateral ossification of the earlobes. Addisonian crisis in the postoperative period]. Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim 38: 391-392 (Spanish)
139. Cohen AM, Talmi YP, Floru S, Tsigelman R, Kalmanovitz M, Zohar Y, Djaldetti M, 1991 X-ray microanalysis of ossified auricles in Addison's disease. Calcif Tissue Int 48: 88-92
140. High WA, Larson MJ, Hoang MP, 2004 Idiopathic bilateral auricular ossificans: a case report and review of the literature. Arch Pathol Lab Med 128: 1432-1434
141. Agut Fuster MA, Agulles Fornés MJ, Ferrer Rodríguez A, Ramos Martínez MJ, del Campo Biosca J, Viel Martínez JM, 2007 [Calcification of auricular cartilages in adrenal insufficiency]. Acta Otorrinolaringol Esp 58: 167-168 (Spanish)
142. Fukushima K, Sato S, Yamazaki M, Kaneko A, Oofusa H, Yahikozawa H, 2007 Shock and stony hard ears. Lancet 369: 856
143. Machado A, Lopes M, Ferreira C, 2009 Petrified auricular cartilages pointing the diagnosis of post-partum hypopituitarism in an encephalopathic patient. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 266: 305-307
144. Richter JC, Chappuis B, 2009 Ears "made of stone"- unusual secondary phenomenon of undersubstituted adrenal insufficiency. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 134: 1869-1871
145. DiBartolomeo JR 1985 The petrified auricle: comments on ossification, calcification and exostoses of the external ear. Laryngoscope 95: 566-576
146. Montoli A, Colussi G, Minetti L, 1992 Hypercalcaemia in Addison's disease: calciotropic hormone profile and bone histology. J Intern Med 232: 535-540
147. Walser M, Robinson BH, Duckett Jr JW, 1963 The hypercalcemia of adrenal insufficiency. J Clin Invest 42: 456-465
148. Downie WW, Gunn A, Paterson CR, Howie GF, 1977 Hypercalcaemic crisis as presentation of Addison's disease. Br Med J 1: 145-146
149. De Rosa G, Corsello SM, Cecchini L, Della Casa S, Testa A, 1987 A clinical study of Addison's disease. Exp Clin Endocrinol 90: 232-242
150. Muls E, Bouillon R, Boelaert J, Lamberigts G, Van Imschoot S, Daneels R, De Moor P, 1982 Etiology of hypercalcemia in a patient with Addison's disease. Calcif Tissue Int 34: 523-526
151. Hoch M, Hirzel E, Lindinger P, Eberle AN, Linscheid P, Martin I, Peters T, Peterli R, 2008 Weak functional coupling of the melanocortin-1 receptor expressed in human adipocytes. J Recept Signal Transduct Res 28: 485-504
152. Smith SR, Gawronska-Kozak B, Janderová L, Nguyen T, Murrell A, Stephens JM, Mynatt RL, 2003 Agouti expression in human adipose tissue: functional consequences and increased expression in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 52: 2914- 2922
153. Hench PS, Kendall EC, Slocumb CH, Polley HE, 1949 The effect of adrenal cortex (17-hydroxy-11-dehydrocortisone. Compound E) and of pituitary adrenorticotropin on rheumatoid arthritis. Proc Staff Meet Mayo Clin 24: 181- 197
154. Spies TD, Stone, 1949 Relief of the symptoms of acute and rheumatoid arthritis by means of pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). South M J 42: 720-722
155. Wolfson WQ, Cohn C, Levine R, 1949 Rapid treatment of acute gouty arthritis by the current administration of pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and colchicine. J Lab Clin Med 34: 1766
156. Gutman AB, Yu TF, 1950 Effects of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in gout. Am J Med 9: 24-30
157. Margolis HM, Caplan PS, 1950 Treatment of acute gouty arthritis with pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). J A M A 142: 256-258
158. Muzzolini M, Rosetto G, Compagnoni A, 1970 Therapy of gout attacks with synthetic delayed-action ACTH. Policlinico Med 77: 322-332
159. Axelrod D, Preston S, 1988 Comparison of parenteral adrenocorticotropic hormone with oral indomethacin in the treatment of acute gout. Arthritis Rheum 31: 803-805
160. Ritter J, Kerr LD, Valeriano-Marcet J, Spiera H, 1994 ACTH revisited: effective treatment for acute crystal induced synovitis in patients with multiple medical problems. J Rheumatol 21: 696-699
161. Hellman L 1949 Production of acute gouty arthritis by adrenocorticotropin. Science 109: 280-281
162. Schlesinger N 2008 Overview of the management of acute gout and the role of pituitary adrenocorticotropic hormone. Drugs 68: 407-415
163. Stein C, Comisel K, Haimerl E, Yassouridis A, Lehrberger K, Herz A, Peter K, 1991 Analgesic effect of intraarticular morphine after arthroscopic knee surgery. N Engl J Med 325: 1123-1126
164. Stein C, Millan MJ, Shippenberg TS, Herz A, 1988 Peripheral effect of fentanyl upon nociception of inflamed tissue in the rat. Neurosci Lett 84: 225-228
165. Stein C, Millan MJ, Shippenberg TS, Peter K, Herz A, 1989 Peripheral opioid receptors mediating antinociception in inflammation: evidence for involvement of β, α and α receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 248: 1269-1275
166. Denko CW, Aponte J, Gabriel P, Petricevic M, 1986 β-Endorphin, immunological and biochemical changes in synovial fluid in rheumatic disorders. Clin Rheumatol 5: 25-32
167. Toth K, Barna I, Nagy G, Wellinger K, Horvath G, Bender T, 2011 Synovial fluid β-endorphin level in avascular necrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoarthritis of the femoral head and knee. A controlled pilot study. Clin Rheumatol 30: 537-540
168. Suzuki N, Yoshino S, Nakamura H, 1992 [A study of opioid peptides in synovial fluid and synovial tissue in patients with rheumatoid arthritis]. Arerugi 41: 615- 620 (Japanese)
169. Catania A, Gerloni V, Procaccia S, Airaghi L, Manfredi MG, Lomater C, Grossi L, Lipton JM, 1994 The anticytokine neuropeptide β-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in synovial fluid of patients with rheumatic diseases: comparisons with other anticytokine molecules. Neuroimmunomodulation 1: 321-328
170. Koiwa M, Shiga H, Nakamura H, Yoshino S, 1992 [Role of opioid peptide in rheumatoid arthritis: detection of -endorphin in synovial tissue]. Arerugi 41: 1423-1429 (Japanese)
171. Mousa SA, Straub RH, Scha fer M, Stein C, 2007 β-Endorphin, met-enkephalin and corresponding opioid receptors within synovium of patients with joint trauma, osteoar-thritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 66: 871- 879
172. Karahan S, Kincaid SA, Baird AN, Kammermann JR, 2002 Distribution of β-endorphin and substance P in the shoulder joint of the dog before and after a low impact exercise programme. Anat Histol Embryol 31: 72-77
173. Takeba Y, Suzuki N, Kaneko A, Asai T, Sakane T, 2001 Endorphin and enkephalin ameliorate excessive synovial cell functions in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 28: 2176-2183
174. Shen H, Aeschlimann A, Reisch N, Gay RE, Simmen BR, Michel BA, Gay S, SprottH, 2005 ? and δ opioid receptors are expressed but down-regulated in fibroblast-like synoviocytes of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 52: 1402-1410
175. McDougall JJ, Barin AK, McDougall CM, 2004 Loss of vasomotor responsiveness to the β-opioid receptor ligand endomorphin-1 in adjuvant monoarthritic rat knee joints. AmJ Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 286: R634-R641
176. Andjelkov N, Elvenes J, Figenschau Y, Bjorkoy G, Knutsen G, Seternes T, JohansenO, 2006 Detection ofmRNAtranscripts of truncated opiate precursor (POMC) in human cartilage. Cell Biochem Funct 24: 229-235
177. Gra ssel S, Opolka A, Anders S, Straub RH, Grifka J, Luger TA, BohmM, 2009 The melanocortin system in articular chondrocytes: detection of melanocortin receptors, proopiomelanocortin and precursor proteases. Evidence for a regulatory effect on pro-inflammatory cytokines and extracellular matrix components. Arthritis Rheum 60: 3017- 3027
178. 125I-β-endorphin binding sites in the articular cartilage of the rat. Life Sci 49: PL103-PL105
179. Freire-GarabalM,CastañoMT,Belmonte A, Jorge J, Couceiro J, Núñ ezMJ, 1992 Autoradiographic evidence of opioid binding sites in rat growth plate chondrocytes. Neuroendocrinology 55: 357-359
180. Keates HL, Cramond T, Smith MT, 1999 Intraarticular and periarticular opioid binding in inflamed tissue in experimental canine arthritis. Anesth Analg 89: 409-415
181. Elvenes J, Andjelkov N, Figenschau Y, Seternes T, Bjørkøy G, Johansen O, 2003 Expression of functional μ-opioid receptors in human osteoarthritic cartilage and chondrocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 311: 202-207
182. Evans JF, Niu QT, Canas JA, Shen CL, Aloia JF, Yeh JK, 2004 ACTH enhances chondrogenesis in multipotential progenitor cells and matrix production in chondrocytes. Bone 35: 96-107
183. Yoon SW, Chun JS, Sung MH, Kim JY, Poo H, 2008 α-MSH inhibits TNF-α-induced matrix metalloproteinase-13 expression by modulating p38 kinase and nuclear factor αB signaling in human chondrosarcoma HTB-94 cells. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 16: 115-124
184. Dumont LM, Wu CS, Tatnell MA, Cornish J, Mountjoy KG, 2005 Evidence for direct actions of melanocortin peptides on bone metabolism. Peptides 26: 1929-1935
185. Pérez-Castrillón JL, Olmos JM, Gómez JJ, Barrallo A, Riancho JA, Perera L, Valero C, Amado JA, Gonzá lez-Macías J, 2000 Expression of opioid receptors in osteoblast-like MG-63 cells, and effects of different opioid agonists on alkaline phosphatase and osteocalcin secretion by these cells. Neuroendocrinology 72: 187-194
186. Yeh JK, Evans JF, Niu QT, Aloia JF, 2006 A possible role for melanocortin peptides in longitudinal growth. J Endocrinol 191: 677-686
187. Stenstrom A, Hansson LI, Thorngren KG, 1979 Influence of β-MSH and ACTH on cortical bone remodelling in hypophysectomized rats. Experientia 35: 132-133
188. Cornish J, Callon KE, Mountjoy KG, Bava U, Lin JM, Myers DE, Naot D, Reid IR, 2003 β-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone is a novel regulator of bone. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 284: E1181-E1190
189. Aspenberg P, Hansson LI, Thorngren KG, 1985 Modification of bone formation rate by growth hormone, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and cortisone in the normal rat. Acta Anat 121: 84-88
190. Isales CM, Zaidi M, Blair HC, 2010 ACTH is a novel regulator of bone mass. Ann NY Acad Sci 1192: 110-116
191. Andjelkov N, Elvenes J, Martin J, JohansenO, 2005 Opiate regulation of IL-1β andTNF-β in culturedhumanarticular chondrocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 333: 1295-1299
192. Andjelkov N, Elvenes J, Knutsen G, Johansen O, 2007 β-Endorphin regulation of MAPK in cultured human articular chondrocytes: MAPK inhibitors prevent the increase of IL-1β protein levels during β-endorphin stimulation. Cell Commun Adhes 14: 1-8
193. Raap T, Jüsten HP, Miller LE, Cutolo M, Schölmerich J, Straub RH, 2000 Neurotransmitter modulation of interleukin 6 (IL-6) and IL-8 secretion of synovial fibroblasts in patients with rheumatoid arthritis compared to osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol 27: 2558-2565
194. Miller LE, Jüsten HP, Schölmerich J, Straub RH, 2000 The loss of sympathetic nerve fibers in the synovial tissue of patients with rheumatoid arthritis is accompanied by increased norepinephrine release from synovial macrophages. FASEB J 14: 2097-2107
195. Yin H, Zhang F,YuM,Cheng H, Lin J, Gao Y,HanB, Zhu L, 2005 β-Endorphin ameliorates synovial cell hyperfunction in the collagen-induced arthritis rat model by specific downregulation of NF-κB activity. Neuroendocrinology 81: 10-18
196. Zaidi M, Sun L, Robinson LJ, Tourkova IL, Liu L, Wang Y, Zhu LL, Liu X, Li J, Peng Y, Yang G, Shi X, Levine A, Iqbal J, Yaroslavskiy BB, Isales C, Blair HC, 2010 ACTH protects against glucocorticoid-induced osteonecrosis of bone. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 8782-8787
197. Akil H, Watson SJ, Young E, Lewis ME, Khachaturian H, Walker JM, 1984 Endogenous opioids biology and function. Annu Rev Neurosci 7: 223-225
198. Napal J, Amado JA, Riancho JA, Olmos JM, Gonzá lez-Macías J, 1993 Stress decreases the serum level of osteocalcin. Bone Miner 21: 113-118
199. Marczak ED, Jinsmaa Y, Myers PH, Blankenship T, Wilson R, Balboni G, Salvadori S, Lazarus LH, 2009 Orally administered H-Dmt-Tic-Lys-NH-CH2-Ph (MZ-2), a potent β/β-opioid receptor antagonist, regulates obese-related factors in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 616: 115-121
200. Huszar D, Lynch CA, Fairchild-Huntress V, Dunmore JH, Fang Q, Berkemeier LR, Gu W, Kesterson RA, Boston BA, Cone RD, Smith FJ, Campfield LA, Burn P, Lee F, 1997Targeted disruption of the melanocortin-4 receptor results in obesity in mice. Cell 88: 131-141
201. Cawley NX, Yanik T, Woronowicz A, Chang W, Marini JC, Loh YP, 2010 Obese carboxypeptidase E knockout mice exhibit multiple defects in peptide hormone processing contributing to low bone mineral density.AmJ Physiol Endocrinol Metab 299: E189-E197
202. Ceriani G, Diaz J, Murphree S, Catania A, LiptonJM, 1994 The neuropeptide β-melanocyte-stimulating hormone inhibits experimental arthritis in rats. Neuroimmunomodulation 1: 28-32
203. Getting SJ, Christian HC, Flower RJ, PerrettiM, 2002 Activation of melanocortin type 3 receptor as a molecular mechanism for adrenocorticotropic hormone efficacy in gouty arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 46: 2765-2775
204. Getting SJ, Allcock GH, Flower R, Perretti M, 2001 Natural and synthetic agonists of the melanocortin receptor type 3 possess anti-inflammatory properties. J Leukoc Biol 69: 98-104
205. Patel HB, Bombardieri M, Sampaio AL, D'Acquisto F, Gray M, Grieco P, Getting SJ, Pitzalis C, Perretti M, 2010 Anti-inflammatory and antiosteoclastogenesis properties of endogenous melanocortin receptor type 3 in experimental arthritis. FASEB J 24: 4835-4843
206. Shen PC, Shiau Al, Jou IM, Lee CH, TaiMH,Juan HY, Lin RR, Liu GS, Wu CL, Hsieh JL, 2011 Inhibition of cartilage damage by pro-opiomelanocortin prohormone overexpression in a rat model of osteoarthritis. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 236: 334-340
207. Martinez JH, Mondragón CE, Céspedes A, 1996 An evaluation of the antiinflammatory effects of intraarticular synthetic -endorphin in the canine model. Anesth Analg 82: 177-181
208. Yin H,YuM,Cheng H, Zhang F, Gao Y, Lin J,HanB, Zhu L, 2005β-Endorphin prevents collagen induced arthritis by neuroimmuno-regulation pathway. Neuro Endocrinol Lett 26: 739-744
209. Zadina JE, Hackler L, Ge LJ, Kastin AJ, 1997 A potent and selective endogenous agonist for theβ-opiate receptor. Nature 386: 499-502
210. Straub RH, Wolff C, Fassold A, Hofbauer R, Chover-Gonzalez A, Richards LJ, Jessop DS, 2008 Antiinflammatory role of endomorphins in osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and adjuvant-induced polyarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 58: 456-466
211. Jessop DS, Fassold A, Wolff C, Hofbauer R, Chover-Gonzalez A, Richards LJ, Straub RH, 2010 Endomorphins in rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and experimental arthritis. Ann NY Acad Sci 1193: 117-122
212. Pelletier J-P, Boileau C, Altman RA, Martel-Pelletier J, 2010 Animal models of osteoarthritis. In: Hochberg M, Silman A, Smolen JS, Weinblatt M, Weisman M, eds. Rheumatology. 5th ed. London: Elsevier; 1723-1730
213. Keffer J, Probert L, Cazlaris H, Georgopoulos S, Kaslaris E, Kioussis D, Kollias G, 1991 Transgenic mice expressing human tumour necrosis factor: a predictive genetic model of arthritis. EMBO J 10: 4025-4031
214. Zwerina J, Redlich K, Polzer K, Joosten L, Krönke G, Distler J, Hess A, Pundt N, Pap T, Hoffmann O, Gasser J, Scheinecker C, Smolen JS, van den Berg W, Schett G, 2007 TNF-induced structural joint damage is mediated by IL-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 11742-11777
215. Abdollahi-Roodsaz S, Joosten LA, Koenders MI, Devesa I, Roelofs MF, Radstake TR, Heuvelmans-Jacobs M, Akira S, Nicklin MJ, Ribeiro-Dias F, van den Berg WB, 2008 Stimulation of TLR2 and TLR4 differentially skews the balance ofTcells in a mouse model of arthritis. J Clin Invest 118: 205-216
216. Geyer M, Müller-Ladner U, 2010 Actual status of antiinterleukin-1 therapies in rheumatic diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol 22: 246-251
217. Geiler J, Buch M, McDermott MF, 2011 Anti-TNF treatment in rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Pharm 17: 3141-3154
218. Catania A, 2007 The melanocortin system in leukocyte biology. J Leukoc Biol 81: 383-392
219. Gaston 2010 Cellular immunity in rheumatoid arthritis. In: Hochberg M, Silman A, Smolen JS, Weinblatt M, Weisman M, eds. Rheumatology. 5th ed. London: Elsevier; 897-903
220. Edling AE, Gomes D, Weeden T, Dzuris J, Stefano J, Pan C, Williams J, Kaplan J, Perricone MA, 2011 Immunosuppressive activity of a novel peptide analog of β-melanocyte stimulating hormone β-MSH) in experimental autoimmune uveitis. J Neuroimmunol 236: 1-9
221. Taylor AW, Kitaichi N, 2008 The diminishment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) by neuropeptide β-melanocyte stimulating hormone. Brain Behav Immun 22: 639-646
222. Cutuli M, Cristiani S, Lipton JM, Catania A, 2000 Antimicrobial effects of β-MSH peptides. J Leukoc Biol 67: 233-239
223. Lipton JM 1990 Modulation of host defense by the neuropeptide α-MSH. Yale J Biol Med 63: 173-182
224. Potaman VN, Alfeeva LY, Kamensky AA, Nezavibatko VN, 1993 Degradation of ACTH/MSH(4-10) and its synthetic analog semax by rat serum enzymes: an inhibitor study. Peptides 14: 491-495
225. Castrucci AM, Hadley ME, Sawyer TK, Hruby VJ, 1984 Enzymological studies of melanotropins. Comp Biochem Physiol B 78: 519-524
226. Marks N, Stern F, Kastin AJ, 1976 Biodegradation of β-MSH and derived peptides by rat brain extracts, and by rat and human serum. Brain Res Bull 1: 591-593
227. Trochard MC, Vaudry H, Leboulenger F, Usategui R, VaillantR, 1976 The degradation of radioiodinatedαMSH in vitro: effect of some inhibitors of proteolytic enzymes.C R Seances Soc Biol Fil 170: 1103-1109
228. Deschodt-Lanckman M, Vanneste Y, Loir B, Michel A, Libert A,GhanemG, Lejeune F, 1990 Degradation ofβ-melanocyte stimulating hormone (β-MSH) by CALLA/endopeptidase 24.11 expressed by human melanoma cells in culture. Int J Cancer 46: 1124-1130
229. Wallingford N, Perroud B, Gao Q, Coppola A, Gyengesi E, LiuZW, Gao XB, Diament A, Haus KA, Shariat-Madar Z, Mahdi F, Wardlaw SL, Schmaier AH, Warden CH, Diano S, 2009 Prolylcarboxypeptidase regulates food intake by inactivating β-MSH in rodents. J Clin Invest 119: 2291- 2303
230. Diano S. 2011 New aspects of melanocortin signaling: a role for PRCP in β-MSH degradation. Front Neuroendocrinol 32: 70-83
231. Kumamoto K, Stewart TA, Johnson AR, Erdös EG, 1981 Prolylcarboxypeptidase (angiotensinase C) in human lung and cultured cells. J Clin Invest 67: 210-215
232. Harms J, Lautenschlager S, Minder CE, Minder EI, 2009 An β-melanocyte-stimulating hormone analogue in erythropoietic protoporphyria. N Engl J Med 360: 306-307
233. Vessillier S, Adams G, Montero-Melendez T, Jones R, Seed M, Perretti M, Chernajovsky Y, 2012 Molecular engineering of short half-life small peptides (VIP, βMSH and β3MSH) fused to latency-associated peptide results in improved anti-inflammatory therapeutics. Ann Rheum Dis 71: 143-149
234. Mastrofrancesco A, Kokot A, Eberle A, Gibbons NC, Schallreuter KU, Strozyk E, Picardo M, Zouboulis CC, Luger TA, BohmM, 2010 KdPT, a tripeptide derivative of β-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, suppresses IL-1-mediated cytokine expression and signaling in human sebocytes. J Immunol 185: 1903-1911
235. Bettenworth D, Buyse M, Bohm M, Mennigen R, Czorniak I, Kannengiesser K, Brzoska T, Luger TA, Kucharzik T, Domschke W, Maaser C, Lügering A, 2011 The tripeptideKdPTprotects from intestinal inflammation and maintains intestinal barrier function. Am J Pathol 179: 1230- 1242
236. Grässel S, DreierR, 2011 Effect of cellular microenvironment and paracrine signals on chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor cells. In: Singh SR, ed. Stem cells, regenerative medicine and cancer. New York: Nova Science Publishers; 441-467