The Acid-Base Effects of the Contemporary Western Diet: An Evolutionary Perspective

Seldin and Giebisch's The Kidney

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1621-1644

  Sebastian, Anthony ^a   Frassetto, Lynda A ^a   Curtis Morris, R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 74549173048     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-012088488-9.50060-7     Document Type: Chapter

References (248)

1. Abes M., Sarihan H., Madenci E. Evaluation of bone mineral density with dual x-ray absorptiometry for osteoporosis in children with bladder augmentation. J Pediatr Surg 2003, 38:230-232.
2. Adams N.D., Gray R.W., Lemann J. The calciuria of increased fixed acid production in humans: Evidence against a role for parathyroid hormone and 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D. Calcif Tissue Int 1979, 28:233-238.
3. Adler S., Lindeman R.D., Yiengst M.J., Beard E., Shock N.W. Effect of acute acid loading on urinary acid excretion by the aging human kidney. J Lab Clin Med 1969, 72:278-289.
4. Agarwal B.N., Cabebe F.G. Renal acidification in elderly subjects. Nephron 1980, 26:291-295.
5. Allen N.E., Appleby P.N., Davey G.K., Kaaks R., Rinaldi S., Key T.J. The associations of diet with serum insulin-like growth factor I and its main binding proteins in 292 women meat-eaters, vegetarians, and vegans. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002, 11:1441-1448.
6. Almond M.K., Iles R.A., Cohen R.D. Hepatic glutamine metabolism and acid-base regulation. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1992, 18:237-240.
7. Alpern R.J. Trade-offs in the adaptation to acidosis. Kidney Int 1995, 47:1205-1215.
8. Alpern R.J., Sakhaee S. The clinical spectrum of chronic metabolic acidosis: homeostatic mechanisms produce significant morbidity. Am J Kidney Dis 1997, 29:291-302.
9. Ammann P., Laib A., Bonjour J.P., Meyer J.M., Ruegsegger P., Rizzoli R. Dietary essential amino acid supplements increase bone strength by influencing bone mass and bone microarchitecture in ovariectomized adult rats fed an isocaloric low-protein diet. J Bone Miner Res 2002, 17:1264-1272.
10. Arnett T.R., Dempster D.W. Effect of pH on bone resorption by rat osteoclasts in vitro. Endocrinology 1986, 119:119-124.
11. Asplin J.R., Favus M.J., Coe F.L. Nephrolithiasis. The Kidney 2000, 1774-1819. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. B.M. Brenner (Ed.).
12. Ballmer P.E., McNurlan M.A., Hulter H.N., Anderson S.E., Garlick P.J., Krapf R. Chronic metabolic acidosis decreases albumin synthesis and induces negative nitrogen balance in humans. J Clin Invest 1995, 95:39-45.
13. Barzel U.S. The effect of excessive acid feeding on bone. Calcif Tissue Res 1969, 4:94-100.
14. Barzel U.S. Acid-induced osteoporosis: an experimental model of human osteoporosis. Calcif Tissue Res 1976, 21:417-422. (suppl).
15. Barzel U.S. The skeleton as an ion exchange system: implicaitons for the role of acid-base imbalance in the genesis of osteoporosis. J Bone Miner Res 1995, 10:1431-1436.
16. Barzel U.S., Jowsey J. The effects of chronic acid and alkali administration on bone turnover in adult rats. Clin Sci 1969, 36:517-524.
17. Bell J.D., Margen S., Calloway D.H. Ketosis, weight loss, uric acid, and nitrogen balance in obese women fed single nutrients at low caloric levels. Metabolism 1969, 18:193-208.
18. Bernstein D.S., Wachman A., Hattner R.S. Acid base balance in metabolic bone disease. Osteoporosis 1970, 207-216. Grune & Stratton, New York. U.S. Barzel (Ed.).
19. Bettice J.A. Skeletal carbon dioxide stores during metabolic acidosis. Am J Physiol 1984, 247:F326-F330.
20. Blair H.C., Teitelbaum S.L., Ghiselli R., Gluck S. Osteoclastic bone resorption by a polarized vacuolar proton pump. Science 1989, 245:855-857.
21. Blatherwick N.R. The specific role of foods in relation to the composition of the urine. Arch Intern Med 1914, 14:409-450.
22. Boonen S., Rosen C., Bouillon R., Sommer A., McKay M., Rosen D., et al. Musculoskeletal effects of the recombinant human IGF-I/IGF binding protein-3 complex in osteoporotic patients with proximal femoral fracture: a double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:1593-1599.
23. How Humans Evolved 2000, W. W. Norton and Company, New York. 2nd ed. R. Boyd, J.B. Silk (Eds.).
24. Brandao-Burch A., Utting J.C., Orriss I.R., Arnett T.R. Acidosis inhibits bone formation by osteoblasts in vitro by preventing mineralization. Calcif Tissue Int 2005, 77:167-174.
25. Brenner B.M., Meyer T.W., Hostetter T.H. Dietary protein intake and the progressive nature of kidney disease: the role of hemodynamically mediated glomerular injury in the pathogenesis of progressive glomerular sclerosis in aging, renal ablation, and intrinsic renal disease. N Engl J Med 1982, 307:652-659.
26. Breslau N.A., Brinkley L., Hill K.D., Pak C.Y.C. Relationship of animal protein-rich diet to kidney stone formation and calcium metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1988, 66:140-146.
27. Brungger M., Hulter H.N., Krapf R. Effect of chronic metabolic acidosis on the growth hormone/IGF-1 endocrine axis: new cause of growth hormone insensitivity in humans. Kidney Int 1997, 51:216-221.
28. Brungger M., Hulter H.N., Krapf R. Effect of chronic metabolic acidosis on thyroid hormone homeostasis in humans. Am J Physiol 1997, 272:F648-F653.
29. Burnell J.M. Changes in bone sodium and carbonate in metabolic acidosis and alkalosis in the dog. J Clin Invest 1971, 50:327-331.
30. Bushinsky D.A. Internal exchanges of hydrogen ions: bone. The Regulation of Acid-Base Balance 1989, 69-88. Raven Press, New York. D.W. Seldin, G. Giebisch (Eds.).
31. Bushinsky D.A. Stimulated osteoclastic and suppressed osteoblastic activity in metabolic but not respiratory acidosis. Am J Physiol 1995, 268:C80-C88.
32. Bushinsky D.A. Metabolic alkalosis decreases bone calcium efflux by suppressing osteoclasts and stimulating osteoblasts. Am J Physiol 1996, 271:F216-F222.
33. Bushinsky D.A. Acid-base imbalance and the skeleton. Nutritional Aspects of Osteoporosis 1998, 208-217. Springer, New York. P. Burckhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes, R.P. Heaney (Eds.).
34. Bushinsky D.A., Chabala J.M., Gavrilov K.L., Levi-Setti R. Effects of in vivo metabolic acidosis on midcortical bone ion composition. Am J Physiol 1999, 277:F813-F819.
35. Bushinsky D.A., Frick K.K. The effects of acid on bone. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2000, 9:369-379.
36. Bushinsky D.A., Lam B.C., Nespeca R., Sessler N.E., Grynpas M.D. Decreased bone carbonate content in response to metabolic, but not respiratory, acidosis. Am J Physiol 1993, 265:F530-F536.
37. Bushinsky D.A., Lechleider R.J. Mechanism of proton-induced bone calcium release: calcium carbonate dissolution. Am J Physiol 1987, 253:F998-F1005.
38. Bushinsky D.A., Levi-Setti R., Coe F.L. Ion microprobe determination of bone surface elements: effects of reduced medium pH. Am J Physiol 1986, 250:F1090-F1097.
39. Bushinsky D.A., Smith S.B., Gavrilov K.L., Gavrilov L.F., Li J., Levi-Setti R. Chronic acidosisinduced alteration in bone bicarbonate and phosphate. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2003, 285:F532-F539.
40. Bushinsky D.A., Wolbach W., Sessler N.E., Mogilevsky R., Levi-Setti R. Physicochemical effects of acidosis on bone calcium flux and surface ion composition. J Bone Miner Res 1993, 8:93-102.
41. Calo L., Castrignano R., Davis P.A., Carraro G., Pagnin E., Giannini S., et al. Role of insulin-like growth factor-I in primary osteoporosis: a correlative study. J Endocrinol Invest 2000, 23:223-227.
42. Caudarella R., Vescini F., Rizzoli E., Buffa A. Bone mass study in patients with idiopathic calcium stone disease. Kidney Stones: Proceedings of the European Symposium on Urolithiasis 1999, Editoriale BIOS, Parma, Italy. L. Borghi, T. Meschi, A. Briganti, T. Schianchi, A. Novarini (Eds.).
43. Cersosimo E., Williams P.E., Radosevich P.M., Hoxworth B.T., Lacy W.W., Abumrad N.N. Role of glutamine in adaptations in nitrogen metabolism during fasting. Am J Physiol 1986, 250:E622-E628.
44. Cheema-Dhadli S., Jungas R.L., Halperin M.L. Regulation of urea synthesis by acid-base balance in vivo: role of NH3 concentration. Am J Physiol 1987, 252:F221-F225.
45. Clark E.C., Nath K.A., Hostetter M.K., Hostetter T.H. Role of ammonia in tubulointerstitial injury. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1990, 16:315-321.
46. Clemmons D.R., Seek M.M., Underwood L.E. Supplemental essential amino acids augment the somatomedin-C/insulin-like growth factor I response to refeeding after fasting. Metabolism 1985, 34:391-395.
47. Coe F.L., Firpo J.J., Hollandsworth D.L., Segil L., Canterbury J.M., Reiss E. Effect of acute and chronic metabolic acidosis on serum immunoreactive parathyroid hormone in man. Kidney Int 1975, 8:262-272.
48. Cogan M.G., Carneiro A.V., Tatsuno J., Colman J., Krapf R., Morris R.C., et al. Normal diet NaCl variation can affect the renal set-point for plasma pH-(HCO3-) maintenance. J Am Soc Nephrol 1990, 1:193-199. (see comments).
49. Cordain L., Miller J.B., Eaton S.B., Mann N., Holt S.H., Speth J.D. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 71:682-692.
50. Cordain L. Cereal grains: humanity's double-edged sword. Evolutionary Aspects of Nutrition and Health 1999, 19-73. Karger, Basel. A.P. Simopoulos (Ed.).
51. Cosmides L., Tooby J., Barkow J.H. The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture 1992, Oxford University Press, New York.
52. Dawkins R. Science and Sensibility. Queen Elizabeth Hall Lecture March 24, 1998, London, Series title Sounding the Century (What Will the Twentieth Century Leave to It Heirs?). Available at: http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/ Dawkins/Work/Articles/1998-03-24science_and_sensibility.shtml.
53. Dawkins R. Unweaving the Rainbow: Science, Delusion and the Appetite for Wonder 1998, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.
54. Dawson-Hughes B., Harris S.S. Calcium intake influences the association of protein intake with rates of bone loss in elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 2002, 75:773-779.
55. Delling G., Donath K. Morphometric, electron microscopic and physico-chemical investigation in experimental osteoporosis induced by chronic acidosis in the rat. Virchows Arch A Pathol Pathol Anat 1973, 358:321-330.
56. Devine A., Dick I.M., Islam A.F., Dhaliwal S.S., Prince R.L. Protein consumption is an important predictor of lower limb bone mass in elderly women. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 81:1423-1428.
57. Dobzhansky T.G. Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. Am Biol Teacher 1973, 35:125-129.
58. Domrongkitchaiporn S., Pongsakul C., Stitchantrakul W., Sirikulchayanonta V.V., Ongphiphadhanakul B., Radinahamed P., et al. Bone mineral density and histology in distal renal tubular acidosis. Kidney Int 2001, 59:1086-1093.
59. Eaton S.B., Cordain L. Evolutionary aspects of diet: old genes, new fuels. Nutritional changes since agriculture. World Rev Nutr Diet 1997, 81:26-37.
60. Eaton S.B., Eaton S.B., Konner M.J. Paleolithic nutrition revisited: a twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997, 51:207-216. (see comments).
61. Eaton S.B., Eaton S.B., Konner M.J. Paleolithic nutrition revisited. Evolutionary Medicine 1999, 313-332. Oxford University Press, New York. W.R. Trevathan, E.O. Smith, J.J. McKenna (Eds.).
62. Eaton S.B., Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition. A consideration of its nature and current implications. N Engl J Med 1985, 312:283-289.
63. Eaton S.B., Konner M., Shostak M. Stone agers in the fast lane: chronic degenerative diseases in evolutionary perspective. Am J Med 1988, 84:739-749.
64. Eaton S.B., Nelson D.A. Calcium in evolutionary perspective. Am J Clin Nutr 1991, 54:281S-287S.
65. Eiam-Ong S., Kurtzman N.A. Metabolic acidosis and bone disease. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1994, 20:72-80.
66. Eustace J.A., Astor B., Muntner P.M., Ikizler T.A., Coresh J. Prevalence of acidosis and inflammation and their association with low serum albumin in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2004, 65:1031-1040.
67. Faulkner K.G. Bone matters: are density increases necessary to reduce fracture risk?. J Bone Miner Res 2000, 15:183-187.
68. Feskanich D., Willett W.C., Stampfer M.J., Colditz G.A. Protein consumption and bone fractures in women. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 143:472-479.
69. Forbes G.B. The adult decline in lean body mass. Hum Biol 1976, 48:161-173.
70. Frassetto L., Morris R.C., Sebastian A. Effect of age on blood acid-base composition in adult humans: role of age-related renal functional decline. Am J Physiol 1996, 271:1114-1122.
71. Frassetto L., Morris R.C., Sebastian A. Potassium bicarbonate reduces urinary nitrogen excretion in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997, 82:254-259.
72. Frassetto L., Morris C., Sebastian A. Effects of diet acid load on bone health. Nutritional Aspects of Osteoporosis 2004, 273-295. Elsevier/Academic Press, Amsterdam. 2nd ed. P. Burkhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes, R.P. Heaney (Eds.).
73. Frassetto L., Morris R., Sebastian A. The natural dietary potassium intake of humans: the effect of diet-induced potassium-replete, chloride-sufficient, chronic low-grade metabolic alkalosis, or stone age diets for the 21st century. Nutritional Aspects of Osteoporosis 2004, 349-365. Elsevier/Academic Press, Amsterdam. 2nd ed. P. Burkhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes, R.P. Heaney (Eds.).
74. Frassetto L., Morris R.C., Sebastian A. Long-term persistence of the urine calcium-lowering effect of potassium bicarbonate in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:831-834.
75. Frassetto L., Morris R.C., Sellmeyer D.E., Todd K., Sebastian A. Diet, evolution and aging-the pathophysiologic effects of the post-agricultural inversion of the potassium-tosodium and base-to-chloride ratios in the human d. Eur J Nutr 2001, 40:200-213.
76. Frassetto L.A., Nash E., Morris R.C., Sebastian A. Comparative effects of potassium chloride and bicarbonate on thiazide-induced reduction in urinary calcium excretion. Kidney Int 2000, 58:748-752.
77. Frassetto L., Sebastian A. Age and systemic acid-base equilibrium: analysis of published data. J Gerontol 1996, 51A:B91-B99.
78. Frassetto L.A., Sebastian A. Diet-induced potassium-replete chloride-sufficient chronic lowgrade metabolic alkalosis as the naturally-selected optimal systemic. The First Bay Area Clinical Research Symposium Book of Abstracts 2003, 65.
79. Frassetto L.A., Todd K.M., Morris R.C., Sebastian A. Estimation of net endogenous noncarbonic acid production in humans from diet potassium and protein contents. Am J Clin Nutr 1998, 68:576-583.
80. Frassetto L.A., Todd K.M., Morris R.C., Sebastian A. Worldwide incidence of hip fracture in elderly women: relation to consumption of animal and vegetable foods. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000, 55:M585-M592.
81. Frassetto L., Morris R.C., Sebastian A. Potassium bicarbonate increases serum growth hormone concentrations in postmenopausal women. J Am Soc Nephrol 1996, 10:1349. (abstract).
82. Fujisawa M., Nakamura I., Yamanaka N., Gotoh A., Hara I., Okada H., et al. Changes in calcium metabolism and bone demineralization after orthotopic intestinal neobladder creation. J Urol 2000, 163:1108-1111.
83. Gadola L., Noboa O., Marquez M.N., Rodriguez M.J., Nin N., Boggia J., et al. Calcium citrate ameliorates the progression of chronic renal injury. Kidney Int 2004, 65:1224-1230.
84. Gafter U., Kraut J.A., Lee D.B.N., Silis V., Walling M.W., Kurokawa K., et al. Effect of metabolic acidosis on intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Am J Physiol 1980, 239:G480-G484.
85. Garibotto G., Russo R., Sofia A., Sala M.R., Sabatino C., Moscatelli P., et al. Muscle protein turnover in chronic renal failure patients with metabolic acidosis or normal acid-base balance. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1996, 22:58-61.
86. Gaulin S.J. A Jarman/Bell model of primate feeding niches. Hum Ecol 1979, 7:1-20.
87. Gaulin S.J.C., Konner M. On the natural diet of primates, including humans. Nutrition and the Brain 1977, Vol. 1:1-86. Raven Press, New York. R. Wurtman, J. Wurtman (Eds.).
88. Gennari F.J. Is metabolic acidosis a risk factor in the progression of renal insufficiency?. Pathogenetic and Therapeutic Aspects of Chronic Renal Failure 1997, 33-44. Marcel Dekker, New York. K.M. Koch, G. Stein (Eds.).
89. Gennari F.J. Acid-base balance in dialysis patients. Semin Dial 2000, 13:235-239.
90. Giannini S., Nobile M., Sartori L., Aragona F., Ruffato A., Dalle C.L., et al. Bone density and skeletal metabolism in patients with orthotopic ileal neobladder. J Am Soc Nephrol 1997, 8:1553-1559.
91. Giannini S., Nobile M., Sartori L., Calo L., Tasca A., Dalle C.L., et al. Bone density and skeletal metabolism are altered in idiopathic hypercalciuria. Clin Nephrol 1998, 50:94-100.
92. Goldhaber P., Rabadjija L. H+ stimulation of cell-mediated bone resorption in tissue culture. Am J Physiol 1987, 253:E90-E98.
93. Goodman A.D., Lemann J., Lennon E.J., Relman A.S. Production, excretion, and net balance of fixed acid in patients with renal acidosis. J Clin Invest 1965, 44:495-506.
94. Gordon E.E. Effect of acute metaoblic acidosis and alkalosis on acetate and citrate metabolism in the rat. J Clin Invest 1963, 42:137-142.
95. Gougeon-Reyburn R., Lariviere F., Marliss E.B. Effects of bicarbonate supplementation on urinary mineral excretion during very low energy diets. Am J Med Sci 1991, 302:67-74.
96. Gougeon-Reyburn R., Marliss E.B. Effects of sodium bicarbonate on nitrogen metabolism and ketone bodies during very low energy protein diets in obese subjects. Metabolism 1989, 38:1222-1230.
97. Graham K.A., Reaich D., Channon S.M., Downie S., Goodship T.H. Correction of acidosis in hemodialysis decreases whole-body protein degradation. J Am Soc Nephrol 1997, 8:632-637.
98. Guder W.G., Haussinger D., Gerok W. Renal and hepatic nitrogen metabolism in systemic acid base regulation. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 1987, 25:457-466.
99. Halperin M.L. Metabolism and acid-base physiology. Artif Organs 1982, 6:357-362.
100. Hannaford M.C., Leiter L.A., Josse R.G., Goldstein M.B., Marliss E.B., Halperin M.L. Protein wasting due to acidosis of prolonged fasting. Am J Physiol 1982, 243:E251-E256.
101. Hannan M.T., Tucker K.L., Dawson-Hughes B., Cupples L.A., Felson D.T., Kiel D.P. Effect of dietary protein on bone loss in elderly men and women: the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. J Bone Miner Res 2000, 15:2504-2512.
102. Haugen E., Nath K.A. The involvement of oxidative stress in the progression of renal injury. Blood Purif 1999, 17:58-65.
103. Haussinger D. Organization of hepatic nitrogen metabolism and its relation to acid-base homeostasis. Klin Wochenschr 1990, 68:1096-1101.
104. Heaney R.P. Long-latency deficiency disease: insights from calcium and vitamin D. Am J Clin Nutr 2003, 78:912-919.
105. Heaney R.P., Recker R.R., Saville P.D. Calcium balance and calcium requirements in middleaged women. Am J Clin Nutr 1977, 30:1603-1611.
106. Hene R.J., Koomans H.A., Boer P., Dorhout Mees EJ. Adaptation to chronic potassium loading in normal man. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1986, 12:165-172.
107. Hilton J.G., Goodbody M., Kruesi O.R. The effect of prolonged administration of ammonium chloride on the blood acid-base equilibrium of geriatric subjects. J Am Geriatr Soc 1955, 3:697-703.
108. Holland B., Welch A.A., Unwin I.D., Buss D.H., Paul A.A., Southgate D.A.T. McCance and Widdowson's The Composition of Foods 1991, rev. extended, Royal Society of Chemistry and Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Cambridge. 5 ed.
109. Hostetter T.H. Progression of renal disease and renal hypertrophy. Annu Rev Physiol 1995, 57:263-278.
110. Houillier P., Normand M., Froissart M., Blanchard A., Jungers P., Paillard M. Calciuric response to an acute acid load in healthy subjects and hypercalciuric calcium stone formers. Kidney Int 1996, 50:987-997.
111. Hu J.-F., Zhao X.-H., Parpia B., Campbell T.C. Dietary intakes and urinary excretion of calcium and acids: a cross-sectional study of women in China. Am J Clin Nutr 1993, 58:398-406.
112. Huang H.S., Chen C.F., Chien C.T., Chen J. Possible biphasic changes of free radicals in ethylene glycol-induced nephrolithiasis in rats. BJU International 2000, 85:1143-1149.
113. Jaffe H.L., Bodansky A., Chandler J.P. Ammonium chloride decalcification, as modified by calcium intake. The relation between generalized osteoporosis and osteitis fibrosa. J Exp Med 1932, 56:823-834.
114. Jehle P.M., Schulten K., Schulz W., Jehle D.R., Stracke S., Manfras B., et al. Serum levels of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-1 to -6 and their relationship to bone metabolism in osteoporosis patients. Eur J Intern Med 2003, 14:32-38.
115. Kant A.K. Consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods by adult Americans: nutritional and health implications. The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 72:929-936.
116. Kerstetter J.E., Mitnick M.E., Gundberg C.M., Caseria D.M., Ellison A.F., Carpenter T.O., et al. Changes in bone turnover in young women consuming different levels of dietary protein. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999, 84:1052-1055.
117. Kleinman J.G., Lemann J. Acid production. Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism 1987, 159-173. McGraw-Hill, New York. M.H. Maxwell, C.R. Kleeman, R.G. Narins (Eds.).
118. Kramer H.J., Meyer-Lehnert H., Mohaupt M. Role of calcium in the progression of renal disease: experimental evidence. Kidney Int 1992, 41(Suppl 36):S2-S7.
119. Krapf R., Seldin D.W., Alpern R.J. Clinical syndromes of metabolic acidosis. The Kidney: Physiology and Pathophysiology 2000, 2073-2130. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. D.W. Seldin, G. Giebisch (Eds.).
120. Krapf R., Vetsch R., Vetsch W., Hulter H.N. Chronic metabolic acidosis increases the serum concentration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in humans by stimulating its production rate. J Clin Invest 1992, 90:2456-2463.
121. Kraut J.A., Mishler D.R., Kurokawa K. Effect of colchicine and calcitonin on calcemic response to metabolic acidosis. Kidney Int 1984, 25:608-612.
122. Kraut J.A., Mishler D.R., Singer F.R., Goodman W.G. The effects of metabolic acidosis on bone formation and bone resorption in the rat. Kidney Int 1986, 30:694-700.
123. Krieger N.S., Sessler N.E., Bushinsky D.A. Acidosis inhibits osteoblastic and stimulates osteoclastic activity in vitro. Am J Physiol 1992, 262:F442-F448.
124. Kurtz I., Maher T., Hulter H.N., Schambelan M., Sebastian A. Effect of diet on plasma acid- base composition in normal humans. Kidney Int 1983, 24:670-680.
125. Lefebvre A., De Vernejoul M.C., Gueris J., Goldfarb B., Graulet A.M., Morieux C. Optimal correction of acidosis changes progression of dialysis osteodystrophy. Kidney Int 1989, 36:1112-1118.
126. Lemann J. Relationship between urinary calcium and net acid excretion as determined by dietary protein and potassium: a review. Nephron 1999, 81(Suppl 1):18-25.
127. Lemann J., Adams N.D., Gray R.W. Urinary calcium excretion in human beings. N Engl J Med 1979, 301:535-541.
128. Lemann J., Bushinsky D.A., Hamm L.L. Bone buffering of acid and base in humans. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2003, 285:F811-F832.
129. Lemann J., Gray R.W., Pleuss J.A. Potassium bicarbonate, but not sodium bicarbonate, reduces urinary calcium excretion and improves calcium balance in healthy men. Kidney Int 1989, 35:688-695.
130. Lemann J., Lennon E.J., Goodman A.D., Litzow J.R., Relman A.S. The net balance of acid in subjects given large loads of acid or alkali. J Clin Invest 1965, 44:507-517.
131. Lemann J., Litzow J.R., Lennon E.J. The effects of chronic acid loads in normal man: Further evidence for participation of bone mineral in the defense against chronic metabolic acidosis. J Clin Invest 1966, 45:1608-1614.
132. Lemann J., Litzow J.R., Lennon E.J. Studies of the mechanism by which chronic metabolic acidosis augments urinary calcium excretion in man. J Clin Invest 1967, 46:1318-1328.
133. Lemann J., Pleuss J.A., Gray R.W. Potassium causes calcium retention in healthy adults. J Nutr 1993, 123:1623-1626.
134. Lemann J., Relman A.S. The relation of sulfur metabolism to acid-base balance and electrolyte excretion: the effects of DL-methionine in normal man. J Clin Invest 1959, 38:2215-2223.
135. Lennon E.J., Lemann J., Litzow J.R. The effect of diet and stool composition on the net external acid balance of normal subjects. J Clin Invest 1966, 45:1601-1607.
136. Licata A.A., Bou E., Bartter F.C., Cox J. Effects of dietary protein on urinary calcium in normal subjects and in patients with nephrolithiasis. Metabolism 1979, 28:895-900.
137. Lindeman R.D. Anatomic and physiologic age changes in the kidney. Exp Gerontol 1986, 21:379-406.
138. Litzow J.R., Lemann J., Lennon E.J. The effect of treatment of acidosis on calcium balance in patients with chronic azotemic renal disease. J Clin Invest 1967, 46:280-286.
139. Lotspeich W.D. Renal hypertrophy in metaboic acidosis and its relation to ammonia excretion. Am J Physiol 1965, 208:1135-1142.
140. Macdonald H.M., New S.A., Fraser W.D., Campbell M.K., Reid D.M. Low dietary potassium intakes and high dietary estimates of net endogenous acid production are associated with low bone mineral density in premenopausal women and increased markers of bone resorption in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 81:923-933.
141. Macleay J.M., Olson J.D., Turner A.S. Effect of dietary-induced metabolic acidosis and ovariectomy on bone mineral density and markers of bone turnover. J Bone Miner Metab 2004, 22:561-568.
142. Madias N.E., Adrogue H.J., Horowitz G.L., Cohen J.J., Schwartz W.B. A redefinition of normal acid-base equilibrium in man: carbon dioxide as a key determinant of normal plasma bicarbonate concentration. Kidney Int 1979, 16:612-618.
143. Mann N. Dietary lean red meat and human evolution. Eur J Nutr 2000, 39:71-79.
144. Marangella M., Di S.tefano M., Casalis S., Berutti S., D'Amelio P., Isaia G.C. Effects of potassium citrate supplementation on bone metabolism. Calcif Tissue Int 2004, 74:330-335.
145. Maurer M., Riesen W., Muser J., Hulter H.N., Krapf R. Neutralization of Western diet inhibits bone resorption independently of K intake and reduces cortisol secretion in humans. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2003, 284:F32-F40.
146. May R.C., Kelly R.A., Mitch W.E. Metabolic acidosis stimulates protein degradation in rat muscle by a glucocorticoid-dependent mechanism. J Clin Invest 1986, 77:614-621.
147. May R.C., Kelly R.A., Mitch W.E. Mechanisms for defects in muscle protein metabolism in rats with chronic uremia. Influence of metabolic acidosis. J Clin Invest 1987, 79:1099-1103.
148. May R.C., Bailey J.L., Mitch W.E., Masud T., England B.K. Glucocorticoids and acidosis stimulate protein and amino acid catabolism in vivo. Kidney Int 1996, 49:679-683.
149. McSherry E., Morris R.C. Attainment and maintenance of normal stature with alkali therapy in infants and children with classic renal tubular acidosis. J Clin Invest 1978, 61:509-527.
150. Menendez J.A., Decker J.P., Lupu R. In support of fatty acid synthase (FAS) as a metabolic oncogene: extracellular acidosis acts in an epigenetic fashion activating FAS gene expression in cancer cells. J Cell Biochem 2005, 94:1-4.
151. Metz J.A., Anderson J.J.B., Gallagher P.N. Intakes of calcium, phosphorus, and protein, and physical-activity level are related to radial bone mass in young adult women. Am J Clin Nutr 1993, 58:537-542.
152. Meyer H.E., Pedersen J.I., Loken E.B., Tverdal A. Dietary factors and the incidence of hip fracture in middle-aged Norwegians. A prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 1997, 145:117-123.
153. Mitch W.E., Medina R., Grieber S., May R.C., England B.K., Price S.R., et al. Metabolic acidosis stimulates muscle protein degradation by activating the adenosine triphosphate-dependent pathway involving ubiquitin and proteasomes. J Clin Invest 1994, 93:2127-2133.
154. Mitch W.E. Mechanisms causing loss of lean body mass in kidney disease. Am J Clin Nutr 1998, 67:359-366.
155. Morris R.C., Frassetto L.A., Schmidlin O., Forman A., Sebastian A. Expression of osteoporosis as determined by diet-disordered electrolyte and acid-base metabolism. Nutritional Aspects of Osteoporosis 2001, 357-378. Academic Press, San Diego. P. Burckhardt, B. Dawson-Hughes, R.P. Heaney (Eds.).
156. Munger R.G., Cerhan J.R., Chiu B.C. Prospective study of dietary protein intake and risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1999, 69:147-152.
157. Myburgh K.H., Noakes T.D., Roodt M., Hough F.S. Effect of exercise on the development of osteoporosis in adult rats. J Appl Physiol 1989, 66:14-19.
158. Najjar F., Zhou H., Morimoto T., Bruns J.B., Li H.S., Liu W., et al. Dietary K+ regulates apical membrane expression of maxi-K channels in rabbit cortical collecting duct. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2005, 289:F922-F932.
159. Nakhoul F., Zinger C., Winaver J., Better O.S. Impaired urinary acidification in the elderly. J Am Soc Nephrol 1994, 5:370.
160. Nath K.A., Hostetter M.K., Hostetter T.H. Pathophysiology of chronic tubulo-interstitial disease in rats. Interactions of dietary acid load, ammonia, and complement component C3. J Clin Invest 1985, 76:667-675.
161. Nath K.A., Hostetter M.K., Hostetter T.H. Increased ammoniagenesis as a determinant of progressive renal injury. Am J Kidney Dis 1991, 17:654-657.
162. Nath K.A., Salahudeen A.K., Clark E.C., Hostetter M.K., Hostetter T.H. Role of cellular metabolites in progressive renal injury. Kidney Int Suppl 1992, 38:S109-S113.
163. Nelson Bone density in three archaeological populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 2000, 63:198.
164. New S.A. Acid-base homeostasis and the skeleton: is there a fruit and vegetable link to bone health?. Nutritional Aspects of Bone Health 2003, 291-311. Royal Society of Chemistry, London. S.A. New, J.-P. Bonjour (Eds.).
165. New S.A., Bolton-Smith C., Grubb D.A., Reid D.M. Nutritional influences on bone mineral density: a cross-sectional study in premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 1997, 65:1831-1839.
166. New S.A., Macdonald H.M., Campbell M.K., Martin J.C., Garton M.J., Robins S.P., et al. Lower estimates of net endogenous non-carbonic acid production are positively associated with in dexes of bone health in premenopausal and perimenopausal wome. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 79:131-138.
167. New SA, Macdonald HM, Grubb DA, Reid DM. Positive association between net endogenous noncarbonic acid production (NEAP) and bone health: further support for the importance of the skeleton to acid-base balance. Paper presented at: 1st Joint Meeting of the International Bone and Mineral Society and the European Calcified Tissue Society.
168. New S.A., Robins S.P., Campbell M.K., Martin J.C., Garton M.J., Bolton-Smith C., et al. Dietary influences on bone mass and bone metabolism: further evidence of a positive link between fruit and vegetable consumption and bone health?. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 71:142-151.
169. Newell G.K., Beauchener E. Effects of dietary calcium level, acid stress, and age on renal, serum, and bone responses of rats. J Nutr 1975, 105:1039-1047.
170. Nicar M.J., Peterson R., Pak C.Y.C. Use of potassium citrate as potassium supplement during thiazide therapy of calcium nephrolithiasis. J Urol 1984, 131:430-433.
171. Nutritional Aspects of Bone Health Nutritional Aspects of Bone Health 2003, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge UK. S.A. New, J.-P. Bonjour (Eds.).
172. Odvina C.V., Preminger G.M., Lindberg J.S., Moe O.W., Pak C.Y. Long-term combined treatment with thiazide and potassium citrate in nephrolithiasis does not lead to hypokalemia or hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis. Kidney Int 2003, 63:240-247.
173. Oettinger C.W., Oliver J.C. Normalization of uremic acidosis in hemodialysis patients with a high bicarbonate dialysate. J Am Soc Nephrol 1993, 3:1804-1807.
174. Oh M.S. Irrelevance of bone buffering to acid-base homeostasis in chronic metabolic acidosis. Nephron 1991, 59:7-10.
175. Oh M.S., Carroll H.J. External balance of electrolytes and acids and alkali. The Kidney: Physiology and Pathophysiology 2000, 33-59. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. D.W. Seldin, G. Giebisch (Eds.).
176. Oliver J., Koelz A.M., Costello J., Bourke E. Acid-base induced alterations in glutamine metabolism and ureogenesis in perfused muscle and liver of the rat. Eur J Clin Invest 1977, 7:445-449.
177. Osther P.J., Bollerslev J., Hansen A.B., Engel K., Kildeberg P. Pathophysiology of incomplete renal tubular acidosis in recurrent renal stone formers: evidence of disturbed calcium, bone and citrate metabolism. Urol Res 1993, 21:169-173.
178. Pak C.Y.C., Peterson R., Sakhaee K., Fuller C., Preminger G., Reisch J. Correction of hypocitraturia and prevention of stone formation by combined thiazide and potassium citrate therapy in thiazide-unresponsive hypercalciuric neph. Am J Med 1985, 79:284-288.
179. Papadoyannakis N.J., Stefanidis C.J., McGeown M. The effect of the correction of metabolic acidosis on nitrogen and potassium balance of patients with chronic renal failure. Am J Clin Nutr 1984, 40:423-627.
180. Perez G.O., Oster J.R., Vaamonde C.A. Serum potassium concentration in acidemic states. Nephron 1981, 27:233-243.
181. Perry S., Tylavsky F.A., Ryder K.A., Cauley J., Lee J.S., Pope S., et al. The net acid-producing American diet adversely affects whole body and hip bone density assessed cross-sectionally in older individuals. Poster presentation SA306. Abstracts of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, 27th Annual Meeting 2005.
182. Perzigian A.J. Osteoporotic bone loss in two prehistoric Indian populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 1973, 39:87-95.
183. Pitts R.F. Production and excretion of ammonia in relation to acid-base balance. Handbook of Physiology, Section 8 1973, 455-496. American Physiological Society, Washington, DC. . Orloff, R.W. Berliner (Eds.).
184. Preminger G.M., Sakhaee K., Pak C.Y.C. Hypercalciuria and altered
185. Promislow J.H., Goodman-Gruen D., Slymen D.J., Barrett-Connor E. Protein consumption and bone mineral density in the elderly: the Rancho Bernardo Study. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 155:636-644.
186. Prynne C.J., Ginty F., Paul A.A., Bolton-Smith C., Stear S.J., Jones S.C., et al. Dietary acid-base balance and intake of bone-related nutrients in Cambridge teenagers. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004, 58:1462-1471.
187. Rabelink T.J., Koomans H.A., Hene R.J., Dorhout Mees E.J. Early and late adjustment to potassium loading in humans. Kidney Int 1990, 38:942-947.
188. Reaich D., Channon S.M., Scrimgeour C.M., Daley S.E., Wilkinson R., Goodship T.H.J. Correction of acidosis in humans with CRF decreases protein degradation and amino acid oxidation. Am J Physiol 1993, 265:E230-E235.
189. Reaich D., Channon S.M., Scrimgeour C.M., Goodship T.H.J. Ammonium chloride-induced acidosis increases protein breakdown and amino acid oxidation in humans. Am J Physiol 1992, 263:E735-E739.
190. Recker R.R., Heaney R.P. The effect of milk supplements on calcium metabolism, bone metabolism and calcium balance. Am J Clin Nutr 1985, 41:254-263.
191. Relman A.S., Lennon E.J., Lemann J. Endogenous production of fixed acid and the measurement of net balance of acid in normal subjects. J Clin Invest 1961, 40:1621-1630.
192. Remer T., Dimitriou T., Manz F. Dietary potential renal acid load and renal net acid excretion in healthy, free-living children and adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr 2003, 77:1255-1260.
193. Remer T., Manz F. Potential renal acid load of foods and its influence on urine pH. J Am Diet Assoc 1995, 95:791-797.
194. Rico H., Aznar L., Hernandez E.R., Seco C., Sanchez-Atrio A., Villa L.F., et al. Effects of potassium bicarbonate supplementation on axial and peripheral bone mass in rats on strenuous treadmill training exercise. Calcif Tissue Int 1999, 65:242-245.
195. Ross F.P., Teitelbaum S.L. Osteoclast biology. Osteoporosis 2001, 73-105. Academic Press, San Diego. R. Marcus, D. Feldman, J. Kelsey (Eds.).
196. Ruff C.B., Trinkaus E., Walker A., Larsen C.S. Postcranial robusticity in Homo. I. Temporal trends and mechanical interpretation. Am J Phys Anthropol 1993, 91:21-53.
197. Rustom R., Grime J.S., Costigan M., Maltby P., Hughes A., Taylor W., et al. Oral sodium bicarbonate reduces proximal renal tubular peptide catabolism, ammoniogenesis, and tubular damage in renal patients. Ren Fail 1998, 20:371-382.
198. Rustom R., Wang B., McArdle F., Shalamanova L., Alexander J., McArdle A., et al. Oxidative stress in a novel model of chronic acidosis in LLC-PK1 cells. Nephron Exp Nephrol 2003, 95:e13-e23.
199. Saigal C.S., Joyce G., Timilsina A.R. Direct and indirect costs of nephrolithiasis in an employed population: opportunity for disease management?. Kidney Int 2005, 68:1808-1814.
200. Sakhaee K., Maalouf N.M., Abrams S.A., Pak C.Y. Effects of potassium alkali and calcium supplementation on bone turnover in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:3528-3533.
201. Sakhaee K., Williams R.H., Oh M.S., Padalino P., Adams-Huet B., Whitson P., et al. Alkali absorption and citrate excretion in calcium nephrolithiasis. J Bone Miner Res 1993, 8:789-794.
202. Sanchez A., Libman J. Renal acidification mechanism disorders in patients with osteoporosis. Medicina 1995, 55:197-202.
203. Schrier R.W., Harris D.C.H., Chan L., Shapiro J.I., Caramelo C. Tubular hypermetabolism as a factor in the progression of chronic renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 1988, 12:243-249.
204. Schurch M.A., Rizzoli R., Slosman D., Vadas L., Vergnaud P., Bonjour J.P. Protein supplements increase serum insulin-like growth factor-I levels and attenuate proximal femur bone loss in patients with recent hip fracture. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1998, 128:801-809. [see comments].
205. Schwartz W.R., Hall P.W., Hays R.M., Relman A.S. On the mechanism of acidosis in chronic renal disease. J Clin Invest 1959, 38:39-52.
206. Sebastian A. Evolution, diet, acid-base, and bone. The GCRC Journal 2004, General Clinical Research Center, UConn Health Center, Farmington, CT.
207. Sebastian A., Frassetto L.A., Sellmeyer D.E., Merriam R.L., Morris R.C. Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural Homo sapiens and their hominid ancestors. Am J Clin Nutr 2002, 76:1308-1316.
208. Sebastian A., Frassetto L.A., Sellmeyer D.E., Morris R.C. Diet-induced potassium-replete chloride-sufficient chronic low-grade metabolic alkalosis as the naturally-selected optimal systemic acid-base state of humans. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001, 12:140A. (abstract).
209. Sebastian A., Frassetto L.A., Sellmeyer D.E., Morris R.C. Acid-grain: why contemporary diets are net acid-producing. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001, 12:140A. (abstract).
210. Sebastian A., Frassetto L.A., Sellmeyer D.E., Morris R.C. The evolution-informed optimal dietary potassium intake of human beings greatly exceeds current and recommended intakes. Seminars in Nephrology 2006, 26:447-453.
211. Sebastian A., Harris S.T., Ottaway J.H., Todd K.M., Morris R.C. Improved mineral balance and skeletal metabolism in postmenopausal women treated with potassium bicarbonate. N Engl J Med 1994, 330:1776-1781.
212. Sebastian A., Hernandez R.E., Portale A.A., Colman J., Tatsuno J., Morris R.C. Dietary potassium influences kidney maintenance of serum phosphorus concentration. Kidney Int 1990, 37:1341-1349.
213. Sebastian A., Sellmeyer D.E., Stone K.L., Cummings S.R. Dietary ratio of animal to vegetable protein and rate of bone loss and risk of fracture in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001, 74:411-412.
214. Sellmeyer D.E., Cummings S.R., Tylavsky F., Bauer D.C., Kritchevskey S., Newman A., et al. Arterialized venous serum bicarbonate associates positively with bone mineral density and negatively with rate of bone loss in older men and women. Department of Medicine 2005, Division of Endocrinology, University of California, San Francisco.
215. Sellmeyer D.E., Schloetter M., Sebastian A. Potassium citrate prevents increased urine calcium excretion and bone resorption induced by a high sodium chloride diet. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002, 87:2008-2012.
216. Sellmeyer D.E., Stone K.L., Sebastian A., Cummings S.R. A high ratio of dietary animal to vegetable protein increases the rate of bone loss and the risk of fracture in postmenopausal women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. Am J Clin Nutr 2001, 73:118-122.
217. Smit E., Nieto F.J., Crespo C.J., Mitchell P. Estimates of animal and plant protein intake in US adults: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1991. J Am Diet Assoc 1999, 99:813-820.
218. Souci S.W., Fachmann W., Kraut H. Food Composition and Nutrition Tables 1986, Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart.
219. Souci S.W., Fachmann W., Kraut H. Food Composition and Nutrition Tables 2000, FLCRC Press/Medpharm, Boca Raton.
220. Teti A., Blair H.C., Schlesinger P., Grano M., Zambonin-Zallone A., Kahn A.J., et al. Extracellular protons acidify osteoclasts, reduce cytosolic calcium, and promote expression of cellmatrix attachment structures. J Clin Invest 1989, 84:773-780.
221. Tobian L. The Volhard Lecture: potassium and sodium in hypertension. J Hypertens 1988, 6(Suppl 4):S12-S24.
222. Tobian L. The protective effects of high potassium diets in hypertension, and the mechanisms by which high-NaCl diets produce hypertension. Hypertension: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management 1995, 299-312. Raven Press, New York. J.H. Laragh, B.M. Brenner (Eds.).
223. Tolins J.P., Hostetter M.K., Hostetter T.H. Hypokalemic nephropathy in the rat. Role of ammonia in chronic tubular injury. J Clin Invest 1987, 79:1447-1458.
224. Trinchieri A., Zanetti G., Curro A., Lizzano R. Effect of potential renal acid load of foods on calcium metabolism of renal calcium stone formers. Eur Urol 2001, 39(Suppl 2):33-36.
225. Tsuruoka S., Schwartz G.J., Ioka T., Yamamoto H., Ando H., Fujimura A. Citrate reverses cyclosporin A-induced metabolic acidosis and bone resorption in rats. Am J Nephrol 2005, 25:233-239.
226. Tucker K.L., Hannan M.T., Chen H., Cupples L.A., Wilson P.W.F., Kiel D.P. Potassium, magnesium, and fruit and vegetable intakes are associated with greater bone mineral density in elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 1999, 69:727-736.
227. Tucker K.L., Hannan M.T., Kiel D.P. The acid-base hypothesis: diet and bone in the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Eur J Nutr 2001, 40:231-237.
228. Tungsanga K., Sriboonlue P., Futrakul P., Yachantha C., Tosukhowong P. Renal tubular cell damage and oxidative stress in renal stone patients and the effect of potassium citrate treatment. Urol Res 2005, 33:65-69.
229. Tylavsky F.A., Holliday K., Danish R., Womack C., Norwood J., Carbone L. Fruit and vegetable intakes are an independent predictor of bone size in early pubertal children. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 79:311-317.
230. Upton P.K., L'Estrange J.L. Effects of chronic hydrochloric and lactic acid administrations on food intake, blood acid-base balance and bone composition of the rat. Q J Exp Physiol 1977, 62:223-235.
231. Uribarri J., Douyon H., Oh M.S. A re-evaluation of the urinary parameters of acid production and excretion in patients with chronic renal acidosis. Kidney Int 1995, 47:624-627.
232. Van Goidsenhoven G.M.T., Gray O.V., Price A.V., Sanderson P.H. The effect of prolonged administration of large doses of sodium bicarbonate in man. Clin Sci 1954, 13:383-401.
233. Vatanparast H., Baxter-Jones A., Faulkner R.A., Bailey D.A., Whiting S.J. Positive effects of vegetable and fruit consumption and calcium intake on bone mineral accrual in boys during growth from childhood to adolescence: the University of Saskatchewan Pediatric Bone Mineral Accrual Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:700-706.
234. Vazquez J.A., Adibi S.A. Protein sparing during treatment of obesity: ketogenic versus nonketogenic very low calorie diet. Metabolism 1992, 41:406-414.
235. Veldhuis J.D., Roemmich J.N., Richmond E.J., Rogol A.D., Lovejoy J.C., Sheffield-Moore M., et al. Endocrine control of body composition in infancy, childhood, and puberty. Endocr Rev 2005, 26:114-146.
236. Verove C., Maisonneuve N., El A.A., Boldron A., Azar R. Effect of the correction of metabolic acidosis on nutritional status in elderly patients with chronic renal failure. J Ren Nutr 2002, 12:224-228.
237. Vescini F., Buffa A., La M.G., Ciavatti A., Rizzoli E., Bottura A., et al. Long-term potassium citrate therapy and bone mineral density in idiopathic calcium stone formers. J Endocrinol Invest 2005, 28:218-222.
238. Wachman A., Bernstein D.S. Diet and osteoporosis. Lancet 1968, 1:958-959.
239. Weber H.P., Gray R.W., Dominguez J.H., Lemann J. The lack of effect of chronic metabolic acidosis on 25-OH-vitamin D metabolism and serum parathyroid hormone in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1976, 43:1047-1055.
240. Weger M., Deutschmann H., Weger W., Kotanko P., Skrabal F. Incomplete renal tubular acidosis in "primary" osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 1999, 10:325-329.
241. Weger W., Kotanko P., Weger M., Deutschmann H., Skrabal F. Prevalence and characterization of renal tubular acidosis in patients with osteopenia and osteoporosis and in non-porotic controls. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000, 15:975-980.
242. Welbourne T.C., Joshi S. Enteral glutamine spares endogenous glutamine in chronic acidosis. J Parentral Enteral Nutr 1994, 18:243-247.
243. Wengreen H.J., Munger R.G., West N.A., Cutler D.R., Corcoran C.D., Zhang J., et al. Dietary protein intake and risk of osteoporotic hip fracture in elderly residents of Utah. J Bone Miner Res 2004, 19:537-545.
244. Williams B., Layward E., Walls J. Skeletal muscle degradation and nitrogen wasting in rats with chronic metabolic acidosis. Clin Sci 1991, 80:457-462.
245. Wilson E.O. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge 1998, Knopf, New York.
246. Witzgall H., Behr J. Effects of potassium loading in normal man on dopaminergic control of mineralocorticoids and renin release. J Hypertens 1986, 4:201-205.
247. Yoshimura H., Fujimoto M., Okumura O., Sugimoto J., Kuwada T. Three-step-regulation of acid-base balance in body fluid after acid load. J Clin Invest 1961, 40:109-125.
248. Zwart S.R., Hargens A.R., Smith S.M. The ratio of animal protein intake to potassium intake is a predictor of bone resorption in space flight analogues and in ambulatory subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 80:1058-1065.