Nicotine vaccines to assist with smoking cessation: Current status of research

Drugs

Volumn 72, Issue 4, 2012, Pages e1-e16

  Raupach, Tobias ^a   Hoogsteder, Philippe H J ^b   Van Schayck, Constant P Onno ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

^b MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Bupropion; Nicotine abuse vaccine; Smoking cessation therapies; Smoking withdrawal; Varenicline

Indexed keywords

3 AMINOMETHYLNICOTINE; 6 (CARBOXYMETHYLUREIDO) (6) NICOTINE; ANTIBODY; KEYHOLE LIMPET HEMOCYANIN; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY NIC311; NIC 002; NICCINE; NICOTINE; NICOTINE DERIVATE IP18; NICOTINE DERIVATIVE; NICOTINE VACCINE; PLACEBO; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ACNE; ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION; ANAPHYLAXIS; ARTICLE; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; CHILL; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG BRAIN LEVEL; DRUG FEVER; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG SAFETY; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; HEADACHE; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOGENICITY; INJECTION SITE ACNE; INJECTION SITE BURNING; INJECTION SITE ERYTHEMA; INJECTION SITE HEAT; INJECTION SITE INDURATION; INJECTION SITE INFLAMMATION; INJECTION SITE PAIN; INJECTION SITE REACTION; INJECTION SITE TENDERNESS; MALAISE; MYALGIA; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION; PATIENT COUNSELING; PHASE 1 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 3 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); REWARD; RIGOR; SMOKING CESSATION; THORAX PAIN; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VACCINATION; VACCINATION REACTION; VIRUS LIKE AGENT; VOMITING; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

EID: 84857269063     PISSN: 00126667     EISSN: 11791950     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/11599900-000000000-00000     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. WHO. WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2011: warning about the dangers of tobacco. Geneva: WHO, 2011 [online]. Available from URL: http://whqlibdoc. who.int/publications/2011/9789240687813-eng.pdf [Accessed 2012 Feb 14]
2. Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, et al. Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors. BMJ 2004 Jun 26; 328 (7455): 1519
3. Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med 2006 Nov; 3 (11): e442
4. Benowitz NL. Nicotine addiction. N Engl J Med 2010 Jun 17; 362 (24): 2295-303
5. Steinberg MB, Schmelzer AC, Richardson DL, et al. The case for treating tobacco dependence as a chronic disease. Ann Intern Med 2008 Apr 1; 148 (7): 554-6 (Pubitemid 351665422)
6. Lancaster T, Stead LF. Individual behavioural counselling for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005 Apr 18; (2): CD001292
7. Raupach T, van Schayck CP. Pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation: current advances and research topics. CNS Drugs 2011 May 1; 25 (5): 371-82
8. Fiore MC, Jaén CR, Baker TB. Treating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. Clinical practice guideline. Rockville (MD): US Department of Health and Human Services; Public Health Service, 2008 May.
9. Ebbert JO, Hays JT, Hurt RD. Combination pharmacotherapy for stopping smoking: what advantages does it offer? Drugs 2010 Apr 16; 70 (6): 643-50
10. Kortmann GL, Dobler CJ, Bizarro L, et al. Pharmacogenetics of smoking cessation therapy. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2010 Jan 5; 153B (1): 17-28
11. Rennard S, Hughes J, Cincirpini PM, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of varenicline for smoking cessation allowing flexible quit dates. Nicotine Tob Res. Epub 2011 Nov 11
12. Lindson N, Aveyard P. An updated meta-analysis of nicotine preloading for smoking cessation: investigating mediators of the effect. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011 Apr; 214 (3): 579-92
13. Balmford J, Borland R, Hammond D, et al. Adherence to and reasons for premature discontinuation from stopsmoking medications: data from the ITC Four-Country Survey. Nicotine Tob Res 2011 Feb; 13 (2): 94-102
14. Shiffman S. Light and intermittent smokers: background and perspective. Nicotine Tob Res 2009 Feb; 11 (2): 122-5
15. Buchhalter AR, Fant RV, Henningfield JE. Novel pharmacological approaches for treating tobacco dependence and withdrawal: current status. Drugs 2008; 68 (8): 1067-88 (Pubitemid 351693676)
16. Vocci FJ, Chiang CN. Vaccines against nicotine: how effective are they likely to be in preventing smoking? CNS Drugs 2001; 15 (7): 505-14 (Pubitemid 32735376)
17. Cornuz J, Zwahlen S, Jungi WF, et al. A vaccine against nicotine for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2008; 3 (6): e2547
18. Wagena EJ, de Vos A, Horwith G, et al. The immunogenicity and safety of a nicotine vaccine in smokers and nonsmokers: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 1/2 trial. Nicotine Tob Res 2008 Jan; 10 (1): 213-8
19. Maurer P, Jennings GT, Willers J, et al. A therapeutic vaccine for nicotine dependence: preclinical efficacy, and phase I safety and immunogenicity. Eur J Immunol 2005 Jul; 35 (7): 2031-40 (Pubitemid 41015042)
20. Hatsukami DK, Rennard S, Jorenby D, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a nicotine conjugate vaccine in current smokers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2005 Nov; 78 (5): 456-67 (Pubitemid 41698900)
21. Hatsukami DK, Jorenby DE, Gonzales D, et al. Immunogenicity and smoking-cessation outcomes for a novel nicotine immunotherapeutic. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011 Mar; 89 (3): 392-9
22. Hukkanen J, Jacob 3rd P, Benowitz NL. Metabolism and disposition kinetics of nicotine. Pharmacol Rev 2005 Mar; 57 (1): 79-115 (Pubitemid 40283970)
23. Kozlowski LT, Mehta NY, Sweeney CT, et al. Filter ventilation and nicotine content of tobacco in cigarettes from Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Tob Control 1998 Winter; 7 (4): 369-75 (Pubitemid 128656178)
24. Benowitz NL, Jacob 3rd P. Daily intake of nicotine during cigarette smoking. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1984 Apr; 35 (4): 499-504 (Pubitemid 14133490)
25. Henningfield JE, Stapleton JM, Benowitz NL, et al. Higher levels of nicotine in arterial than in venous blood after cigarette smoking. Drug Alcohol Depend 1993 Jun; 33 (1): 23-9 (Pubitemid 23219906)
26. Benowitz NL, Jacob 3rd P, Jones RT, et al. Interindividual variability in the metabolism and cardiovascular effects of nicotine in man. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1982 May; 221 (2): 368-72 (Pubitemid 12122952)
27. Benowitz NL, Jacob 3rd P. Nicotine and cotinine elimination pharmacokinetics in smokers and nonsmokers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993 Mar; 53 (3): 316-23 (Pubitemid 23094374)
28. Berkman CE, Park SB, Wrighton SA, et al. In vitro-in vivo correlations of human (S)-nicotine metabolism. Biochem Pharmacol 1995 Aug 8; 50 (4): 565-70
29. Benowitz NL, Swan GE, Jacob 3rd P, et al. CYP2A6 genotype and the metabolism and disposition kinetics of nicotine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006 Nov; 80 (5): 457-67 (Pubitemid 44767882)
30. Benowitz NL, Lessov-Schlaggar CN, Swan GE, et al. Female sex and oral contraceptive use accelerate nicotine metabolism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006 May; 79 (5): 480-8
31. Lerman C, Tyndale R, Patterson F, et al. Nicotine metabolite ratio predicts efficacy of transdermal nicotine for smoking cessation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2006 Jun; 79 (6): 600-8 (Pubitemid 43817942)
32. Patterson F, Schnoll RA, Wileyto EP, et al. Toward personalized therapy for smoking cessation: a randomized placebo-controlled trial of bupropion. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008 Sep; 84 (3): 320-5
33. Balfour DJ. Neural mechanisms underlying nicotine dependence. Addiction 1994 Nov; 89 (11): 1419-23 (Pubitemid 24343900)
34. Picciotto MR, Caldarone BJ, King SL, et al. Nicotinic receptors in the brain: links between molecular biology and behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000 May; 22 (5): 451-65 (Pubitemid 30145613)
35. Rose JE, Behm FM, Westman EC, et al. PET studies of the influences of nicotine on neural systems in cigarette smokers. Am J Psychiatry 2003 Feb; 160 (2): 323-33 (Pubitemid 41110459)
36. Kenny PJ, Markou A. Nicotine self-administration acutely activates brain reward systems and induces a long-lasting increase in reward sensitivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006 Jun; 31 (6): 1203-11 (Pubitemid 43971837)
37. Henningfield JE, Keenan RM. Nicotine delivery kinetics and abuse liability. J Consult Clin Psychol 1993 Oct; 61 (5): 743-50 (Pubitemid 23304586)
38. Samaha AN, Yau WY, Yang P, et al. Rapid delivery of nicotine promotes behavioral sensitization and alters its neurobiological impact. Biol Psychiatry 2005 Feb 15; 57 (4): 351-60 (Pubitemid 40215764)
39. Benowitz NL, Porchet H, Sheiner L, et al. Nicotine absorption and cardiovascular effects with smokeless tobacco use: comparison with cigarettes and nicotine gum. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988 Jul; 44 (1): 23-8
40. Henningfield JE, Miyasato K, Jasinski DR. Abuse liability and pharmacodynamic characteristics of intravenous and inhaled nicotine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1985 Jul; 234 (1): 1-12 (Pubitemid 15034883)
41. Benowitz NL. Pharmacology of nicotine: addiction and therapeutics. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1996; 36: 597-613 (Pubitemid 26168710)
42. Corrigall WA, Franklin KB, Coen KM, et al. The mesolimbic dopaminergic system is implicated in the reinforcing effects of nicotine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1992; 107 (2-3): 285-9
43. Pierce RC, Kumaresan V. The mesolimbic dopamine system: the final common pathway for the reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006; 30 (2): 215-38 (Pubitemid 41821810)
44. Dome P, Lazary J, Kalapos MP, et al. Smoking, nicotine and neuropsychiatric disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010 Mar; 34 (3): 295-342
45. Leonard S, Bertrand D. Neuronal nicotinic receptors: from structure to function. Nicotine Tob Res 2001 Aug; 3 (3): 203-23 (Pubitemid 32821649)
46. Suaud-Chagny MF, Chergui K, Chouvet G, et al. Relationship between dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens and the discharge activity of dopaminergic neurons during local in vivo application of amino acids in the ventral tegmental area. Neuroscience 1992 Jul; 49 (1): 63-72
47. Nestler EJ. Is there a common molecular pathway for addiction? Nat Neurosci 2005 Nov; 8 (11): 1445-9 (Pubitemid 41573654)
48. Di Chiara G, Imperato A. Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988 Jul; 85 (14): 5274-8
49. Picciotto MR, Addy NA, Mineur YS, et al. It is not "either/or": activation and desensitization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors both contribute to behaviors related to nicotine addiction and mood. Prog Neurobiol 2008 Apr; 84 (4): 329-42
50. Brody AL, Mandelkern MA, London ED, et al. Cigarette smoking saturates brain alpha 4 beta 2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006 Aug; 63 (8): 907-15 (Pubitemid 44192334)
51. Epping-Jordan MP, Watkins SS, Koob GF, et al. Dramatic decreases in brain reward function during nicotine withdrawal. Nature 1998 May 7; 393 (6680): 76-9 (Pubitemid 28240257)
52. Shiffman S, West R, Gilbert D. Recommendation for the assessment of tobacco craving and withdrawal in smoking cessation trials. Nicotine Tob Res 2004 Aug; 6 (4): 599-614 (Pubitemid 39248146)
53. Hughes JR, Hatsukami D. Signs and symptoms of tobacco withdrawal. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986 Mar; 43 (3): 289-94 (Pubitemid 16052281)
54. Benowitz NL. Clinical pharmacology of nicotine: implications for understanding, preventing, and treating tobacco addiction. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008 Apr; 83 (4): 531-41 (Pubitemid 351417076)
55. Piasecki TM. Relapse to smoking. Clin Psychol Rev 2006 Mar; 26 (2): 196-215 (Pubitemid 43238388)
56. Piasecki TM, Fiore MC, Baker TB. Profiles in discouragement: two studies of variability in the time course of smoking withdrawal symptoms. J Abnorm Psychol 1998 May; 107 (2): 238-51 (Pubitemid 28237487)
57. Davis JA, Gould TJ. Associative learning, the hippocampus, and nicotine addiction. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2008 Jan; 1 (1): 9-19
58. Krall EA, Garvey AJ, Garcia RI. Smoking relapse after 2 years of abstinence: findings from the VA Normative Aging Study. Nicotine Tob Res 2002 Feb; 4 (1): 95-100 (Pubitemid 34521101)
59. Yang T, Fisher KJ, Li F, et al. Attitudes to smoking cessation and triggers to relapse among Chinese male smokers. BMC Public Health 2006; 6: 65
60. Kenford SL, Fiore MC, Jorenby DE, et al. Predicting smoking cessation: who will quit with and without the nicotine patch. JAMA 1994 Feb 23; 271 (8): 589-94 (Pubitemid 24061691)
61. Bonese KF, Wainer BH, Fitch FW, et al. Changes in heroin self-administration by a rhesus monkey after morphine immunisation. Nature 1974 Dec 20; 252 (5485): 708-10
62. Killian A, Bonese K, Rothberg RM, et al. Effects of passive immunization against morphine on heroin selfadministration. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1978 Sep; 9 (3): 347-52 (Pubitemid 9032938)
63. Orson FM, Kinsey BM, Singh RA, et al. Substance abuse vaccines. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008 Oct; 1141: 257-69
64. Fox BS, Kantak KM, Edwards MA, et al. Efficacy of a therapeutic cocaine vaccine in rodent models. Nat Med 1996 Oct; 2 (10): 1129-32 (Pubitemid 26338633)
65. Pentel PR, Malin DH, Ennifar S, et al. A nicotine conjugate vaccine reduces nicotine distribution to brain and attenuates its behavioral and cardiovascular effects in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000 Jan 1; 65 (1): 191-8 (Pubitemid 30018012)
66. LeSage MG, Keyler DE, Pentel PR. Current status of immunologic approaches to treating tobacco dependence: vaccines and nicotine-specific antibodies. AAPS J 2006; 8 (1): E65-75 (Pubitemid 43349386)
67. Moreno AY, Janda KD. Immunopharmacotherapy: vaccination strategies as a treatment for drug abuse and dependence. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009 Apr; 92 (2): 199-205
68. Matsushita H, Noguchi M, Tamaki E. Conjugate of bovine serum albumin with nicotine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1974 Apr 23; 57 (4): 1006-10
69. Castro A, Monji N, Ali H, et al. Nicotine antibodies: comparison of ligand specificities of antibodies produced against two nicotine conjugates. Eur J Biochem 1980 Mar; 104 (2): 331-40 (Pubitemid 10115573)
70. LeSage MG, Keyler DE, Hieda Y, et al. Effects of a nicotine conjugate vaccine on the acquisition and maintenance of nicotine self-administration in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006 Mar; 184 (3-4): 409-16 (Pubitemid 43255857)
71. Pravetoni M, Keyler DE, Raleigh MD, et al. Vaccination against nicotine alters the distribution of nicotine delivered via cigarette smoke inhalation to rats. Biochem Pharmacol 2011 May 1; 81 (9): 1164-70
72. Pentel P, Malin D. A vaccine for nicotine dependence: targeting the drug rather than the brain. Respiration 2002; 69 (3): 193-7 (Pubitemid 34827829)
73. Keyler DE, Roiko SA, Benlhabib E, et al. Monoclonal nicotine-specific antibodies reduce nicotine distribution to brain in rats: dose-and affinity-response relationships. Drug Metab Dispos 2005 Jul; 33 (7): 1056-61 (Pubitemid 41002789)
74. de Villiers SH, Lindblom N, Kalayanov G, et al. Nicotine hapten structure, antibody selectivity and effect relationships: results from a nicotine vaccine screening procedure. Vaccine 2010 Mar 2; 28 (10): 2161-8
75. Oliver JL, Pashmi G, Barnett P, et al. Development of an anti-cotinine vaccine to potentiate nicotine-based smoking cessation strategies. Vaccine 2007 Oct 16; 25 (42): 7354-62 (Pubitemid 47484018)
76. Sziraki I, Sershen H, Benuck M, et al. The effect of cotinine on nicotine-and cocaine-induced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Neurochem Res 1999 Nov; 24 (11): 1471-8 (Pubitemid 29505957)
77. Buccafusco JJ, Shuster LC, Terry Jr AV. Disconnection between activation and desensitization of autonomic nicotinic receptors by nicotine and cotinine. Neurosci Lett 2007 Feb 8; 413 (1): 68-71 (Pubitemid 46149188)
78. Bardo MT, Green TA, Crooks PA, et al. Nornicotine is self-administered intravenously by rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999 Oct; 146 (3): 290-6 (Pubitemid 29480240)
79. Matsukura S, Sakamoto N, Imura H, et al. Radioimmunoassay of nicotine. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1975 May 19; 64 (2): 574-80
80. Roiko SA, Harris AC, LeSage MG, et al. Passive immunization with a nicotine-specific monoclonal antibody decreases brain nicotine levels but does not precipitate withdrawal in nicotine-dependent rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009 Aug; 93 (2): 105-11
81. Malin DH, Lake JR, Lin A, et al. Passive immunization against nicotine prevents nicotine alleviation of nicotine abstinence syndrome. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2001 Jan; 68 (1): 87-92 (Pubitemid 32239443)
82. Hieda Y, Keyler DE, Ennifar S, et al. Vaccination against nicotine during continued nicotine administration in rats: immunogenicity of the vaccine and effects on nicotine distribution to brain. Int J Immunopharmacol 2000 Oct; 22 (10): 809-19 (Pubitemid 30616407)
83. Cerny EH, Levy R, Mauel J, et al. Preclinical development of a vaccine 'against smoking'. Onkologie 2002 Oct; 25 (5): 406-11 (Pubitemid 36160178)
84. Hieda Y, Keyler DE, Vandevoort JT, et al. Active immunization alters the plasma nicotine concentration in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1997 Dec; 283 (3): 1076-81 (Pubitemid 28016479)
85. de Villiers SH, Lindblom N, Kalayanov G, et al. Active immunization against nicotine suppresses nicotineinduced dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens shell. Respiration 2002; 69 (3): 247-53 (Pubitemid 34827840)
86. Sanderson SD, Cheruku SR, Padmanilayam MP, et al. Immunization to nicotine with a peptide-based vaccine composed of a conformationally biased agonist of C5a as a molecular adjuvant. Int Immunopharmacol 2003 Jan; 3 (1): 137-46 (Pubitemid 36106459)
87. de Villiers SH, Lindblom N, Kalayanov G, et al. Active immunization against nicotine alters the distribution of nicotine but not the metabolism to cotinine in the rat. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2004 Oct; 370 (4): 299-304 (Pubitemid 40063829)
88. Keyler DE, Hieda Y, St Peter J, et al. Altered disposition of repeated nicotine doses in rats immunized against nicotine. Nicotine Tob Res 1999 Sep; 1 (3): 241-9
89. Satoskar SD, Keyler DE, LeSage MG, et al. Tissuedependent effects of immunization with a nicotine conjugate vaccine on the distribution of nicotine in rats. Int Immunopharmacol 2003 Jul; 3 (7): 957-70 (Pubitemid 36694866)
90. Hieda Y, Keyler DE, VanDeVoort JT, et al. Immunization of rats reduces nicotine distribution to brain. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999 Apr; 143 (2): 150-7 (Pubitemid 29187639)
91. Pentel PR, Dufek MB, Roiko SA, et al. Differential effects of passive immunization with nicotine-specific antibodies on the acute and chronic distribution of nicotine to brain in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2006 May; 317 (2): 660-6
92. Carrera MR, Ashley JA, Hoffman TZ, et al. Investigations using immunization to attenuate the psychoactive effects of nicotine. Bioorg Med Chem 2004 Feb 1; 12 (3): 563-70 (Pubitemid 38102225)
93. Malin DH, Alvarado CL, Woodhouse KS, et al. Passive immunization against nicotine attenuates nicotine discrimination. Life Sci 2002 Apr 26; 70 (23): 2793-8 (Pubitemid 34312012)
94. Moreno AY, Azar MR, Warren NA, et al. A critical evaluation of a nicotine vaccine within a self-administration behavioral model. Mol Pharm 2010 Apr 5; 7 (2): 431-41
95. Lindblom N, de Villiers SH, Kalayanov G, et al. Active immunization against nicotine prevents reinstatement of nicotine-seeking behavior in rats. Respiration 2002; 69 (3): 254-60 (Pubitemid 34827841)
96. Lindblom N, de Villiers SH, Semenova S, et al. Active immunisation against nicotine blocks the reward facilitating effects of nicotine and partially prevents nicotine withdrawal in the rat as measured by dopamine output in the nucleus accumbens, brain reward thresholds and somatic signs. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2005 Nov; 372 (3): 182-94 (Pubitemid 41668748)
97. Malin DH, Moon WD, Goyarzu P, et al. Passive immunization against nicotine attenuates somatic nicotine withdrawal syndrome in the rat. Nicotine Tob Res 2010 Apr; 12 (4): 438-44
98. Keyler DE, Roiko SA, Earley CA, et al. Enhanced immunogenicity of a bivalent nicotine vaccine. Int Immunopharmacol 2008 Nov; 8 (11): 1589-94
99. Tuncok Y, Hieda Y, Keyler DE, et al. Inhibition of nicotine-induced seizures in rats by combining vaccination against nicotine with chronic nicotine infusion. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2001 May; 9 (2): 228-34 (Pubitemid 32852324)
100. Roiko SA, Harris AC, Keyler DE, et al. Combined active and passive immunization enhances the efficacy of immunotherapy against nicotine in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008 Jun; 325 (3): 985-93 (Pubitemid 351724343)
101. Cornish KE, Harris AC, LeSage MG, et al. Combined active and passive immunization against nicotine: minimizing monoclonal antibody requirements using a target antibody concentration strategy. Int Immunopharmacol 2011 Nov; 11 (11): 1809-15
102. Corrigall WA. Nicotine self-administration in animals as a dependence model. Nicotine TobRes 1999Mar; 1 (1): 11-20
103. LeSage MG, Keyler DE, Collins G, et al. Effects of continuous nicotine infusion on nicotine self-administration in rats: relationship between continuously infused and selfadministered nicotine doses and serum concentrations. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003 Nov; 170 (3): 278-86 (Pubitemid 37491607)
104. Bevins RA, Wilkinson JL, Sanderson SD. Vaccines to combat smoking. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2008Apr; 8 (4): 379-83 (Pubitemid 351570404)
105. Trial watch: Xenova's TA-NIC vaccine shows promise. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2004 Aug; 3 (4): 386
106. Cerny EH, Cerny T. Vaccines against nicotine. Hum Vaccin 2009 Apr; 5 (4): 200-5
107. Nabi Biopharmaceuticals announces results of first NicVAX phase III clinical trial: smoking cessation immunotherapy failed to meet primary endpoint. Rockville (MD): Nabi Pharmaceuticals, 2011
108. Gunnell D, Irvine D, Wise L, et al. Varenicline and suicidal behaviour: a cohort study based on data from the General Practice Research Database. BMJ 2009; 339: b3805
109. Ross S, Williams D. Bupropion: risks and benefits. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2005 Nov; 4 (6): 995-1003 (Pubitemid 41671598)
110. Hall W. The prospects for immunotherapy in smoking cessation. Lancet 2002 Oct 5; 360 (9339): 1089-91
111. Brischoux F, Chakraborty S, Brierley DI, et al. Phasic excitation of dopamine neurons in ventral VTAby noxious stimuli. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009 Mar 24; 106 (12): 4894-9
112. Hnasko TS, Sotak BN, Palmiter RD. Morphine reward in dopamine-deficient mice. Nature 2005 Dec 8; 438 (7069): 854-7 (Pubitemid 41753067)
113. Naqvi NH, Rudrauf D, Damasio H, et al. Damage to the insula disrupts addiction to cigarette smoking. Science 2007 Jan 26; 315 (5811): 531-4 (Pubitemid 46175760)
114. Rose JE, Mukhin AG, Lokitz SJ, et al. Kinetics of brain nicotine accumulation in dependent and nondependent smokers assessed with PET and cigarettes containing 11C-nicotine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010 Mar 16; 107 (11): 5190-5
115. Fagerström K. Determinants of tobacco use and renaming the FTND to the Fagerström Test for Cigarette Dependence. Nicotine Tob Res 2012; 14 (1): 75-9
116. Rose JE, Behm FM, Westman EC, et al. Dissociating nicotine and nonnicotine components of cigarette smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000 Sep; 67 (1): 71-81
117. Hughes JR, Rose GL, Callas PW. Nicotine is more reinforcing in smokers with a past history of alcoholism than in smokers without this history. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2000 Nov; 24 (11): 1633-8
118. Rose JE. Nicotine and nonnicotine factors in cigarette addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006Mar; 184 (3-4): 274-85 (Pubitemid 43255844)
119. ClemensKJ,Caille S, Stinus L, et al. The addition of five minor tobacco alkaloids increases nicotine-induced hyperactivity, sensitization and intravenous self-administration in rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2009 Nov; 12 (10): 1355-66
120. Belluzzi JD, Wang R, Leslie FM. Acetaldehyde enhances acquisition of nicotine self-administration in adolescent rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2005 Apr; 30 (4): 705-12 (Pubitemid 40397076)
121. van Amsterdam J, Talhout R, Vleeming W, et al. Contribution of monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition to tobacco and alcohol addiction. Life Sci 2006Oct 19; 79 (21): 1969-73 (Pubitemid 44528577)
122. Barrett SP. The effects of nicotine, denicotinized tobacco, and nicotine-containing tobacco on cigarette craving, withdrawal, and self-administration in male and female smokers. Behav Pharmacol 2010 Mar; 21 (2): 144-52
123. Benowitz NL, Hall SM, Herning RI, et al. Smokers of lowyield cigarettes do not consume less nicotine. N Engl J Med 1983 Jul 21; 309 (3): 139-42 (Pubitemid 13069522)
124. Caggiula AR, Donny EC, White AR, et al. Cue dependency of nicotine self-administration and smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2001 Dec; 70 (4): 515-30 (Pubitemid 34131646)
125. Shiffman S, Ferguson SG, Gwaltney CJ. Immediate hedonic response to smoking lapses: relationship to smoking relapse, and effects of nicotine replacement therapy. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006 Mar; 184 (3-4): 608-18 (Pubitemid 43255877)
126. Malaiyandi V, Sellers EM, Tyndale RF. Implications of CYP2A6 genetic variation for smoking behaviors and nicotine dependence. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2005 Mar; 77 (3): 145-58 (Pubitemid 40269130)
127. Schoedel KA, Hoffmann EB, Rao Y, et al. Ethnic variation in CYP2A6 and association of genetically slow nicotine metabolism and smoking in adult Caucasians. Pharmacogenetics 2004 Sep; 14 (9): 615-26 (Pubitemid 39281816)
128. Benowitz NL, Perez-Stable EJ, Herrera B, et al. Slower metabolism and reduced intake of nicotine from cigarette smoking in Chinese-Americans. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002 Jan 16; 94 (2): 108-15 (Pubitemid 34121290)
129. Tyndale RF, Sellers EM. Genetic variation in CYP2A6-mediated nicotine metabolism alters smoking behavior. Ther Drug Monit 2002 Feb; 24 (1): 163-71 (Pubitemid 34106747)
130. Schnoll RA, Patterson F, Wileyto EP, et al. Nicotine metabolic rate predicts successful smoking cessation with transdermal nicotine: a validation study. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009 Mar; 92 (1): 6-11
131. Hughes JR, Keely J, Naud S. Shape of the relapse curve and long-term abstinence among untreated smokers. Addiction 2004 Jan; 99 (1): 29-38 (Pubitemid 38142221)
132. West R, Sohal T. "Catastrophic" pathways to smoking cessation: findings from national survey. Bmj 2006 Feb 25; 332 (7539): 458-60 (Pubitemid 43342044)
133. Gonzales D, Rennard SI, Nides M, et al. Varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006 Jul 5; 296 (1): 47-55
134. Zatonski W, Cedzynska M, Tutka P, et al. An uncontrolled trial of cytisine (Tabex) for smoking cessation. Tob Control 2006 Dec; 15 (6): 481-4 (Pubitemid 44935576)
135. West R, Zatonski W, Cedzynska M, et al. Placebocontrolled trial of cytisine for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 2011 Sep 29; 365 (13): 1193-200
136. Leader AE, Lerman C, Cappella JN. Nicotine vaccines: will smokers take a shot at quitting? Nicotine Tob Res 2010 Apr; 12 (4): 390-7
137. Lu D, Hickey AJ. Pulmonary vaccine delivery. Expert Rev Vaccines 2007 Apr; 6 (2): 213-26 (Pubitemid 46607457)
138. Davis SS. Nasal vaccines. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2001 Sep 23; 51 (1-3): 21-42 (Pubitemid 32763070)
139. Hall W, Gartner C. Ethical and policy issues in using vaccines to treat and prevent cocaine and nicotine dependence. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2011 May; 24 (3): 191-6
140. HasmanA,HolmS.Nicotine conjugate vaccine: is there a right to a smoking future? J Med Ethics 2004 Aug; 30 (4): 344-5 (Pubitemid 39157508)