Annual research review: Re-thinking the classification of autism spectrum disorders

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines

Volumn 53, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 490-509

  Lord, Catherine ^a   Jones, Rebecca M ^a  

^a NEW YORK PRESBYTERIAN HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Autism spectrum disorders; classification; development; diagnosis; dimensions; DSM 5; DSM IV

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AUTISM; CHILD; CHILD PSYCHIATRY; CLASSIFICATION; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; HUMAN; INSTRUMENTATION; INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES; METHODOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOMETRY; REVIEW;

ADULT; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT DISORDERS, PERVASIVE; CHILD PSYCHIATRY; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; HUMANS; INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES; PSYCHOMETRICS;

EID: 84859725788     PISSN: 00219630     EISSN: 14697610     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02547.x     Document Type: Review

References (184)

1. Aldridge, F.J., Gibbs, V.M., Schmidhofer, K., &, Williams, M., (2012). Investigating the Clinical Usefulness of the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) in a Tertiary Level, Autism Spectrum Disorder Specific Assessment Clinic. J Autism Dev Disord, 42 (2), 294-300.
2. Aman, M.G., Singh, N.N., Stewart, A.W., &, Field, C.J., (1985). Psychometric characteristics of the aberrant behavior checklist. Am J Ment Defic, 89 (5), 492-502. (Pubitemid 15104763)
3. American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Revised Third Edition. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
4. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
5. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Task force on DSM-IV. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
6. American Psychiatry Association (2012). DSM-5 development. Available from: [last accessed 16 January 2012].
7. Anderson, D.K., Maye, M.P., &, Lord, C., (2011). Changes in maladaptive behaviors from midchildhood to young adulthood in autism spectrum disorder. Am J Intellect Dev Disabil, 116 (5), 381-397.
8. Anderson, J.S., Nielsen, J.A., Froehlich, A.L., DuBray, M.B., Druzgal, T.J., Cariello, A.N., ⋯ &, Lainhart, J.E., (2011). Functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging classification of autism. Brain, 134 (Pt 12), 3742-3754.
9. Anderson, D.K., Oti, R.S., Lord, C., &, Welch, K., (2009). Patterns of growth in adaptive social abilities among children with autism spectrum disorders. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 37 (7), 1019-1034.
10. Baird, G.,. (2012). What did parents want? National Autism Society Parent Survey. Paper presented at conference: Autism spectrum disorder: from clinical practice to educational provision, January 12/13, 2012. Available from:. Slides of presentation available from: [last accessed 16 February 2012].
11. Baird, G., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Chandler, S., Loucas, T., Meldrum, D., ⋯ &, Simonoff, E., (2008). Regression, developmental trajectory and associated problems in disorders in the autism spectrum: The SNAP study. J Autism Dev Disord, 38 (10), 1827-1836.
12. Baron-Cohen, S., (2009). The short life of a diagnosis. The New York Times. Available from: [last accessed 16 February 2012].
13. Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A.M., &, Frith, U., (1985). Does the autistic child have a "theory of mind"? Cognition, 21 (1), 37-46.
14. Bertrand, J., Mars, A., Boyle, C., Bove, F., Yeargin-Allsopp, M., &, Decoufle, P., (2001). Prevalence of autism in a United States population: The Brick Township, New Jersey, investigation. Pediatrics, 108 (5), 1155-1161. (Pubitemid 33021192)
15. Berument, S.K., Rutter, M., Lord, C., Pickles, A., &, Bailey, A., (1999). Autism screening questionnaire: Diagnostic validity. Br J Psychiatry, 175, 444-451.
16. de Bildt, A., Oosterling, I.J., van Lang, N.D., Sytema, S., Minderaa, R.B., van Engeland, H., ⋯ &, de Jonge, M.V., (2011). Standardized ADOS scores: Measuring severity of autism spectrum disorders in a Dutch sample. J Autism Dev Disord, 41 (3), 311-319.
17. Bishop, D.V., (1989). Autism, Asperger's syndrome and semantic-pragmatic disorder: Where are the boundaries? Br J Disord Commun, 24 (2), 107-121. (Pubitemid 19224688)
18. Bishop, D.V.,. (2003). Autism and specific language impairment: Categorical distinction or continuum? Novartis Found Symp, 251, 213-226; discussion 226-234, 281-297.
19. Bishop, D.,. (2011). How common is autism? Notes & Theories blog on guardian.co.uk (7 June 2011). Available from: [last accessed 16 February 2012].
20. Bishop, S., Gahagan, S., &, Lord, C., (2007). Re-examining the core features of autism: A comparison of autism spectrum disorder and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 48 (11), 1111-1121. (Pubitemid 350086158)
21. Bishop, D.V., &, Norbury, C.F., (2002). Exploring the borderlands of autistic disorder and specific language impairment: A study using standardised diagnostic instruments. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 43 (7), 917-929. (Pubitemid 36939270)
22. Bishop, S.L., Richler, J., &, Lord, C., (2006). Association between restricted and repetitive behaviors and nonverbal IQ in children with autism spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychol, 12 (4-5), 247-267. (Pubitemid 44266807)
23. Black, M., Freeman, B.J., &, Montgomery, J., (1975). Systematic observation of play behavior in autistic children. J Autism Child Schizophr, 5, 363-371.
24. Bodfish, J.W., Symons, F.J., Parker, D.E., &, Lewis, M.H., (2000). Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: Comparisons to mental retardation. J Autism Dev Disord, 30 (3), 237-243.
25. Bolton, P.F., Pickles, A., Murphy, M., &, Rutter, M., (1998). Autism, affective and other psychiatric disorders: Patterns of familial aggregation. Psychol Med, 28 (2), 385-395. (Pubitemid 28197553)
26. Bowler, D.M., (1992). "Theory of mind" in Asperger's syndrome. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 33 (5), 877-893.
27. Brieber, S., Neufang, S., Bruning, N., Kamp-Becker, I., Remschmidt, H., Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., ⋯ &, Konrad, K., (2007). Structural brain abnormalities in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 48 (12), 1251-1258. (Pubitemid 350256552)
28. Carey, B., (2012). New definition of autism may exclude many, study suggests. The New York Times, A1.
29. Carr, T., &, Lord, C., (2012). Perceived negative impact in African American and Caucasian mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism.
30. Carter, A.S., Messinger, D.S., Stone, W.L., Celimli, S., Nahmias, A.S., &, Yoder, P., (2011). A randomized controlled trial of Hanen's 'More Than Words' in toddlers with early autism symptoms. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 52 (7), 741-752.
31. Charman, T., Baird, G., Simonoff, E., Loucas, T., Chandler, S., Meldrum, D., &, Pickles, A., (2007). Efficacy of three screening instruments in the identification of autistic-spectrum disorders. Br J Psychiatry, 191, 554-559. (Pubitemid 350273218)
32. Charman, T., Jones, C.R., Pickles, A., Simonoff, E., Baird, G., &, Happe, F., (2011). Defining the cognitive phenotype of autism. Brain Res, 1380, 10-21.
33. Cicchetti, D.V., Koenig, K., Klin, A., Volkmar, F.R., Paul, R., &, Sparrow, S., (2011). From Bayes through marginal utility to effect sizes: A guide to understanding the clinical and statistical significance of the results of autism research findings. J Autism Dev Disord, 41 (2), 168-174.
34. Constantino, J.N., Davis, S.A., Todd, R.D., Schindler, M.K., Gross, M.M., Brophy, S.L., ⋯ &, Reich, W., (2003). Validation of a brief quantitative measure of autistic traits: Comparison of the social responsiveness scale with the autism diagnostic interview-revised. J Autism Dev Disord, 33 (4), 427-433. (Pubitemid 37127938)
35. Constantino, J.N., &, Gruber, C.P., (2005). Social Responsiveness Scale manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
36. Constantino, J.N., Lavesser, P.D., Zhang, Y., Abbacchi, A.M., Gray, T., &, Todd, R.D., (2007). Rapid quantitative assessment of autistic social impairment by classroom teachers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 46 (12), 1668-1676. (Pubitemid 350146532)
37. Constantino, J.N., Przybeck, T., Friesen, D., &, Todd, R.D., (2000). Reciprocal social behavior in children with and without pervasive developmental disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 21 (1), 2-11.
38. Constantino, J.N., &, Todd, R.D., (2003). Autistic traits in the general population: A twin study. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 60 (5), 524-530. (Pubitemid 36539062)
39. Constantino, J.N., Zhang, Y., Frazier, T., Abbacchi, A.M., &, Law, P., (2010). Sibling recurrence and the genetic epidemiology of autism. Am J Psychiatry, 167 (11), 1349-1356.
40. Contrucci Kuhn, S.A., &, Triggs, M., (2009). Analysis of social variables when an initial functional analysis indicates automatic reinforcement as the maintaining variable for self- injurious behavior. J Appl Behav Anal, 42 (3), 679-683.
41. Coutanche, M.N., Thompson-Schill, S.L., &, Schultz, R.T., (2011). Multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data predicts clinical symptom severity. Neuroimage, 57 (1), 113-123.
42. Croen, L.A., Grether, J.K., Hoogstrate, J., &, Selvin, S., (2002). The changing prevalence of autism in California. J Autism Dev Disord, 32 (3), 207-215. (Pubitemid 37486717)
43. Cuccaro, M.L., Shao, Y., Grubber, J., Slifer, M., Wolpert, C.M., Donnelly, S.L., ⋯ &, Pericak-Vance, M.A., (2003). Factor analysis of restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism using the Autism Diagnostic Interview-R. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev, 34 (1), 3-17. (Pubitemid 37108180)
44. Dalton, K.M., Nacewicz, B.M., Johnstone, T., Schaefer, H.S., Gernsbacher, M.A., Goldsmith, H.H., ⋯ &, Davidson, R.J., (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nat Neurosci, 8 (4), 519-526. (Pubitemid 41007571)
45. Dawson, G., Rogers, S., Munson, J., Smith, M., Winter, J., Greenson, J., ⋯ &, Varley, J., (2010). Randomized, controlled trial of an intervention for toddlers with autism: The Early Start Denver Model. Pediatrics, 125 (1), e17-e23.
46. Dawson, G., Webb, S.J., &, McPartland, J., (2005). Understanding the nature of face processing impairment in autism: Insights from behavioral and electrophysiological studies. Dev Neuropsychol, 27 (3), 403-424. (Pubitemid 40712809)
47. Dominick, K.C., Davis, N.O., Lainhart, J., Tager-Flusberg, H., &, Folstein, S., (2007). Atypical behaviors in children with autism and children with a history of language impairment. Res Dev Disabil, 28 (2), 145-162. (Pubitemid 46274158)
48. Donno, R., Parker, G., Gilmour, J., &, Skuse, D.H., (2010). Social communication deficits in disruptive primary-school children. Br J Psychiatry, 196 (4), 282-289.
49. Drew, A., Baird, G., Taylor, E., Milne, E., &, Charman, T., (2007). The social communication assessment for toddlers with autism (SCATA): An instrument to measure the frequency, form and function of communication in toddlers with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Devl Disord, 37 (4), 648-666. (Pubitemid 46571731)
50. Ecker, C., Marquand, A., Mourao-Miranda, J., Johnston, P., Daly, E.M., Brammer, M.J., ⋯ &, Murphy, D.G., (2010). Describing the brain in autism in five dimensions - magnetic resonance imaging- assisted diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder using a multiparameter classification approach. J Neurosci, 30 (32), 10612-10623.
51. Ellis, E.M., &, Thal, D.J., (2008). Early language delay and risk for language impairment. Perspect Lang Learn Educ, 15 (3), 93-100.
52. Elsabbagh, M., Mercure, E., Hudry, K., Chandler, S., Pasco, G., Charman, T., ⋯ &, Johnson, M.H., (2012). Infant neural sensitivity to dynamic eye gaze is associated with later emerging autism. Curr Biol, 22, 1-5.
53. Esbensen, A.J., Seltzer, M.M., Lam, K.S., &, Bodfish, J.W., (2009). Age-related differences in restricted repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 39 (1), 57-66.
54. Fischbach, G.D., &, Lord, C., (2010). The Simons Simplex Collection: A resource for identification of autism genetic risk factors. Neuron, 68 (2), 192-195.
55. Folstein, S., &, Rutter, M., (1977). Infantile autism: A genetic study of 21 twin pairs. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 18 (4), 297-321.
56. Fombone, E., (2002). Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder. Autism, 6 (2), 149-157.
57. Fombonne, E., (2003). Epidemiological surveys of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders: An update. J Autism Dev Disord, 33 (4), 365-382. (Pubitemid 37127933)
58. Frith, U., &, Happe, F., (1994). Autism: Beyond "theory of mind". Cognition, 50 (1-3), 115-132.
59. Geschwind, D.H., (2011). Genetics of autism spectrum disorders. Trends Cogn Sci, 15 (9), 409-416.
60. Gillespie-Lynch, K., Sepeta, L., Wang, Y., Marshall, S., Gomez, L., Sigman, M., &, Hutman, T., (2012). Early childhood predictors of the social competence of adults with autism. J Autism Dev Disord, 42 (2), 161-174.
61. Gjevik, E., Eldevik, S., Fjaeran-Granum, T., &, Sponheim, E., (2011). Kiddie-SADS reveals high rates of DSM-IV disorders in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 41 (6), 761-769.
62. Gotham, K., Pickles, A., &, Lord, C., (2009). Standardizing ADOS scores for a measure of severity in autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 39 (5), 693-705.
63. Gotham, K., Risi, S., Dawson, G., Tager-Flusberg, H., Joseph, R., Carter, A., ⋯ &, Lord, C., (2008). A replication of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) revised algorithms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 47 (6), 642-651.
64. Gotham, K., Risi, S., Pickles, A., &, Lord, C., (2007). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: Revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. J Autism Dev Disord, 37 (4), 613-627. (Pubitemid 46571734)
65. Green, J., Charman, T., McConachie, H., Aldred, C., Slonims, V., Howlin, P., ⋯ &, Pickles, A., (2010). Parent-mediated communication-focused treatment in children with autism (PACT): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 375 (9732), 2152-2160.
66. Guilmatre, A., Dubourg, C., Mosca, A.L., Legallic, S., Goldenberg, A., Drouin-Garraud, V., ⋯ &, Campion, D., (2009). Recurrent rearrangements in synaptic and neurodevelopmental genes and shared biologic pathways in schizophrenia, autism, and mental retardation. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 66 (9), 947-956.
67. Guttmann-Steinmetz, S., Gadow, K.D., &, Devincent, C.J., (2009). Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder behaviors in boys with autism spectrum disorder with and without attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder versus several comparison samples. J Autism Dev Disord, 39 (7), 976-985.
68. Happe, F.,. (2011). Why fold asperger syndrome into autism spectrum disorder in the DSM-5?. Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative News and Opinion. Available from
69. Harris, G.J., Chabris, C.F., Clark, J., Urban, T., Aharon, I., Steele, S., ⋯ &, Tager-Flusberg, H., (2006). Brain activation during semantic processing in autism spectrum disorders via functional magnetic resonance imaging. Brain Cogn, 61 (1), 54-68.
70. Hattier, M.A., Matson, J.L., Tureck, K., &, Horovitz, M., (2011). The effects of gender and age on repetitive and/or restricted behaviors and interests in adults with autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability. Res Dev Disabil, 32 (6), 2346-2351.
71. Hazlett, H.C., Poe, M.D., Gerig, G., Styner, M., Chappell, C., Smith, R.G., ⋯ &, Piven, J., (2011). Early brain overgrowth in autism associated with an increase in cortical surface area before age 2 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 68 (5), 467-476.
72. Helzer, J.E., Robins, L.N., McEvoy, L.T., Spitznagel, E.L., Stoltzman, R.K., Farmer, A., &, Brockington, L.F., (1985). A comparison of clinical and diagnostic interview schedule diagnoses. Physician reexamination of lay-interviewed cases in the general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 42 (7), 657-666.
73. Hobson, R.P., (2002). The crade of thought: Exploring the origins of thinking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
74. Hughes, V.,. (2010). Kevin Pelphrey: Charting the course of the social brain. Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative News and Opinion. Available from: [last accessed 16 February 2012].
75. Hus, V., Pickles, A., Cook, E.H. Jr, Risi, S., &, Lord, C., (2007). Using the autism diagnostic interview - revised to increase phenotypic homogeneity in genetic studies of autism. Biol Psychiatry, 61 (4), 438-448. (Pubitemid 46185341)
76. Hus, V., Taylor, A., &, Lord, C., (2011). Telescoping of caregiver report on the Autism Diagnostic Interview - Revised. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 52 (7), 753-760.
77. Hyman, S.E., (2010). The diagnosis of mental disorders: The problem of reification. Annu Rev Clin Psychol, 6, 155-179.
78. Insel, T.R., &, Cuthbert, B.N., (2009). Endophenotypes: Bridging genomic complexity and disorder heterogeneity. Biol Psychiatry, 66 (11), 988-989.
79. Jeste, S.S., &, Nelson, C.A. 3rd, (2009). Event related potentials in the understanding of autism spectrum disorders: An analytical review. J Autism Dev Disord, 39 (3), 495-510.
80. Jones, W., Carr, K., &, Klin, A., (2008). Absence of preferential looking to the eyes of approaching adults predicts level of social disability in 2-year-old toddlers with autism spectrum disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 65 (8), 946-954.
81. Juranek, J., Filipek, P.A., Berenji, G.R., Modahl, C., Osann, K., &, Spence, M.A., (2006). Association between amygdala volume and anxiety level: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study in autistic children. J Child Neurol, 21 (12), 1051-1058. (Pubitemid 46128357)
82. Kaiser, M.D., Hudac, C.M., Shultz, S., Lee, S.M., Cheung, C., Berken, A.M., ⋯ &, Pelphrey, K.A., (2010). Neural signatures of autism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 107 (49), 21223-21228.
83. Kanne, S.M., Gerber, A.J., Quirmbach, L.M., Sparrow, S.S., Cicchetti, D.V., &, Saulnier, C.A., (2011). The role of adaptive behavior in autism spectrum disorders: Implications for functional outcome. J Autism Dev Disord, 41 (8), 1007-1018.
84. Kanner, L., (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 250 (2), 217-250.
85. Keehn, B., Lincoln, A.J., Muller, R.A., &, Townsend, J., (2010). Attentional networks in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 51 (11), 1251-1259.
86. Kim, S.H., &, Lord, C., (2010). Restricted and repetitive behaviors in toddlers and preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders based on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Autism Res, 3 (4), 162-173.
87. Kim, S.H., &, Lord, C., (2012a). Combining information from multiple sources for the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders for toddlers and young preschoolers from 12 to 47 months of age. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 53 (2), 143-151.
88. Kim, S.H., &, Lord, C., (2012b). New autism diagnostic interview-revised algorithms for toddlers and young preschoolers from 12 to 47 months of age. J Autism Dev Disord, 42 (1), 82-93.
89. King, B.H., (1993). Self-injury by people with mental retardation: A compulsive behavior hypothesis. Am J Ment Retard, 98 (1), 93-112. (Pubitemid 23226996)
90. Kjellmer, L., Hedvall, A., Fernell, E., Gillberg, C., &, Norrelgen, F., (2012). Language and communication skills in preschool children with autism spectrum disorders: Contribution of cognition, severity of autism symptoms, and adaptive functioning to the variability. Res Dev Disabil, 33 (1), 172-180.
91. Kleinhans, N.M., Richards, T., Weaver, K., Johnson, L.C., Greenson, J., Dawson, G., &, Aylward, E., (2010). Association between amygdala response to emotional faces and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia, 48 (12), 3665-3670.
92. Klin, A., Saulnier, C.A., Sparrow, S.S., Cicchetti, D.V., Volkmar, F.R., &, Lord, C., (2007). Social and communication abilities and disabilities in higher functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorders: The Vineland and the ADOS. J Autism Dev Disord, 37 (4), 748-759. (Pubitemid 46571733)
93. Kraemer, H.C., (2008). DSM Categories and dimensions in clinical and research contexts. In, J.E. Helzer, H.C. Kraemer, R.F. Krueger, H.U. Wittchen, P.J. Sirovatka, &, D.A. Regier, (Eds), Dimensional approaches in diagnostic classification (pp. 5-17. Arlington: American Psychiatric Association.
94. Lam, K.S., Bodfish, J.W., &, Piven, J., (2008). Evidence for three subtypes of repetitive behavior in autism that differ in familiality and association with other symptoms. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 49 (11), 1193-1200.
95. Lecavalier, L., Aman, M.G., Scahill, L., McDougle, C.J., McCracken, J.T., Vitiello, B., ⋯ &, Kau, A.S., (2006). Validity of the autism diagnostic interview-revised. Am J Ment Retard, 111 (3), 199-215.
96. Lee, H., Marvin, A.R., Watson, T., Piggot, J., Law, J.K., Law, P.A., ⋯ &, Nelson, S.F., (2010). Accuracy of phenotyping of autistic children based on Internet implemented parent report. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 153B (6), 1119-1126.
97. Leekam, S.R., Libby, S.J., Wing, L., Gould, J., &, Taylor, C., (2002). The diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders: Algorithms for ICD-10 childhood autism and Wing and Gould autistic spectrum disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 43 (3), 327-342. (Pubitemid 36939221)
98. Leekam, S., Tandos, J., McConachie, H., Meins, E., Parkinson, K., Wright, C., ⋯ &, Le Couteur, A., (2007). Repetitive behaviours in typically developing 2-year-olds. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 48 (11), 1131-1138. (Pubitemid 350086155)
99. Lord, C., &, Bishop, S.L., (2010). Autism spectrum disorders: Diagnosis, prevalence, and services for children and families, Social Policy Report. Society for Research in Child Development, 24 (2), 1-21.
100. Lord, C., Luyster, R., Guthrie, W., &, Pickles, A., (2012). Patterns of developmental trajectories in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol.
101. Lord, C., &, MaGill-Evans, J., (1995). Peer interactions of autistic children and adolescents. Dev Psychopathol, 7 (4), 611-626.
102. Lord, C., Petkova, E., Hus, V., Gan, W., Lu, F., Martin, D.M., ⋯ &, Risi, S., (2012). A Multisite Study of the Clinical Diagnosis of Different Autism Spectrum Disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 69 (3), 306-313.
103. Lord, C., Risi, S., DiLavore, P.S., Shulman, C., Thurm, A., &, Pickles, A., (2006). Autism from 2 to 9 years of age. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 63 (6), 694-701. (Pubitemid 43848301)
104. Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E.H. Jr, Leventhal, B.L., DiLavore, P.C., ⋯ &, Rutter, M., (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. J Autism Dev Disord, 30 (3), 205-223.
105. Lord, C., Rutter, M., &, Le Couteur, A., (1999). Autism diagnostic observation schedule (ADOS), manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
106. Lord, C., Storoschuk, S., Rutter, M., &, Pickles, A., (1993). Using the ADI-R to diagnose autism in preschool children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 14 (3), 234-252.
107. Lotspeich, L.J., Kwon, H., Schumann, C.M., Fryer, S.L., Goodlin-Jones, B.L., Buonocore, M.H., ⋯ &, Reiss, A.L., (2004). Investigation of neuroanatomical differences between autism and Asperger syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 61 (3), 291-298. (Pubitemid 38295831)
108. Luyster, R., Gotham, K., Guthrie, W., Coffing, M., Petrak, R., Pierce, K., ⋯ &, Lord, C., (2009). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-toddler module: A new module of a standardized diagnostic measure for autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 39 (9), 1305-1320.
109. Luyster, R.J., Kadlec, M.B., Carter, A., &, Tager-Flusberg, H., (2008). Language assessment and development in toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 38 (8), 1426-1438.
110. Magnuson, K.M., &, Constantino, J.N., (2011). Characterization of depression in children with autism spectrum disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 32 (4), 332-340.
111. Malisza, K.L., Clancy, C., Shiloff, D., Foreman, D., Holden, J., Jones, C., ⋯ &, Chudley, A.E., (2011). Functional evaluation of hidden figures object analysis in children with autistic disorder. J Autism Dev Disord, 41 (1), 13-22.
112. Mandell, D.S., Wiggins, L.D., Carpenter, L.A., Daniels, J., DiGuiseppi, C., Durkin, M.S., ⋯ &, Kirby, R.S., (2009). Racial/ethnic disparities in the identification of children with autism spectrum disorders. Am J Public Health, 99 (3), 493-498.
113. Mandy, W.P., Charman, T., &, Skuse, D.H., (2012). Testing the construct validity of proposed criteria for DSM-5 autism spectrum disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 51 (1), 41-50.
114. Mattila, M.L., Hurtig, T., Haapsamo, H., Jussila, K., Kuusikko-Gauffin, S., Kielinen, M., ⋯ &, Moilanen, I., (2010). Comorbid psychiatric disorders associated with Asperger syndrome/high- functioning autism: A community- and clinic-based study. J Autism Dev Disord, 40 (9), 1080-1093.
115. Mattila, M.L., Kielinen, M., Linna, S.L., Jussila, K., Ebeling, H., Bloigu, R., ⋯ &, Moilanen, I., (2011). Autism spectrum disorders according to DSM-IV-TR and comparison with DSM-5 draft criteria: An epidemiological study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 50 (6), 583-592. e511.
116. McPartland, J.C., Reichow, B., &, Volkmar, F.R., (2012). Sensitivity and specificity of proposed DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for autism spectrum disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.
117. Miller, J.N., &, Ozonoff, S., (2000). The external validity of Asperger disorder: Lack of evidence from the domain of neuropsychology. J Abnorm Psychol, 109 (2), 227-238. (Pubitemid 30616920)
118. Mirenda, P., Smith, I.M., Vaillancourt, T., Georgiades, S., Duku, E., Szatmari, P., ⋯ &, Zwaigenbaum, L., (2010). Validating the Repetitive Behavior Scale-revised in young children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord, 40 (12), 1521-1530.
119. Mosconi, M.W., Cody-Hazlett, H., Poe, M.D., Gerig, G., Gimpel-Smith, R., &, Piven, J., (2009). Longitudinal study of amygdala volume and joint attention in 2- to 4-year-old children with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 66 (5), 509-516.
120. Mundy, P., Sigman, M., &, Kasari, C., (1990). A longitudinal study of joint attention and language development in autistic children. J Autism Dev Disord, 20 (1), 115-128. (Pubitemid 20134737)
121. Nelson, C.A. 3rd, &, McCleery, J.P., (2008). Use of event-related potentials in the study of typical and atypical development. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 47 (11), 1252-1261.
122. Oliver, C., Hall, S., &, Murphy, G., (2005). The early development of self-injurious behaviour: Evaluating the role of social reinforcement. J Intellect Disabil Res, 49 (Pt 8), 591-599. (Pubitemid 40990615)
123. Overton, T., Fielding, C., &, de Alba, R.G., (2008). Brief Report: Exploratory analysis of the ADOS revised algorithm: Specificity and predictive value with Hispanic children referred for autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 38 (6), 1166-1169.
124. Ozonoff, S., Iosif, A.M., Young, G.S., Hepburn, S., Thompson, M., Colombi, C., ⋯ &, Rogers, S.J., (2011). Onset patterns in autism: Correspondence between home video and parent report. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 50 (8), 796-806. e791.
125. Ozonoff, S., Young, G.S., Carter, A., Messinger, D., Yirmiya, N., Zwaigenbaum, L., &, Stone, W.L.,. (2011). Recurrence Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Baby Siblings Research Consortium Study. Pediatrics, 128, e488-e495. Advance online publication; doi:.
126. Pelphrey, K.A., Shultz, S., Hudac, C.M., &, Vander Wyk, B.C., (2011). Research review: Constraining heterogeneity: The social brain and its development in autism spectrum disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 52 (6), 631-644.
127. Philofsky, A., Hepburn, S.L., Hayes, A., Hagerman, R., &, Rogers, S.J., (2004). Linguistic and cognitive functioning and autism symptoms in young children with fragile X syndrome. Am J Ment Retard, 109 (3), 208-218.
128. Pickett, E., Pullara, O., O'Grady, J., &, Gordon, B., (2009). Speech acquisition in older nonverbal individuals with autism: A review of features, methods, and prognosis. Cogn Behav Neurol, 22 (1), 1-21.
129. Pickles, A., &, Angold, A., (2003). Natural categories or fundamental dimensions: On carving nature at the joints and the rearticulation of psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol, 15 (3), 529-551. (Pubitemid 351480032)
130. Pickles, A., Starr, E., Kazak, S., Bolton, P., Papanikolaou, K., Bailey, A., ⋯ &, Rutter, M., (2000). Variable expression of the autism broader phenotype: Findings from extended pedigrees. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 41 (4), 491-502. (Pubitemid 30311527)
131. Piven, J., Arndt, S., Bailey, J., &, Andreasen, N., (1996). Regional brain enlargement in autism: A magnetic resonance imaging study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 35 (4), 530-536. (Pubitemid 126418617)
132. Piven, J., Gayle, J., Landa, R., Wzorek, M., &, Folstein, S., (1991). The prevalence of fragile X in a sample of autistic individuals diagnosed using a standardized interview. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 30 (5), 825-830.
133. Piven, J., Saliba, K., Bailey, J., &, Arndt, S., (1997). An MRI study of autism: The cerebellum revisited. Neurology, 49 (2), 546-551. (Pubitemid 27368899)
134. Regier, D.A.E., Narrow, W.E.E., Kuhl, E.A.E., &, Kupfer, D.J.E., (2011). The conceptual evolution of DSM-5. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.
135. Rice, C., (2009). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders-autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, United States, 2006. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 58 (SS10), 1-20.
136. Rice, C., Schendel, D., Cunniff, C., &, Doernberg, N., (2004). Public health monitoring of developmental disabilities with a focus on the autism spectrum disorders. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet, 125C (1), 22-27. (Pubitemid 38140299)
137. Richler, J., Huerta, M., Bishop, S.L., &, Lord, C., (2010). Developmental trajectories of restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests in children with autism spectrum disorders. Dev Psychopathol, 22 (1), 55-69.
138. Risi, S., Lord, C., Gotham, K., Corsello, C., Chrysler, C., Szatmari, P., ⋯ &, Pickles, A., (2006). Combining information from multiple sources in the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 45 (9), 1094-1103. (Pubitemid 44343065)
139. Robins, D.L., Fein, D., Barton, M.L., &, Green, J.A., (2001). The Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers: An initial study investigating the early detection of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 31 (2), 131-144. (Pubitemid 37490159)
140. Robinson, E.B., Koenen, K.C., McCormick, M.C., Munir, K., Hallett, V., Happe, F., &, Ronald, A., (2011). A multivariate twin study of autistic traits in 12-year-olds: Testing the fractionable autism triad hypothesis. Behav Genet, 42, 245-255.
141. Ronald, A., Happe, F., Bolton, P., Butcher, L.M., Price, T.S., Wheelwright, S., ⋯ &, Plomin, R., (2006). Genetic heterogeneity between the three components of the autism spectrum: A twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 45 (6), 691-699. (Pubitemid 43833102)
142. Ronald, A., Larsson, H., Anckarsater, H., &, Lichtenstein, P., (2011). A twin study of autism symptoms in Sweden. Mol Psychiatry, 16 (10), 1039-1047.
143. Ruiz Calzada, L., Pistrang, N., &, Mandy, W.P., (2012). High-functioning autism and Asperger's disorder: Utility and meaning for families. J Autism Dev Disord, 42 (2), 230-243.
144. Rutter, M., (2011). Research review: Child psychiatric diagnosis and classification: Concepts, findings, challenges and potential. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 52 (6), 647-660.
145. Rutter, M., Le Couteur, A., &, Lord, C., (2003). Autism diagnostic interview-revised-WPS. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
146. Rutter, M., LeCouteur, A., &, Lord, C., (2003). Autism diagnostic interview-revised (ADI-R) manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
147. Rutter, M., &, Sroufe, L.A., (2000). Developmental psychopathology: Concepts and challenges. Dev Psychopathol, 12 (3), 265-296.
148. Sanders, S.J., Ercan-Sencicek, A.G., Hus, V., Luo, R., Murtha, M.T., Moreno-De-Luca, D., ⋯ &, State, M.W., (2011). Multiple recurrent de novo CNVs, including duplications of the 7q11.23 Williams syndrome region, are strongly associated with autism. Neuron, 70 (5), 863-885.
149. Sanders, J.L., &, Morgan, S.B., (1997). Family stress and adjustment as perceived by parents of children and autism or down syndrome: Implications for intervention. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 19 (4), 15-32.
150. Schumann, C.M., Barnes, C.C., Lord, C., &, Courchesne, E., (2009). Amygdala enlargement in toddlers with autism related to severity of social and communication impairments. Biol Psychiatry, 68 (10), 942-949.
151. Scott, F.J., Baron-Cohen, S., Bolton, P., &, Brayne, C., (2002). The CAST (Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test): Preliminary development of a UK screen for mainstream primary- school-age children. Autism, 6 (1), 9-31. (Pubitemid 34187794)
152. Scott-Van Zeeland, A.A., Abrahams, B.S., Alvarez-Retuerto, A.I., Sonnenblick, L.I., Rudie, J.D., Ghahremani, D., ⋯ &, Bookheimer, S.Y., (2010). Altered functional connectivity in frontal lobe circuits is associated with variation in the autism risk gene CNTNAP2. Sci Transl Med, 2 (56), 56ra80.
153. Sharma, S., Woolfson, L.M., &, Hunter, S.C., (2011). Confusion and inconsistency in diagnosis of Asperger syndrome: A review of studies from 1981 to 2010. Autism, doi:.
154. Shattuck, P.T., Durkin, M., Maenner, M., Newschaffer, C., Mandell, D.S., Wiggins, L., ⋯ &, Cuniff, C., (2009). Timing of identification among children with an autism spectrum disorder: Findings from a population-based surveillance study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 48 (5), 474-483.
155. Sheinkopf, S.J., &, Siegel, B., (1998). Home-based behavioral treatment of young children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord, 28 (1), 15-23. (Pubitemid 28166760)
156. Sigman, M., Dijamco, A., Gratier, M., &, Rozga, A., (2004). Early detection of core deficits in autism. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev, 10 (4), 221-233. (Pubitemid 40209456)
157. Silverman, J.L., Yang, M., Lord, C., &, Crawley, J.N., (2010). Behavioural phenotyping assays for mouse models of autism. Nat Rev Neurosci, 11 (7), 490-502.
158. Skuse, D., Warrington, R., Bishop, D., Chowdhury, U., Lau, J., Mandy, W., &, Place, M., (2004). The developmental, dimensional and diagnostic interview (3di): A novel computerized assessment for autism spectrum disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 43 (5), 548-558. (Pubitemid 38812366)
159. Smith, V., Mirenda, P., &, Zaidman-Zait, A., (2007). Predictors of expressive vocabulary growth in children with autism. J Speech Lang Hear Res, 50 (1), 149-160. (Pubitemid 350058630)
160. Sparks, B.F., Friedman, S.D., Shaw, D.W., Aylward, E.H., Echelard, D., Artru, A.A., ⋯ &, Dager, S.R., (2002). Brain structural abnormalities in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Neurology, 59 (2), 184-192. (Pubitemid 34779175)
161. Stewart, A.J., &, Devlin, P.M., (2006). The history of the smallpox vaccine. J Infect, 52 (5), 329-334. (Pubitemid 46137437)
162. Sukhodolsky, D.G., Scahill, L., Gadow, K.D., Arnold, L.E., Aman, M.G., McDougle, C.J., ⋯ &, Vitiello, B., (2008). Parent-rated anxiety symptoms in children with pervasive developmental disorders: Frequency and association with core autism symptoms and cognitive functioning. J Abnorm Child Psychol, 36 (1), 117-128. (Pubitemid 351426652)
163. Susser, E.B., Brown, A., &, Matte, T.D., (1999). Prenatal factors and adult mental and physical health. Can J Psychiatry, 44 (4), 326-334. (Pubitemid 29369354)
164. Swedo, S.E., Cook, E.H., Kaufmann, W.E., Lord, C.E., Rogers, S.J., Wetherby, A., ⋯ &, Wright, H.H., (2012). Commentary from the DSM-5 Workgroup on Neurodevelopmental Disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.
165. Sykes, R., (2001). Penicillin: From discovery to product. Bull World Health Organ, 79 (8), 778-779. (Pubitemid 32776848)
166. Szatmari, P., Liu, X.Q., Goldberg, J., Zwaigenbaum, L., Paterson, A.D., Woodbury-Smith, M., ⋯ &, Thompson, A., (2012). Sex differences in repetitive stereotyped behaviors in autism: Implications for genetic liability. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 159B (1), 5-12.
167. Tadevosyan-Leyfer, O., Dowd, M., Mankoski, R., Winklosky, B., Putnam, S., McGrath, L., ⋯ &, Folstein, S.E., (2003). A principal components analysis of the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 42 (7), 864-872. (Pubitemid 39571851)
168. Vaidya, C.J., Foss-Feig, J., Shook, D., Kaplan, L., Kenworthy, L., &, Gaillard, W.D., (2011). Controlling attention to gaze and arrows in childhood: An fMRI study of typical development and Autism Spectrum Disorders. Dev Sci, 14 (4), 911-924.
169. Veenstra-Vanderweele, J., Christian, S.L., &, Cook, E.H. Jr, (2004). Autism as a paradigmatic complex genetic disorder. Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet, 5, 379-405. (Pubitemid 39366057)
170. Venter, A., Lord, C., &, Schopler, E., (1992). A follow-up study of high-functioning autistic children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 33 (3), 489-507.
171. Virkud, Y.V., Todd, R.D., Abbacchi, A.M., Zhang, Y., &, Constantino, J.N., (2009). Familial aggregation of quantitative autistic traits in multiplex versus simplex autism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet, 150B (3), 328-334.
172. Volkmar, F.R., &, Rutter, M., (1995). Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 34 (8), 1092-1095.
173. Walker, D.R., Thompson, A., Zwaigenbaum, L., Goldberg, J., Bryson, S.E., Mahoney, W.J., ⋯ &, Szatmari, P., (2004). Specifying PDD-NOS: A comparison of PDD-NOS, Asperger syndrome, and autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 43 (2), 172-180.
174. Walsh, K.M., &, Bracken, M.B., (2011). Copy number variation in the dosage-sensitive 16p11.2 interval accounts for only a small proportion of autism incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Genet Med, 13 (5), 377-384.
175. Werner, E., Dawson, G., Osterling, J., &, Dinno, N., (2000). Brief report: Recognition of autism spectrum disorder before one year of age: A retrospective study based on home videotapes. J Autism Dev Disord, 30 (2), 157-162. (Pubitemid 30331610)
176. Wetherby, A., &, Prizant, B.,. (1993). Communication and symbolic behavior scales-Normed edition. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
177. Wiggins, L.D., &, Robins, D.L., (2008). Brief report: Excluding the ADI-R behavioral domain improves diagnostic agreement in toddlers. J Autism Dev Disord, 38 (5), 972-976. (Pubitemid 351601314)
178. Wing, L., &, Gould, J., (1978). Systematic recording of behaviors and skills of retarded and psychotic children. J Autism Child Schizophr, 8 (1), 79-97. (Pubitemid 8321311)
179. Wing, L., &, Gould, J., (1979). Severe impairments of social interaction and associated abnormalities in children: Epidemiology and classification. J Autism Dev Disord, 9 (1), 11-29. (Pubitemid 10004661)
180. Wing, L., Gould, J., &, Gillberg, C., (2011). Autism spectrum disorders in the DSM-V: Better or worse than the DSM-IV? Res Dev Disabil, 32 (2), 768-773.
181. World Health Organization (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
182. World Health Organization (2012). The International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision. ICD-11 Announcement available from: [last accessed 16 January 2012].
183. Yerys, B.E., Wallace, G.L., Sokoloff, J.L., Shook, D.A., James, J.D., &, Kenworthy, L., (2009). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms moderate cognition and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism Res, 2 (6), 322-333.
184. Zarembo, A.,. (2011). Warrior parents fare best in securing autism services. Los Angeles Times. Available from: [last accessed 16 February 2012].