Prebiotics to manage the microbial control of energy homeostasis

Beneficial Microbes

Volumn 2, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 305-318

  Grootaert, C ^a   Marzorati, M ^a   Van den Abbeele, P ^a   Van de Wiele, T ^a   Possemiers, S ^a  

^a GHENT UNIVERSITY   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Diabetes; Homeostasis; Mucosa; Obesity; Prebiotics

Indexed keywords

FASTING INDUCED ADIPOSE FACTOR; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1; LEPTIN; PEPTIDE YY; PREBIOTIC AGENT; REGULATOR PROTEIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

CALORIC INTAKE; DIETARY FIBER; ENERGY METABOLISM; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; HUMAN; INSULIN METABOLISM; INTESTINE EPITHELIUM; INTESTINE FLORA; LIPID METABOLISM; METABOLIC REGULATION; MICROBIAL COMMUNITY; MOLECULAR INTERACTION; NONHUMAN; PERMEABILITY BARRIER; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; DRUG EFFECT; EPITHELIUM CELL; HOMEOSTASIS; INTESTINE MUCOSA; METAGENOME; MICROBIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY;

ENERGY METABOLISM; EPITHELIAL CELLS; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; INTESTINAL MUCOSA; METAGENOME; PREBIOTICS;

EID: 84858593936     PISSN: 18762883     EISSN: 18762891     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3920/BM2011.0020     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Al-Lahham, S.H., Peppelenbosch, M.P., Roelofsen, H., Vonk, R.J. and Venema, K., 2010a. Biological effects of propionic acid in humans; metabolism, potential applications and underlying mechanisms. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids 1801: 1175-1183.
2. Al-Lahham, S.H., Roelofsen, H., Priebe, M., Weening, D., Dijkstra, M., Hoek, A., Rezaee, F., Venema, K. and Vonk, R.J., 2010b. Regulation of adipokine production in human adipose tissue by propionic acid. European Journal of Clinical Investigation 40: 401-407.
3. Are, A., Aronsson, L., Wang, S., Greicius, G., Lee, Y.K., Gustafsson, J.- Ã., Pettersson, S. and Arulampalam, V., 2008. Enterococcus faecalis from newborn babies regulate endogenous PPAR? activity and IL-10 levels in colonic epithelial cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 105: 1943-1948.
4. Aronsson, L., Huang, Y., Parini, P., Korach-André, M., Hakansson, J., Gustafsson, J.A., Pettersson, S., Arulampalam, V. and Rafter, J.J., 2010. Decreased fat storage by Lactobacillus paracasei is associated with increased levels of angiopoietin-like 4 protein (ANGPTL4). PLoS ONE 5: e13078.
5. Arumugam, M., Raes, J., Pelletier, E., Le Paslier, D., Yamada, T., Mende, D.R., Fernandes, G.R., Tap, J., Bruls, T., Batto, J.M., Bertalan, M., Borruel, N., Casellas, F., Fernandez, L., Gautier, L., Hansen, T., Hattori, M., Hayashi, T., Kleerebezem, M., Kurokawa, K., Leclerc, M., Levenez, F., Manichanh, C., Nielsen, H.B., Nielsen, T., Pons, N., Poulain, J., Qin, J., Sicheritz-Ponten, T., Tims, S., Torrents, D., Ugarte, E., Zoetendal, E.G., Wang, J., Guarner, F., Pedersen, O., De Vos, W.M., Brunak, S., Dore, J., Antolin, M., Artiguenave, F., Blottiere, H.M., Almeida, M., Brechot, C., Cara, C., Chervaux, C., Cultrone, A., Delorme, C., Denariaz, G., Dervyn, R., Foerstner, K.U., Friss, C., Van de Guchte, M., Guedon, E., Haimet, F., Huber, W., Van Hylckama-Vlieg, J., Jamet, A., Juste, C., Kaci, G., Knol, J., Lakhdari, O., Layec, S., Le Roux, K., Maguin, E., Merieux, A., Melo Minardi, R., M'Rini, C., Muller, J., Oozeer, R., Parkhill, J., Renault, P., Rescigno, M., Sanchez, N., Sunagawa, S., Torrejon, A., Turner, K., Vandemeulebrouck, G., Varela, E., Winogradsky, Y., Zeller, G., Weissenbach, J., Ehrlich, S.D. and Bork, P., 2011. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature 473: 174-180.
6. Bäckhed, F., Ding, H., Wang, T., Hooper, L.V., Koh, G.Y., Nagy, A., Semenkovich, C.F. and Gordon, J.I., 2004. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 101: 15718-15723.
7. Bäckhed, F., Manchester, J.K., Semenkovich, C.F. and Gordon, J.I., 2007. Mechanisms underlying the resistance to diet-induced obesity in germ-free mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 104: 979-984.
8. Barcelo, A., Claustre, J., Moro, F., Chayvialle, J.A., Cuber, J.C. and Plaisancie, P., 2000. Mucin secretion is modulated by luminal factors in the isolated vascularly perfused rat colon. Gut 46: 218-224.
9. Beena, A. and Prasad, V., 1997. Effect of yogurt and bifidus yogurt fortified with skim milk powder, condensed whey and lactosehydrolysed condensed whey on serum cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels in rats. Journal of Dairy Research 64: 453-457.
10. Berggren, A., Nyman, E.M.G.L., Lundquist, I. and Björck, I.M.E., 1996. Influence of orally and rectally administered propionate on cholesterol and glucose metabolism in obese rats. British Journal of Nutrition 76: 287-294.
11. Bjorksten, B., Naaber, P., Sepp, E. and Mikelsaar, M., 1999. The intestinal microflora in allergic Estonian and Swedish 2-year-old children. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 29: 342-346.
12. Blaser, M.J., 2006. Who are we? Indigenous microbes and the ecology of human diseases. European Molecular Biology Organization Reports 7: 956-960.
13. Bongaerts, G.P., Severijnen, R.S., Tangerman, A., Verrips, A. and Tolboom, J.J., 2000. Bile acid deconjugation by lactobacilli and its effects in patients with a short small bowel. Journal of Gastroenterology 35: 801-804.
14. Brouns, F., Kettlitz, B. and Arrigini, E., 2002. Resistant starch and 'the butyrate revolution'. Trends in Food Science and Technology 13: 251-261.
15. Brown, R., Imran, S.A. and Wilkinson, M., 2009. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulates adipokine and socs3 gene expression in mouse brain and pituitary gland in vivo, and in N-1 hypothalamic neurons in vitro. Journal of Neuroimmunology 209: 96-103.
16. Burcelin, R., Luche, E., Serino, M. and Amar, J., 2009. The gut microbiota ecology: a new opportunity for the treatment of metabolic diseases? Frontiers in Bioscience 14: 5107-5117.
17. Caesar, R., Fak, F. and Backhed, F., 2010. Effects of gut microbiota on obesity and atherosclerosis via modulation of inflammation and lipid metabolism. Journal of Internal Medicine 268: 320-328.
18. Cani, P.D. and Delzenne, N.M., 2007. Gut microflora as a target for energy and metabolic homeostasis. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Medical Care 10: 729-734.
19. Cani, P.D. and Delzenne, N.M., 2009. Interplay between obesity and associated metabolic disorders: new insights into the gut microbiota. Current Opinion in Pharmacology 9: 737-743.
20. Cani, P.D., Amar, J., Iglesias, M.A., Poggi, M., Knauf, C., Bastelica, D., Neyrinck, A.M., Fava, F., Tuohy, K.M., Chabo, C., Waget, A., Delmee, E., Cousin, B., Sulpice, T., Chamontin, B., Ferrieres, J., Tanti, J.F., Gibson, G.R., Casteilla, L., Delzenne, N.M., Alessi, M.C. and Burcelin, R., 2007a. Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance. Diabetes 56: 1761-1772.
21. Cani, P.D., Bibiloni, R., Knauf, C., Neyrinck, A.M., Delzenne, N.M. and Burcelin, R., 2008. Changes in gut microbiota control metabolic endotoxemia-induced inflammation in high-fat diet-induced obesity and diabetes in mice. Diabetes 57: 1470-1481.
22. Cani, P.D., Daubioul, C.A., Reusens, B., Remacle, C., Catillon, G. and Delzenne, N.M., 2005. Involvement of endogenous glucagon-like peptide-1(7-36) amide on glycaemia-lowering effect of oligofructose in streptozotocin-treated rats. Journal of Endocrinology 185: 457-465.
23. Cani, P.D., Dewever, C. and Delzenne, N.M., 2004. Inulin-type fructans modulate gastrointestinal peptides involved in appetite regulation (glucagon-like peptide-1 and ghrelin) in rats. British Journal of Nutrition 92: 521-526.
24. Cani, P.D., Holst, J.J., Drucker, D.J., Delzenne, N.M., Thorens, B., Burcelin, R. and Knauf, C., 2007b. GLUT2 and the incretin receptors are involved in glucose-induced incretin secretion. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 276: 18-23.
25. Cani, P.D., Hoste, S., Guiot, Y. and Delzenne, N.M., 2007c. Dietary non-digestible carbohydrates promote L-cell differentiation in the proximal colon of rats. British Journal of Nutrition 98: 32-37.
26. Cani, P.D., Knauf, C., Iglesias, M.A., Drucker, D.J., Delzenne, N.M. and Burcelin, R., 2006. Improvement of glucose tolerance and hepatic insulin sensitivity by oligofructose requires a functional glucagonlike peptide 1 receptor. Diabetes 55: 1484-1490.
27. Cani, P.D., Lecourt, E., Dewulf, E.M., Sohet, F.M., Pachikian, B.D., Naslain, D., De Backer, F., Neyrinck, A.M. and Delzenne, N.M., 2009a. Gut microbiota fermentation of prebiotics increases satietogenic and incretin gut peptide production with consequences for appetite sensation and glucose response after a meal. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90: 1236-1243.
28. Cani, P.D., Neyrinck, A.M., Fava, F., Knauf, C., Burcelin, R.G., Tuohy, K.M., Gibson, G.R. and Delzenne, N.M., 2007d. Selective increases of bifidobacteria in gut microflora improve high-fat-dietinduced diabetes in mice through a mechanism associated with endotoxaemia. Diabetologia 50: 2374-2383.
29. Cani, P.D., Possemiers, S., Van de Wiele, T., Guiot, Y., Everard, A., Rottier, O., Geurts, L., Naslain, D., Neyrinck, A., Lambert, D.M., Muccioli, G.G. and Delzenne, N.M., 2009b. Changes in gut microbiota control inflammation in obese mice through a mechanism involving GLP-2-driven improvement of gut permeability. Gut 58: 1091-1103.
30. Cario, E. and Podolsky, D.K., 2000. Differential alteration in intestinal epithelial cell expression of toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4 in inflammatory bowel disease. Infection and Immunity 68: 7010-7017.
31. Chen, H., Liu, L.-J., Zhu, J.-J., Xu, B. and Li, R., 2010. Effect of soybean oligosaccharides on blood lipid, glucose levels and antioxidant enzymes activity in high fat rats. Food Chemistry 119: 1633-1636.
32. Cheng, H.-H. and Lai, M.-H., 2000. Fermentation of resistant rice starch produces propionate reducing serum and hepatic cholesterol in rats. Journal of Nutrition 130: 1991-1995.
33. Collado, M.C., Isolauri, E., Laitinen, K. and Salminen, S., 2008. Distinct composition of gut microbiota during pregnancy in overweight and normal-weight women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 88: 894-899.
34. De Luis, D.A., De la Fuente, B., Izaola, O., Conde, R., Gutierrez, S., Morillo, M. and Teba Torres, C., 2010. Randomized clinical trial with a inulin enriched cookie on risk cardiovascular factor in obese patients. Nutrición Hospitalaria 25: 53-59.
35. Delzenne, N.M. and Cani, P.D., 2010. Nutritional modulation of gut microbiota in the context of obesity and insulin resistance: potential interest of prebiotics. International Dairy Journal 20: 277-280
36. Delzenne, N.M. and Cani, P.D., 2011. Gut microbiota and the pathogenesis of insulin resistance. Current Diabetes Reports 11: 154-159.
37. Delzenne, N.M., Cani, P.D. and Neyrinck, A.M., 2007. Modulation of glucagon-like peptide 1 and energy metabolism by inulin and oligofructose: experimental data. Journal of Nutrition 137: S2547-S2551.
38. Delzenne, N.M., Kok, N., Fiordaliso, M., Deboyser, D., Goethals, F. and Roberfroid, M.B., 1993. Dietary fructo-oligosaccharides modifies lipid metabolism in rats. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57: 8205.
39. Dewulf, E., Neyrinck, A.M., Possemiers, S., Deldicque, L., Bindels, L.B., Pachikian, B.D., Sohet, F.M., Francaux, M., Cani, P.D. and Delzenne, N.M., 2010. Involvement of receptors for short chain carboxylic acids - GPR41 and GPR43 - in the control of radipogenesis by prebiotics, modulators of selective intestinal microbiota. Diabetes and Metabolism 36 Suppl. 1: A35.
40. Dutton, S. and Trayhurn, P., 2008. Regulation of angiopoietin-like protein 4/fasting-induced adipose factor (ANGPTL4/FIAF) expression in mouse white adipose tissue and 3T3-L1 adipocytes. British Journal of Nutrition 100: 18-26.
41. Egan, J.M. and Margolskee, R.F., 2008. Taste cells of the gut and gastrointestinal chemosensation. Molecular Interventions 8: 78-81.
42. Egert, M., De Graaf, A.A., Smidt, H., De Vos, W.M. and Venema, K., 2006. Beyond diversity: functional microbiomics of the human colon. Trends in Microbiology 14: 86-91.
43. Fassler, C., Arrigoni, E., Venema, K., Brouns, F. and Amado, R., 2006. In vitro fermentability of differently digested resistant starch preparations. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research 50: 1220-1228.
44. Fiordaliso, M.F., Kok, N., Desager, J.P., Goethals, F., Deboyser, D., Roberfroid, M.B. and Delzenne, N.M., 1995. Dietary oligofructose lowers triacylglycerols, phospholipids and cholesterol in serum and very low density lipoproteins of rats. Lipids 30: 163-167.
45. Fleissner, C.K., Huebel, N., Abd El-Bary, M.M., Loh, G., Klaus, S. and Blaut, M., 2010. Absence of intestinal microbiota does not protect mice from diet-induced obesity. British Journal of Nutrition 104: 919-929.
46. Frayn, K.N., Williams, C.M. and Arner, P., 1996. Are increased plasma non-esterified fatty acid concentrations a risk marker for coronary heart disease and other chronic diseases? Clinical Science 90: 243-253.
47. Furet, J.P., Kong, L.C., Tap, J., Poitou, C., Basdevant, A., Bouillot, J.L., Mariat, D., Corthier, G., Dore, J., Henegar, C., Rizkalla, S. and Clement, K., 2010. Differential adaptation of human gut microbiota to bariatric surgery-induced weight loss links with metabolic and low-grade inflammation markers. Diabetes 59: 3049-3057.
48. Gao, Z.G., Yin, J., Zhang, J., Ward, R.E., Martin, R.J., Lefevre, M., Cefalu, W.T. and Ye, J.P., 2009. Butyrate improves insulin sensitivity and increases energy expenditure in mice. Diabetes 58: 1509-1517.
49. Garrett, W.S., Lord, G.M., Punit, S., Lugo-Villarino, G., Mazmanian, S.K., Ito, S., Glickman, J.N. and Glimcher, L.H., 2007. Communicable ulcerative colitis induced by T-bet deficiency in the innate immune system. Cell 131: 33-45.
50. Gee, J.M. and Johnson, I.T., 2005. Dietary lactitol fermentation increases circulating peptide YY and glucagon-like peptide-1 in rats and humans. Nutrition 21: 1036-1043.
51. Gemen, R., De Vries, J.F. and Slavin, J.L., 2011. Relationship between molecular structure of cereal dietary fiber and health effects: focus on glucose/insulin response and gut health. Nutrition Reviews 69: 22-33.
52. Gilliland, S.E., Nelson, C.R. and Maxwell, C., 1985. Assimilation of cholesterol by Lactobacillus acidophilus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 49: 377-381.
53. Girardin, S.E., Boneca, I.G., Carneiro, L.A., Antignac, A., Jehanno, M., Viala, J., Tedin, K., Taha, M.K., Labigne, A., Zahringer, U., Coyle, A.J., DiStefano, P.S., Bertin, J., Sansonetti, P.J. and Philpott, D.J., 2003. Nod1 detects a unique muropeptide from gram-negative bacterial peptidoglycan. Science 300: 1584-1587.
54. Grootaert, C., Van de Wiele, T., Van Roosbroeck, I., Possemiers, S., Vercoutter-Edouart, A.-S., Verstraete, W., Bracke, M. and Vanhoecke, B., 2011. Bacterial monocultures, propionate, butyrate and H2O2 modulate the expression, secretion and structure of the fasting induced adipose factor in gut epithelial cell lines. Environmental Microbiology 13: 1778-1789.
55. Gupta, G. and Surolia, A., 2007. Collectins: sentinels of innate immunity. Bioessays 29: 452-464.
56. Hooper, L.V., Midtveld, T. and Gordon, J.I., 2002. How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine. Annual Review of Nutrition 22: 283-307.
57. Hooper, L.V., Wong, M.H., Thelin, A., Hansson, L., Falk, P.G. and Gordon, J.I., 2001. Molecular analysis of commensal host-microbial relationships in the intestine. Science 291: 881-884.
58. Hsu, C.K., Liao, J.W., Chung, Y.C., Hsieh, C.P. and Chan, Y.C., 2004. Xylooligosaccharides and fructooligosaccharides affect the intestinal microbiota and precancerous colonic lesion development in rats. Journal of Nutrition 134: 1523-1528.
59. Huang, Q.-H., Hruby, V.J. and Tatro, J.B., 1999. Role of central melanocortins in endotoxin-induced anorexia. Americal Journal of Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 276: R864-R871.
60. Inui, A., Asakawa, A., Bowers, C.Y., Mantovani, G., Laviano, A., Meguid, M.M. and Fujimiya, M., 2004. Ghrelin, appetite, and gastric motility: the emerging role of the stomach as an endocrine organ. FASEB Journal 18: 439-456.
61. Johansson, M.E., Gustafsson, J.K., Sjoberg, K.E., Petersson, J., Holm, L., Sjovall, H. and Hansson, G.C., 2010. Bacteria penetrate the inner mucus layer before inflammation in the dextran sulfate colitis model. PLoS ONE 5: e12238.
62. Khailova, L., Dvorak, K., Arganbright, K.M., Halpern, M.D., Kinouchi, T., Yajima, M. and Dvorak, B., 2009. Bifidobacterium bifidum improves intestinal integrity in a rat model of necrotizing enterocolitis. American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 297: G940-G949.
63. Khoruts, A., Dicksved, J., Jansson, J.K. and Sadowsky, M.J., 2010. Changes in the composition of the human fecal microbiome after bacteriotherapy for recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 44: 354-360.
64. Kim, H.K., Youn, B.S., Shin, M.S., Namkoong, C., Park, K.H., Baik, J.H., Kim, J.B., Park, J.Y., Lee, K.U., Kim, Y.B. and Kim, M.S., 2010. Hypothalamic ANGPTL4/Fiaf is a novel regulator of food intake and body weight. Diabetes 59: 2772-2780.
65. Kim, J.Y., De Wall, E.V., Laplante, M., Azzara, A., Trujillo, M.E., Hofmann, S.M., Schraw, T., Durand, J.L., Li, H., Li, G., Jelicks, L.A., Mehler, M.F., Hui, D.Y., Deshaies, Y., Shulman, G.I., Schwartz, G.J. and Scherer, P.E., 2007. Obesity-associated improvements in metabolic profile through expansion of adipose tissue. Journal of Clinical Investigation 117: 2621-2637.
66. King, D.E., Egan, B.M., Woolson, R.F., Mainous, A.G., Al-Solaiman, Y. and Jesri, A., 2007. Effect of a high-fiber diet vs a fiber-supplemented diet on C-reactive protein level. Archives of Internal Medicine 167: 502-506.
67. Langlands, S.J., Hopkins, M.J., Coleman, N. and Cummings, J.H., 2004. Prebiotic carbohydrates modify the mucosa associated microflora of the human large bowel. Gut 53: 1610-1616.
68. Larsen, N., Vogensen, F.K., Van den Berg, F.W.J., Nielsen, D.S., Andreasen, A.S., Pedersen, B.K., Abu Al-Soud, W., Sorensen, S.J., Hansen, L.H. and Jakobsen, M., 2010. Gut microbiota in human adults with type 2 diabetes differs from non-diabetic adults. PLoS ONE 5: e9085.
69. Ley, R.E., Bäckhed, F., Turnbaugh, P., Lozupone, C.A., Knight, R.D. and Gordon, J.I., 2005. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 102: 11070-11075.
70. Li, X.J., Piao, X.S., Kim, S.W., Liu, P., Wang, L., Shen, Y.B., Jung, S.C. and Lee, H.S., 2007. Effects of chito-oligosaccharide supplementation on performance, nutrient digestibility, and serum composition in broiler chickens. Poultry Science 86: 1107-1114.
71. Lin, Y., Vonk, R.J., Slooff, M.J., Kuipers, F. and Smit, M.J., 1995. Differences in propionate-induced inhibition of cholesterol and triacylglycerol synthesis between human and rat hepatocytes in primary culture. British Journal of Nutrition 74: 197-207.
72. Lucio, M., Fekete, A., Weigert, C., Wagele, B., Zhao, X.J., Chen, J., Fritsche, A., Haring, H.U., Schleicher, E.D., Xu, G.W., Schmitt- Kopplin, P. and Lehmann, R., 2010. Insulin sensitivity is reflected by characteristic metabolic fingerprints - a Fourier transform mass spectrometric non-targeted metabolomics approach. PLoS ONE 5: e13317.
73. Lundell, A.C., Adlerberth, I., Lindberg, E., Karlsson, H., Ekberg, S., Aberg, N., Saalman, R., Hock, B., Steinkasserer, A., Hesselmar, B., Wold, A.E. and Rudin, A., 2007. Increased levels of circulating soluble CD14 but not CD83 in infants are associated with early intestinal colonization with Staphylococcus aureus. Clinical and Experimental Allergy 37: 62-71.
74. Macpherson, A.J. and Uhr, T., 2004. Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria. Science 303: 1662-1665.
75. Mandard, S., Zandbergen, F., Van Straten, E., Wahli, W., Kuipers, F., Muller, M. and Kersten, S., 2006. The fasting-induced adipose factor/ angiopoietin-like protein 4 is physically associated with lipoproteins and governs plasma lipid levels and adiposity. Journal of Biological Chemistry 281: 934-944.
76. Massimino, S.P., McBurney, M.I., Field, C.J., Thomson, A.B.R., Keelan, M., Hayek, M.G. and Sunvold, G.D., 1998. Fermentable dietary fiber increases GLP-1 secretion and improves glucose homeostasis despite increased intestinal glucose transport capacity in healthy dogs. Journal of Nutrition 128: 1786-1793.
77. Maurer, A.D. and Reimer, R.A., 2011. Maternal consumption of highprebiotic fibre or -protein diets during pregnancy and lactation differentially influences satiety hormones and expression of genes involved in glucose and lipid metabolism in offspring in rats. British Journal of Nutrition 105: 329-338.
78. Maurer, A.D., Chen, Q., McPherson, C. and Reimer, R.A., 2009. Changes in satiety hormones and expression of genes involved in glucose and lipid metabolism in rats weaned onto diets high in fibre or protein reflect susceptibility to increased fat mass in adulthood. Journal of Physiology 587: 679-691.
79. Medzhitov, R. and Janeway Jr., C.A., 1997. Innate immunity: the virtues of a nonclonal system of recognition. Cell 91: 295-298.
80. Medzhitov, R. and Janeway Jr., C.A., 2002. Decoding the patterns of self and nonself by the innate immune system. Science 296: 298-300.
81. Mohan, B., Kadirvel, R., Natarajan, A. and Bhaskaran, M., 1996. Effect of probiotic supplementation on growth, nitrogen utilization and serum cholesterol in broilers. British Poultry Science 37: 395-401.
82. Mohlig, M., Koebnick, C., Weickert, M.O., Lueder, W., Otto, B., Steiniger, J., Twilfert, M., Meuser, F., Pfeiffer, A.F. and Zunft, H.J., 2005. Arabinoxylan-enriched meal increases serum ghrelin levels in healthy humans. Hormone and Metabolic Research 37: 303-308.
83. Montalto, M., Maggiano, N., Ricci, R., Curigliano, V., Santoro, L., Di Nicuolo, F., Vecchio, F.M., Gasbarrini, A. and Gasbarrini, G., 2004. Lactobacillus acidophilus protects tight junctions from aspirin damage in HT-29 cells. Digestion 69: 225-228.
84. Musso, G., Gambino, R. and Cassader, M., 2011. Interactions between gut microbiota and host metabolism predisposing to obesity and diabetes. Annual Review of Medicine 62: 361-380.
85. Nakajima, H., Suzuki, Y., Kaizu, H. and Hirota, T., 1992. Cholesterol lowering activity of ropy fermented milk. Journal of Food Science 57: 1327-1329.
86. Neyrinck, A., Possemiers, S., Verstraete, W., De Backer, F., Cani, P. and Delzenne, N., 2010. Interest of chitin-glucan of fungal origin in the control of metabolic alterations inducedby fat diet in mice: involvement of intestinal microbiota. Diabetes and Metabolism 36 Suppl. 1: A105.
87. Neyrinck, A.M., Bindels, L.B., De Backer, F., Pachikian, B.D., Cani, P.D. and Delzenne, N.M., 2009. Dietary supplementation with chitosan derived from mushrooms changes adipocytokine profile in dietinduced obese mice, a phenomenon linked to its lipid-lowering action. International Immunopharmacology 9: 767-773.
88. Neyrinck, A.M., Possemiers, S., Druart, C., De Wiele, T.V., De Backer, F., Cani, P.D., Larondelle, Y. and Delzenne, N.M., 2011. Prebiotic effects of wheat arabinoxylan related to the increase in Bifidobacteria, Roseburia and Bacteroides/Prevotella in diet-induced obese mice. PLoS ONE 6: e20944.
89. Ooi, L.G. and Liong, M.T., 2010. Cholesterol-lowering effects of probiotics and prebiotics: a review of in vivo and in vitro findings. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 11: 2499-2522.
90. Parnell, J.A. and Reimer, R.A., 2009. Weight loss during oligofructose supplementation is associated with decreased ghrelin and increased peptide YY in overweight and obese adults. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 89: 1751-1759.
91. Piche, T., Des Varannes, S.B., Sacher-Huvelin, S., Holst, J.J., Cuber, J.C. and Galmiche, J.P., 2003. Colonic fermentation influences lower esophageal sphincter function in gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 124: 894-902.
92. Possemiers, S., Grootaert, C., Vermeiren, J., Gross, G., Marzorati, M., Verstraete, W. and Van de Wiele, T., 2009. The intestinal environment in health and disease - recent insights on the potential of intestinal bacteria to influence human health. Current Pharmaceutical Design 15: 2051-2065.
93. Pulusani, S.R. and Rao, D.R., 1983. Whole body, liver and plasma cholesterol levels in rats fed Thermophilus bulgaricus and acidophilus milks. Journal of Food Science 48: 280-281.
94. Qi, L., Rimm, E., Liu, S.M., Rifai, N. and Hu, F.B., 2005. Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, cereal fiber, and plasma adiponectin concentration in diabetic men. Diabetes Care 28: 1022-1028.
95. Regand, A., Tosh, S.M., Wolever, T.M.S. and Wood, P.J., 2009. Physicochemical properties of beta-glucan in differently processed oat foods influence glycemic response. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57: 8831-8838.
96. Resta-Lenert, S., Das, S., Batra, S.K. and Ho, S.B., 2011. Muc17 protects intestinal epithelial cells from enteroinvasive E. coli infection by promoting epithelial barrier integrity. American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 300: G1144-G1155.
97. Richelsen, B., Kristensen, K. and Pedersen, S.B., 1996. Long-term (6 months) effect of a new fermented milk product on the level of plasma lipoproteins - a placebo-controlled and double blind study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 50: 811-815.
98. Roberfroid, M., Gibson, G.R., Hoyles, L., McCartney, A.L., Rastall, R., Rowland, I., Wolvers, D., Watzl, B., Szajewska, H., Stahl, B., Guarner, F., Respondek, F., Whelan, K., Coxam, V., Davicco, M.J., Leotoing, L., Wittrant, Y., Delzenne, N.M., Cani, P.D., Neyrinck, A.M. and Meheust, A., 2010. Prebiotic effects: metabolic and health benefits. British Journal of Nutrition 104: 1-63.
99. Rosenberg, E. and Zilber-Rosenberg, I., 2011. Symbiosis and development: the hologenome concept. Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews 93: 56-66.
100. Rummel, C., Inoue, W., Sachot, C., Poole, S., Hubschle, T. and Luheshi, G.N., 2008. Selective contribution of interleukin-6 and leptin to brain inflammatory signals induced by systemic LPS injection in mice. Journal of Comparative Neurology 511: 373-395.
101. Sanz, Y., Santacruz, A. and Gauffin, P., 2010. Gut microbiota in obesity and metabolic disorders. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 69: 434-441.
102. Schmidt-Wittig, U., Enss, M.L., Coenen, M., Gartner, K. and Hedrich, H.J., 1996. Response of rat colonic mucosa to a high fiber diet. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 40: 343-350.
103. Schreiber, O., 2010. Microcirculation, mucus and microbiota in inflammatory bowel disease. Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Medicine 516. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala, Sweden, 58 pp.
104. Seth, A., Yan, F., Polk, D.B. and Rao, R.K., 2008. Probiotics ameliorate the hydrogen peroxide-induced epithelial barrier disruption by a PKC- and MAP kinase-dependent mechanism. American Journal of Physiology - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 294: G1060-G1069.
105. Shimotoyodome, A., Meguro, S., Hase, T., Tokimitsu, I. and Sakata, T., 2000. Short chain fatty acids but not lactate or succinate stimulate mucus release in the rat colon. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A 125: 525-531.
106. Song, Y.J., Sawamura, M., Ikeda, K., Igawa, S. and Yamori, Y., 2000. Soluble dietary fibre improves insulin sensitivity by increasing muscle GLUT-4 content in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 27: 41-45.
107. St-Onge, M.-P., Farnworth, E.R. and Jones, P.J.H., 2000. Consumption of fermented and nonfermented dairy products: effects on cholesterol concentrations and metabolism. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71: 674-681.
108. Storey, D., Lee, A., Bornet, F. and Brouns, F., 2007. Gastrointestinal responses following acute and medium term intake of retrograded resistant maltodextrins, classified as type 3 resistant starch. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61: 1262-1270.
109. Takeda, K., Kaisho, T. and Akira, S., 2003. Toll-like receptors. Annual Review of Immunology 21: 335-376.
110. Taubes, G., 2009. Prosperity's plague. Science 325: 256-260.
111. Thorburn, A., Muir, J. and Proietto, J., 1993. Carbohydrate fermentation decreases hepatic glucose output in healthy subjects. Metabolism - Clinical and Experimental 42: 780-785.
112. Tien, E.S., Davis, J.W. and Van den Heuvel, J.P., 2004. Identification of the CREB-binding protein/p300-interacting protein CITED2 as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor a coregulator. Journal of Biological Chemistry 279: 24053-24063.
113. Tilg, H., 2010. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and microbiota multiple interactions. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 44: S16-S18.
114. Ting, J.P., Lovering, R.C., Alnemri, E.S., Bertin, J., Boss, J.M., Davis, B.K., Flavell, R.A., Girardin, S.E., Godzik, A., Harton, J.A., Hoffman, H.M., Hugot, J.P., Inohara, N., Mackenzie, A., Maltais, L.J., Nunez, G., Ogura, Y., Otten, L.A., Philpott, D., Reed, J.C., Reith, W., Schreiber, S., Steimle, V. and Ward, P.A., 2008. The NLR gene family: a standard nomenclature. Immunity 28: 285-287.
115. Todesco, T., Rao, A.V., Bosello, O. and Jenkins, D.J.A., 1991. Propionate lowers blood glucose and alters lipid-metabolism in healthy subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 54: 860-865.
116. Towle, H.C., 2001. Glucose and cAMP: Adversaries in the regulation of hepatic gene expression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 98: 13476-13478.
117. Trautwein, E.A., Rieckhoff, D. and Erbersdobler, H.F., 1998. Dietary inulin lowers plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerol and alters biliary bile acid profile in hamsters. Journal of Nutrition 128: 1937-1943.
118. Turnbaugh, P.J., Ley, R.E., Mahowald, M.A., Magrini, V., Mardis, E.R. and Gordon, J.I., 2006. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444: 1027-1131.
119. Van den Abbeele, P., Van de Wiele, T., Verstraete, W. and Possemiers, S., 2011. The host selects mucosal and luminal associations of coevolved gut microorganisms: a novel concept. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 35: 681-704.
120. Venter, C.S., Vorster, H.H. and Cummings, J.H., 1990. Effects of dietary propionate on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in healthy volunteers. American Journal of Gastroenterology 85: 549-553.
121. Vijay-Kumar, M., Aitken, J.D., Carvalho, F.A., Cullender, T.C., Mwangi, S., Srinivasan, S., Sitaraman, S.V., Knight, R., Ley, R.E. and Gewirtz, A.T., 2010. Metabolic syndrome and altered gut microbiota in mice lacking Toll-like receptor 5. Science 328: 228-231.
122. Vos, A.P., M'Rabet, L., Stahl, B., Boehm, G. and Garssen, J., 2007. Immune-modulatory effects and potential working mechanisms of orally applied nondigestible carbohydrates. Critical Reviews in Immunology 27: 97-140.
123. Walker, A.W., Ince, J., Duncan, S.H., Webster, L.M., Holtrop, G., Ze, X., Brown, D., Stares, M.D., Scott, P., Bergerat, A., Louis, P., McIntosh, F., Johnstone, A.M., Lobley, G.E., Parkhill, J. and Flint, H.J., 2011. Dominant and diet-responsive groups of bacteria within the human colonic microbiota. ISME Journal 5: 220-230.
124. Weickert, M.O. and Pfeiffer, A.F.H., 2006. Signalling mechanisms linking hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism. Diabetologia 49: 1732-1741.
125. Weickert, M.O. and Pfeiffer, A.F.H., 2008. Metabolic effects of dietary fiber consumption and prevention of diabetes. Journal of Nutrition 138: 439-442.
126. Wellen, K.E. and Hotamisligil, G.S., 2005. Inflammation, stress, and diabetes. Journal of Clinical Investigation 115: 1111-1119.
127. Williams, C.M., 1997. Postprandial lipid metabolism: effects of dietary fatty acids. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56: 679-692.
128. Williams, C.M. and Jackson, K.G., 2002. Inulin and oligofructose: effects on lipid metabolism from human studies. British Journal of Nutrition 87: 261-264.
129. Wood, P.J., Beer, M.U. and Butler, G., 2000. Evaluation of role of concentration and molecular weight of oat beta-glucan in determining effect of viscosity on plasma glucose and insulin following an oral glucose load. British Journal of Nutrition 84: 19-23.
130. Wu, X.K., Ma, C.F., Han, L., Nawaz, M., Gao, F., Zhang, X.Y., Yu, P.B., Zhao, C.A., Li, L.C., Zhou, A.P., Wang, J.A., Moore, J.E., Millar, B.C. and Xu, J.R., 2010. Molecular characterisation of the faecal microbiota in patients with type II diabetes. Current Microbiology 61: 69-78.
131. Xiao, J.Z., Kondo, S., Takahashi, N., Miyaji, K., Oshida, K., Hiramatsu, A., Iwatsuki, K., Kokubo, S. and Hosono, A., 2003. Effects of milk products fermented by Bifidobacterium longum on blood lipids in rats and healthy adult male volunteers. Journal of Dairy Science 86: 2452-2461.
132. Xiong, Y., Miyamoto, N., Shibata, K., Valasek, M.A., Motoike, T., Kedzierski, R.M. and Yanagisawa, M., 2004. Short-chain fatty acids stimulate leptin production in adipocytes through the G proteincoupled receptor GPR41. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 101: 1045-1050.
133. Yoshida, K., Shimizugawa, T., Ono, M. and Furukawa, H., 2002. Angiopoietin-like protein 4 is a potent hyperlipidemia-inducing factor in mice and inhibitor of lipoprotein lipase. Journal of Lipid Research 43: 1770-1772.
134. Zaneveld, J., Turnbaugh, P.J., Lozupone, C., Ley, R.E., Hamady, M., Gordon, J.I. and Knight, R., 2008. Host-bacterial coevolution and the search for new drug targets. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology 12: 109-114.
135. Zhao, X.J., Fritsche, J., Wang, J.S., Chen, J., Rittig, K., Schmitt- Kopplin, P., Fritsche, A., Haring, H.U., Schleicher, E.D., Xu, G.W. and Lehmann, R., 2010. Metabonomic fingerprints of fasting plasma and spot urine reveal human pre-diabetic metabolic traits. Metabolomics 6: 362-374.
136. Zhou, J., Martin, R.J., Tulley, R.T., Raggio, A.M., McCutcheon, K.L., Shen, L., Danna, S.C., Tripathy, S., Hegsted, M. and Keenan, M.J., 2008. Dietary resistant starch upregulates total GLP-1 and PYY in a sustained day-long manner through fermentation in rodents. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology and Metabolism 295: E1160-E1166.