Transforming growth factor-beta in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Journal of Organ Dysfunction

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 161-170

  Liebhart, Jerzy ^a   Dobek, Rafal ^a  

^a WROCLAW MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Poland)

Author keywords

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Lung remodeling; Transforming growth factor beta; Transforming growth factor beta gene polymorphism

Indexed keywords

PROTEINASE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA;

APOPTOSIS; CARCINOGENESIS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SURVIVAL; CHEMOTAXIS; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; DNA POLYMORPHISM; HEREDITY; HUMAN; LUNG BLOOD VESSEL; LUNG EMPHYSEMA; LUNG FIBROSIS; LUNG PARENCHYMA; MACROPHAGE; MAST CELL; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

EID: 70849114133     PISSN: 17471060     EISSN: 17471079     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/17471060701721985     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Massagué J, Chen YG. Controlling TGF-beta signaling. Genes Dev 2000;/14:/627-44.
2. Hogan BLM. Bone morphogenetic proteins: Multifunctional regulators of vertebrate development. Genes Dev 1996;/10:/ 1580-1594
3. Ma B, Blackburn MR, Lee CG, Homer RJ, Liu W, Flavell RA, et al. Adenosine metabolism and murine strain-specific IL-4-induced inflammation, emphysema, and fibrosis. J Clin Invest 2006;/116:/1274-83.
4. Xu YD, Hua J, Mui A, O'Connor R, Grotendorst G, Khalil N. Release of biological active TGF-beta1 by alveolar epithelial cells results in pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2003;/285:/L527-39.
5. Leivonen SK, Hakkinen L, Liu D, Kahari VM. Smad 3 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 coordinately mediate transforming growth factor-beta-induced expression of connective tissue growth factor in human fibroblast. J Invest Dermatol 2005;/124:/1162-9.
6. Samarakoon R, Higgins CE, Higgins SP, Kutz SM, Higgins PJ. Plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 gene expression and induced migration in TGF-beta 1-stimulated smooth muscle cells is pp60(c-src)/MEK-dependent. J Cell Physiol 2005;/204:/236-46.
7. Perng D, Wu Y, Chang K, Wu MT, Chiou YC, Su KC, et al. Leukotriene C4 induces TGF-beta1 production in airway epithelium via p38 kinase pathway. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006;/34:/101-7.
8. Kaminska B, Wesolowska A, Danilkiewicz M. TGF-beta signaling and its role in tumor pathogenesis. Acta Biochim Pol 2005;/52:/329-37.
9. Rochester CL, Ackerman SJ, Zheng T, Elias JA. Eosinophil fibroblast interactions. Granule major basic protein interact with IL-1 and transforming growth factor-beta in the stimulation of lung fibroblast IL-6 type cytokine production. J Immunol 1996;/156:/4449-56.
10. Wen F, Liu X, Kabayashi T, Abe S, Fang Q, Kohyama T, et al. Interferon-gamma inhibits transforming growth factor production in human airway epithelial cells by targeting Smads. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2004;/30:/816-22.
11. Hyytiäinen M, Penttinen C, Keski-Oja J. Latent TGF-beta binding proteins: Extracellular matrix association and roles in TGF-beta activation. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2004;/41:/233-64.
12. Khalil N. TGF-beta: From latent to active. Microbes Infect 1999;/15:/1255-63.
13. Chen G, Grotendorst G, Eichholtz T, Khalil N. GM-CSF increases airway smooth muscle cell connective tissue expression by inducing TGF-beta receptors. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2003;/284:/L548-56.
14. Khalil N, Xu YD, O'Connor R, Duronio V. Proliferation of pulmonary interstitial fibroblast is mediated by transforming growth factor-beta1-induced release of extracellular fibroblast growth factor-2 and phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and JNK. J Biol Chem 2005;/280:/43000-9.
15. Makinde T, Murphy RF, Agrawal DK. The regulatory role of TGF-beta in airway remodeling in asthma. Immunol Cell Biol 2007;/85:/348-56.
16. Heldin CH, Miyazono K, Dijke PT. TGF-beta signaling from cell membrane to nucleus through SMAD proteins. Nature 1997;/390:/465-71.
17. Qing J, Zhang Y, Derynck R. Structural and functional characterization of the transforming growth factor betainduced Smad3/c-Jun transcriptional cooperativity. J Biol Chem 2000;/275:/38802-12.
18. Piek E, Ju WJ, Heyer J, Escalante-Alcalde D, Stewart CL, Weinstein M, et al. Functional characterization of transforming growth factor beta signaling in Smad2 and Smad 3- deficient fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 2001;/276:/19945-53.
19. Zhang Y, Feng X, Derynck R. Smad3 and Smad4 cooperate with c-Jun/c-Fos to mediate TGF-beta-induced transcription. Nature 1998;/394:/909-13.
20. Horowitz JC, Lee DY, Waghray M, Keshamouni VG, Thomas PE, Zhang H, et al. Activation of the pro-survival phosphotidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT pathway by transforming growth factor-beta1 in mesenchymal cells is mediated by p38-MAPK-dependent induction of an autocrine growth factor. J Biol Chem 2004;/279:/1359-67.
21. Attisano L, Wrana JL. Smads as transcriptional co-modulators. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2000;/12:/235-43.
22. Massagué J, Wotton D. Transcriptional control by the TGFbeta/ Smad signaling system. EMBO J 2000;/19:/1745-54.
23. Itoh S, Itoh F, Goumans MJ, ten Dijke P. Signaling of transforming growth factor-beta family members through Smad proteins. Eur J Biochem 2000;/267:/6954-67.
24. Derynck R, Zhang Y, Feng XF. Smads: Transcriptional activators of TGF-beta responses. Cell 1998;/95:/737-40.
25. Massagué J. TGF-beta signal transduction. Annu Rev Biochem 1998;/67:/753-91.
26. Howell M, Itoh F, Pierreux CE, Valgeirsdottir S, Itoh S, ten Dijke P, et al. Xenopus Smad4b is the co-Smad component of developmentally regulated transcription factor complexes responsible for induction of early mesodermal genes. Dev Biol 1999;/214:/354-69.
27. Masuyama N, Hanafusa H, Kusakabe M, Shibuya H, Nishida E. Identification of two Smad4 proteins in Xenopus. Their common and distinct properties. J Biol Chem 1999;/ 274:/12163-70.
28. Yamauchi K, Tohoku J. Airway remodeling in asthma and its influence on clinical pathophysiology. Exp Med 2006;/209:/ 75-87.
29. Postma DS, Timens W. Remodeling in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006;/ 3:/434-9.
30. Utsugi M, Dobashi K, Ishizuka T, Masubuchi K, Shimizu Y, Nakazawa T, et al. C-Jun-NH2-terminal kinase-mediated expression of connective tissue growth factor induced by transforming growth factor-beta1 in human lung fibroblasts. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2003;/28:/754-61.
31. Blobe GC, Schiemann WP, Lodish HF. Role of transforming growth factor beta in human disease. N Engl J Med 2000;/ 342:/1350-8.
32. Lawrence DA. Transforming growth factor-beta: A general review. Eur Cytokine Netw 1996;/7:/363-74.
33. Bosse Y, Thompson C, Stankova J, Rola-Pleszczynski M. Fibroblast growth factor 2 and transforming growth factor beta1 synergism in human bronchial smooth muscle cell proliferation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006;/34:/746-53.
34. Zhang HY, Phan SH. Inhibition of myofibroblast apoptosis by transforming growth factor beta(1). Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1999;/21:/658-65.
35. Gruber BL, Marchese MJ, Kew RR. Transforming growth factor-beta1 mediates mast cell chemotaxis. J Immunol 1994;/152:/5860-7.
36. de Boer WI, Van Schadewijk A, Sont JK, Sharma HS, Stolk J, Hiemstra PS, et al. Transforming growth factor beta1 and recruitment of macrophages and mast cells in airways in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;/158:/1951-7.
37. Aubert JD, Hayashi S, Hards J, Bai TR, Pare PD, Hogg JC. Platelet- derived growth factor and its receptor in lungs from patients with asthma and chronic airflow obstruction. Am J Physiol 1994;/266:/L655-63.
38. Takizawa H, Beckmann JD, Yoshida M, Romberger D, Rennard S. Regulation of bovine bronchial epithelial cell proliferation and proto-oncogene expression by growth factors. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1991;/5:/548-55.
39. Jurjus A, Atiyeh BS, Abdallah IM, Jurjus RA, Hayek SN, Jaoude MA, et al. Pharmacological modulation of wound healing in experimental burns. Burns 2007;/33:/892-907.
40. Flanders KC, Ren RF, Lippa CF. Transforming growth factor-betas in neurodegenerative disease. Prog Neurobiol 1998;/54:/71-85.
41. Border WA, Noble NA. Transforming growth factor beta in tissue fibrosis. N Engl J Med 1994;/331:/1286-92.
42. Ohmori H, Kanda T, Takai T, Hikida M. Induction of antigen-specific IgE response in murine lymphocytes by IL-10. Immunol Lett 1995;/47:/127-32.
43. Hobbs K, Negri J, Klinnert M, Rosenwasser LJ, Borish L. Interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-beta promoter polymorphisms in allergies and asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;/158:/1958-62.
44. Kenyon NJ, Ward RW, McGrew G, Last JA. TGF-beta1 causes airway fibrosis and increased collagen I and III mRNA in mice. Thorax 2003;/58:/772-7.
45. Rabe KF, Hurd S, Anzueto A, Barnes PJ, Buist SA, Calverley P. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;/176:/532-55.
46. Murray CJ, Lopez AD. Evidence-based health policy* lessons from the Global Burden of Disease Study. Science 1996;/274:/740-3.
47. Heaney LG, Lindsay JT, McGarvey LP. Inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Implications for new treatment strategies. Curr Med Chem 2007;/14:/787-96.
48. Jeffery PK. Morphology of the airway wall in asthma and in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991;/143:/1152-8.
49. Rutgers SR, Postma DS, ten Hacken NH, Kauffman HF, Van Der Mark TW, Koëter GH, et al. Ongoing airway inflammation in patients with COPD who do not currently smoke. Thorax 2000;/55:/12-8.
50. Tetley TD. Inflammatory cells and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Drug Targets Inflamm Allergy 2005;/4:/607-18.
51. Yim JJ, Park GY, Lee CT, Kim YW, Han SK, Shim YS, et al. Genetic susceptibility to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Koreans: Combined analysis of polymorphic genotypes for microsomal epoxide hydrolase and glutathione S-transferase M1 and T1. Thorax 2000;/55:/121-5.
52. Atkinson JJ, Senior RM. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 in lung remodeling. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2003;/28:/12-24.
53. Barnes PJ. New treatments for COPD. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2002;/1:/437-46.
54. Visse R, Nagase H. Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases: Structure, function, and biochemistry. Circ Res 2003;/92:/827-39.
55. Calabrese F, Giacometti C, Beghe B, Rea F, Loy M, Zuin R. Marked alveolar apoptosis/proliferation imbalance in endstage emphysema. Respir Res 2005;/6:/14.
56. Fabbri LM, Romagnoli M, Corbetta L, Casoni G, Busjletic K, Turato G, et al. Differences in airway inflammation in patients with fixed airflow obstruction due to asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;/167:/418-24.
57. American Thoracic Society. Standards for the diagnosis and care of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;152:S77-121.
58. El Mabrouk M, Qureshi HY, Li WQ, Sylvester J, Zafarullah M. Interleukin-4 antagonizes oncostatinMand transforming growth factor beta-induced responses in articular chondrocytes. J Cell Biochem 2007;Jun 1[Epub ahead of print].
59. Zhong XN, Bai J, Shi HZ, Wu C, Liang GR, Feng ZB. An experimental study on airway inflammation and remodeling in a rat model of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 2003;/26:/750-5.
60. Sugiura H, Liu X, Kobayashi T, Togo S, Ertl RF, Kawasaki S, et al. Reactive nitrogen species augment fibroblastmediated collagen gel contraction, mediator production, and chemotaxis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006;/34:/592-9.
61. Wahl SM, Hunt DA, Wakefield LM, McCartney-Francis N, Wahl LM, Roberts AB, et al. Transforming growth factor type beta induces monocyte chemotaxis and growth factor production. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987;/84:/5788-92.
62. Huynh ML, Fadok VA, Henson PM. Phosphatidylserinedependent ingestion of apoptotic cells promotes TGF-beta1 secretion and the resolution of inflammation. J Clin Invest 2002;/109:/41-50.
63. Majo J, Ghezzo H, Cosio MG. Lymphocyte population and apoptosis in the lungs of smokers and their relation to emphysema. Eur Respir J 2001;/17:/946-53.
64. Hodge SJ, Hodge GL, Reynolds PN, Scicchitano R, Holmes M. Increased production of TGF-beta and apoptosis of T lymphocytes isolated from peripheral blood in COPD. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2003;/285:/L492-9.
65. Letterio JJ, Roberts AB. Regulation of immune responses by TGF-beta. Annu Rev Immunol 1998;/16:/137-61.
66. Vyas-Read S, Shaul PW, Yuhanna IS, Willis BC. Nitric oxide attenuates epithelial-mesenchymal transition in alveolar epithelial cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2007;/ 293:/L212-21.
67. Maestrelli P, Saetta M, Mapp CE, Fabbri LM. Remodeling in response to infection and injury. Airway inflammation and hypersecretion of mucus in smoking subjects with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;/164:/S76-80.
68. Erjefalt JS, Erjefalt I, Sundler F, Persson CG. In vivo restitution of airway epithelium. Cell Tissue Res 1995;/281:/ 305-316
69. Holgate ST. Epithelial damage and response. Clin Exp Allergy 2000;/30(Suppl 1):/37-41.
70. Polunovsky VA, Chen B, Henke C, Snover D, Wendt C, Ingbar DH, et al. Role of mesenchymal cell death in lung remodeling after injury. J Clin Invest 1993;/92:/388-97.
71. MacNee W. Pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2005;/2:/258-66.
72. Zheng T, Zhu Z, Wang Z, Homer RJ, Ma B, Riese RJ Jr, et al. Inducible targeting of IL-13 to the adult lung causes matrix metalloproteinase- and cathepsin-dependent emphysema. J Clin Invest 2000;/106:/1081-93.
73. Morris DG, Huang X, Kaminski N, Wang Y, Shapiro SD, Dolganov G, et al. Loss of integrin alphavbeta6-mediated TGF-beta activation causes MMP12-dependent emphysema. Nature 2003;/422:/169-73.
74. Eickelberg O, Kohler E, Reichenberger F, Bertschin S, Woodtli T, Erne P, et al. Extracellular matrix deposition by primary human lung fibroblasts in response to TGF-beta1 and TGF-beta3. Am J Physiol 1999;/276:/L814-24.
75. Fang KC, Wolters PJ, Steinhoff M, Bidgol A, Blount JL, Caughey GH. Mast cell expression of gelatinases A and B is regulated by kit ligand and TGF-beta. J Immunol 1999;/162:/ 5528-5535
76. Lanone S, Zheng T, Zhu Z, Liu W, Lee CG, Ma B, et al. Overlapping and enzyme-specific contributions of matrix metalloproteinases-9 and -12 in IL-13-induced inflammation and remodeling. J Clin Invest 2002;/110:/463-74.
77. Russell RE, Culpitt SV, DeMatos C, Donnelly L, Smith M, Wiggins J, et al. Release and activity of matrix metalloproteinase- 9 and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 by alveolar macrophages from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2002;/26:/ 602-609
78. Grainger DJ, Kemp PR, Metcalfe JC, Liu AC, Lawn RM, Williams NR, et al. The serum concentration of active transforming growth factor-beta is severely depressed in advanced atherosclerosis. Nat Med 1995;/1:/74-9.
79. Beghe B, Bazzan E, Baraldo S, Calabrese F, Rea F, Loy M, et al. Transforming growth factor-beta type II receptor in pulmonary arteries of patients with very severe COPD. Eur Respir J 2006;/28:/556-62.
80. Kobayashi T, Liu X, Wen FQ, Fang Q, Abe S, Wang XQ. Smad3 mediates TGF-beta1 induction of VEGF production in lung fibroblasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005;/ 327:/393-8.
81. Chetta A, Zanini A, Foresis A, Díppolito R, Tipa A, Castagnaro A. Vascular endothelial growth factor up-regulation and bronchial wall remodelling in asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2005;/35:/1437-42.
82. Cataldo DD, Gueders MM, Rocks N, Sounni NE, Evrard B, Bartsch P, et al. Pathogenic role of matrix metalloproteases and their inhibitors in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and therapeutic relevance of matrix metalloproteases inhibitors. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand) 2003;/49:/875-84.
83. Finlay GA, Russell KJ, McMahon KJ, D'Arcy EM, Masterson JB, FitzGerald MX, et al. Elevated levels of matrix metalloproteinases in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of emphysematous patients. Thorax 1997;/52:/502-6.
84. Vignola AM, Riccobono L, Mirabella A, Profita M, Chanez P, Bellia V, et al. Sputum metalloproteinase-9/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 ratio correlates with airflow obstruction in asthma and chronic bronchitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;/158:/1945-50.
85. Culpitt SV, Rogers DF, Traves SL, Barnes PJ, Donnelly LE. Sputum matrix metalloproteases: Comparison between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Respir Med 2005;/99:/703-10.
86. Mercer PF, Shute JK, Bhowmik A, Donaldson GC, Wedzicha JA, Warner JA. MMP-9, TIMP-1 and inflammatory cells in sputum from COPD patients during exacerbation. Respir Res 2005;/226:/151.
87. Morris DG, Huang X, Kaminski N, Wang Y, Shapiro SD, Dolganov G, et al. Loss of integrin alpha(v)beta6-mediated TGF-beta activation causes Mmp12-dependent emphysema. Nature 2003;/422:/169-73.
88. Brøgger J, Steen VM, Eiken HG, Gulsvi A, Bakke P. Genetic association between COPD and polymorphisms in TNF, ADRB2 and EPHX1. Eur Respir J 2006;/27:/682-8.
89. Wallace SE, Lachman RS, Mekikian PB, Bui KK, Wilcox WR. Marked phenotypic variability in progressive diaphyseal dysplasia (Camurati-Engelmann disease): Report of a fourgeneration pedigree, identification of a mutation in TGFB1, and review. Am J Med Genet A 2004;/129:/235-47.
90. Langdahl BL, Knudsen JY, Jensen HK, Gregersen N, Eriksen EF. A sequence variation: 713-8delC in the transforming growth factor-beta 1 gene has higher prevalence in osteoporotic women than in normal women and is associated with very low bone mass in osteoporotic women and increased bone turnover in both osteoporotic and normal women. Bone 1997;/20:/289-94.
91. Awad M, El-Gamel A, Hasleton P, Turner DM, Sinnot PJ, Hutchinson IV. Genotypic variation in the transforming growth factor-beta1 gene. Transplantation 1998;/66:/1014-20.
92. Lympany PA, Avila JJ, Mullighan C, Marshall S, Welsh KI, du Bois RM. Rapid genotyping of transforming growth factor-beta1 gene polymorphisms in a UK Caucasoid control population using the polymerase chain reaction and sequence-specific primers. Tissue Antigens 1998;/52:/573-8.
93. Yamada Y, Miyauchi A, Goto J, Takagi Y, Okuizumi H, Kanematsu M, et al. Association of a polymorphism of the transforming growth factor-b1 gene with genetic susceptibility to osteoporosis in postmenopausal Japanese women. J Bone Miner Res 1998;/13:/1569-76.
94. Yamada Y, Okuizumi H, Miyauchi A, Takagi Y, Ikeda K, Harada A. Association of transforming growth factor beta1 genotype with spinal osteophytosis in Japanese women. Arthritis Rheum 2000;/43:/452-60.
95. Syrris P, Carter ND, Metcalfe JC, Kemp PR, Grainger DJ, Kaski JC, et al. Transforming growth factor-beta1 gene polymorphisms and coronary artery disease. Clin Sci 1998;/ 95:/659-67. (Pubitemid 29034430)
96. Cambien F, Ricard S, Troesch A, Mallet C, Generenaz L, Evans A, et al. Polymorphisms of the transforming growth factor-beta1 gene in relation to myocardial infarction and blood pressure. The Etude Cas-Témoin de l'Infarctus du Myocarde (ECTIM) Study. Hypertension 1996;/28:/881-7.
97. Holweg CT, Baan CC, Balk AH, Niesters HG, Maat AP, Mulder PM, et al. The transforming growth factor-beta1 codon 10 gene polymorphism and accelerated graft vascular disease after clinical heart transplantation. Transplantation 2001;/71:/1463-7.
98. Ziv E, Cauley J, Morin PA, Saiz R, Browner WS. Association between the T29 C polymorphism in the transforming growth factor beta1 gene and breast cancer among elderly white women: The Study of Osteoporotic Fractures. JAMA 2001;/285:/2859-63.
99. Baan CC, Balk AH, Holweg CT, vanRiemsdijk IC, Maat LP, Vantrimpont PJ, et al. Renal failure after clinical heart transplantation is associated with the TGF-beta 1 codon 10 gene polymorphism. J Heart Lung Transplant 2000;/19:/ 866-872
100. Arkwright PD, Chase JM, Babbage S, Pravica V, David TJ, Hutchinson IV. Atopic dermatitis is associated with a lowproducer transforming growth factor beta (1) cytokine genotype. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001;/108:/281-4.
101. Densem CG, Hutchinson IV, Cooper A, Yonan N, Brooks NH. Polymorphism of the transforming growth factor beta 1 gene correlates with the development of coronary vasculopathy following cardiac transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2000;/19:/551-6.
102. Awad MR, El-Gamel A, Hasleton P, Turner DM, Sinnott PJ, Hutchinson IV. Genotypic variation in the transforming growth factor-beta1 gene: Association with transforming growth factor-beta1 production, fibrotic lung disease, and graft fibrosis after lung transplantation. Transplantation 1998;/66:/1014-20. (Pubitemid 28513380)
103. Li B, Khanna A, Sharma V, Singh T, Suthanthiran M, August P. TGF-beta1 DNA polymorphisms, protein levels, and blood pressure. Hypertension 1999;/33:/271-5.
104. Wu L, Chau J, Young RP, Pokorny V, Mills GD, Hopkins R, et al. Transforming growth factor-beta1 genotype and susceptibility to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2004;/59:/126-9.
105. Liebhart J, Polak M, Dobek R, Liebhart E, Dor A, Kulczak A, et al. TGF-beta1 gene polymorphism in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Pneumonol Alergol Pol 2005;/ 73:/216-20.
106. Yoon HI, Silverman EK, Lee HW, Yoo CG, Lee CT, Chung HS, et al. Lack of association between COPD and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGFbeta1) genetic polymorphisms in Koreans. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006;/10:/ 504-509
107. Su ZG, Wen FQ, Feng YL, Xiao M, Wu XL. Transforming growth factor-beta1 gene polymorphisms associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Chinese population. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2005;/26:/714-20.
108. Takizawa H, Tanaka M, Takami K, Ohtoshi T, Ito K, Satoh M, et al. Increased expression of transforming growth factorbeta1 in small airway epithelium from tobacco smokers and patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;/163:/1476-83.
109. DaCosta Byfield S, Major C, Laping NJ, Roberts AB. SB- 505124 is a selective inhibitor of transforming growth factorbeta type I receptors ALK4, ALK5, and ALK7. Mol Pharmacol 2004;/65:/744-52.
110. Inman GJ, Nicolás FJ, Callahan JF, Harling JD, Gaster LM, Reith AD, et al. SB-431542 is a potent and specific inhibitor of transforming growth factor-beta superfamily type I activin receptor-like kinase (ALK) receptors ALK4, ALK5, and ALK7. Mol Pharmacol 2002;/62:/65-74.
111. Laping NJ, Grygielko E, Mathur A, Butter S, Bomberger J, Tweed C, et al. Inhibition of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1-induced extracellular matrix with a novel inhibitor of the TGF-beta type I receptor kinase activity: SB-431542. Mol Pharmacol 2002;/62:/58-64.