Conceptualization, measurement, and improvement of classroom processes: Standardized observation can leverage capacity

Educational Researcher

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 109-119

  Pianta, Robert C ^a   Hamre, Bridget K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Classroom research; Instruction; Measurement; Observation; Quality; Teacher education development; Teacher effectiveness

Indexed keywords

EID: 68249119206     PISSN: 0013189X     EISSN: 1935102X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3102/0013189X09332374     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2. Anderman, E., & Midgley, C. (1997). Changes in personal achievement goals and the perceived classroom goal structures across the transition to middle level schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22, 269-298.
3. Anderson, S. (2008). Teacher career choices: Timing of teacher careers among 1992-93 bachelor's degree recipients (NCES 2008-153). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
4. Appalachian Regional Advisory Committee. (2005, March 31). Education challenges and technical assistance needs of the Appalachian region. Washington, DC: Author.
5. Arnold, D. H., McWilliams, L., & Arnold, E. H. (1998). Teacher discipline and child misbehavior in day care: Untangling causality with correlational data. Developmental Psychology, 34, 276-287.
6. Battistich, V., Watson, M., Solomon, D., Lewis, C., & Schaps, E. (1999). Beyond the three R's: A broader agenda for school reform. Elementary School Journal, 99, 415-429.
7. Birch, S. H, & Ladd, G. W. (1998). Children's interpersonal behaviors and the teacher-child relationship. Developmental Psychology, 34, 934-946.
8. Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111-127.
9. Bogner, K., Raphael, L., & Pressley, M. (2002). How Grade 1 teachers motivate literate activity by their students. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6, 135-165.
10. Bohn, C. M., Roehrig, A. D., & Pressley, M. (2004). The first days of school in effective and less effective primary-grades classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 104, 269-287.
11. Borg, W. R. (1979). Teacher coverage of academic context and pupil achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 635-645.
12. Bowlby, J. (1969). Disruption of affectional bonds and its effects on behavior. Canada's Mental Health Supplement, 59, 12.
13. Bowman, B. T., & Stott, F. M. (1994). Understanding development in a cultural context: The challenge for teachers. In B. Mallory & R. New (Eds.), Diversity and developmentally appropriate practices: Challenges for early childhood education (pp. 19-34). New York: Teachers College Press.
14. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
15. Brophy, J. (1986). Teaching and learning mathematics: Where research should be going. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 17, 323-346.
16. Brophy, J. E. (1999). Teaching (Educational Practices Series-1). Geneva, Switzerland: International Academy of Education and International Bureau of Education, UNESCO.
17. Brophy, J., & Evertson, C. (1976). Learning from teaching: A developmental perspective. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
18. Brophy, J. E., & Good, T. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 328-375). New York: Macmillan.
19. Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
20. Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2005). Effects of variation in teacher organization on classroom functioning. Journal of School Psychology, 43, 61-85.
21. Carver, S. M., & Klahr, D. (Eds.). (2001). Cognition and instruction: 25 years of progress. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
22. Caspary, K. (2002). California's pioneering training and retention initiative for early childhood educators. Berkeley, CA: PACE.
23. Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Zhang, X., & Tomblin, J. B. (2001). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 331-361.
24. Chomat-Mooney, L. I., Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B. K., Mashburn, A. J., Luckner, A. E., Grimm, K. J., Wang, L., et al. (2008). A practical guide for conducting classroom observations: A summary of issues and evidence for researchers. Unpublished report to the W. T. Grant Foundation, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.
25. Clotfelter, C., Ladd, H., & Vigdor, J. (2007). Teacher credentials and student achievement in high school: A cross-subject analysis with student fixed effects (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 13617). Available from www.Caldercenter.org
26. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1990). Research on teaching and teacher research: The issues that divide. Educational Researcher, 19(2), 2-11.
27. Cochran-Smith, M., & Zeichner, K. (2005). Studying teaching education: The report of the AERA panel on research and teacher education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
28. Coker, H., Medley, C. M., & Soar, R. S. (1980). How valid are expert opinions about effective teaching? Phi Delta Kappan, 62, 131-134.
29. Connell, J. P., & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In R. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 43-77). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
30. Danielson, C. (1996). Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.
31. Davis, E. A., & Miyake, N. (2004). Explorations of scaffolding in complex classroom systems, Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13, 265-272.
32. Denham, S. A., & Weissberg, R. P. (2004). Social-emotional learning in early childhood: What we know and where to go from here. In E. Chesebrough, P. King, T. P. Gullotta, & M. Bloom (Eds.), A blueprint for the promotion of prosocial behavior in early childhood (pp. 13-50). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
33. Domitrovich, C. E., & Greenberg, M. T. (2004). Preventive interventionswith young children: Building on the foundation of early intervention programs. Early Education and Development, 15, 365-370.
34. Early, D., Barbarin, O., Bryant, B., Burchinal, M., Chang, F., Clifford, R., et al. (2005). Pre-kindergarten in eleven states: NCEDL's multi-state study of pre-kindergarten and state-wide early educational programs (SWEEP) study. Retrieved September 30, 2005, from www.ncedl.org
35. Eccles, J. S., Flanagan, C., Lord, S., & Midgley, C. (1996). Schools, families, and early adolescents: What are we doing wrong and what can we do instead? Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 17, 267-276.
36. Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (1999). School and community influences on human development. In M. H. Bornstein & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (4th ed., pp. 503-554). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
37. Educational Testing Service. (2004). Where we stand on teacher quality: An issue paper from ETS. Retrieved February 15, 2006, from the Educational Testing Service Web site: http://tfp.ets.org/pub/copr/position_paper.pdf
38. Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36, 103-112.
39. Evertson, C. M., Emmer, E. T., Sanford, I. P., & Clements, B. S. (1983). Improving classroom management: An experiment in elementary school classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 84, 173-188.
40. Evertson, C. M., & Harris, A. H. (1999). Support for managing learning centered classrooms: The Classroom Organization and Management Program. In H. J. Freiberg (Ed.), Beyond behaviorism: Changing the classroom management paradigm (pp. 57-73). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
41. Ferguson, P., & Fraser, B. (1998). Student gender, school size and changing perceptions of science learning environments during the transition from primary to secondary school. Research in Science Education, 28, 387-397.
42. Fisher, C. W., Berliner, D. C., Filby, N. N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L. S., & Dishaw, M. M. (1980). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. In C. Denham & A. Lieberman (Eds.), Time to learn (pp. 7-32). Washington, DC:Department of Education and the National Institute of Education.
43. Foundation for Child Development. (2005). Getting there: PK-3 as public education's base camp. New York: Author.
44. Fraser, B. J. (1990). Individualized Classroom Environment Questionnaire. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.
45. Fraser, B. J., Anderson, G. J., & Walberg, H. J. (1982). Assessment of learning environments: Manual for Learning Environment Inventory (LEI) and My Class Inventory (3rd versions). Perth: Western Australian Institute of Technology.
46. Fujiki, M., Brinton, B., & Clarke, D. (2002). Emotion regulation in children with specific language impairment. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 33, 102-111.
47. Gage, N. L. (1978). The scientific basis of the art of teaching. New York: Teachers College Press.
48. Gate, N. L., & Needels, M. C. (1989). Process-product research on teaching: A review of criticisms. Elementary School Journal, 89, 253-300.
49. Good, T. L., & Grouws, D. A. (1979). The Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 355-362.
50. Good, T. L., Grouws, D. A., & Beckerman, T. (1978). Curriculum pacing: Some empirical data in mathematics. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10, 75-81.
51. Good, T. L., Mulryan, C., & McCaslin, M. (2006). Grouping for instruction in mathematics: A call for programmatic research on small-group processes. In D. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 165-196). New York: Macmillan.
52. Gordon, R., Kane, T. J., & Staiger, D. O. (2008). Identifying effective teachers using performance on the job. Washington, DC: Hamilton Project, Brookings Institution.
53. Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O'Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik, H., et al. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58, 466-474.
54. Gudmundsdottir, S. (1991). Ways of seeing are ways of knowing: The pedagogical content knowledge of an expert teacher. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 23, 409-421.
55. Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children's school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72, 625-638.
56. Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2005). Can instructional and emotional support in the first grade classroom make a difference for children at risk of school failure? Child Development, 76, 949-967.
57. Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2007). Learning opportunities in preschool and early elementary classrooms. In R. Pianta, M. Cox, & K. Snow (Eds.), School readiness and the transition to kindergarten in the era of accountability (pp. 49-84). Baltimore: Brookes.
58. Hamre, B. K., Pianta, R. C., Mashburn, A. J., & Downer, J. T. (2007). Building a science of classrooms: Application of the CLASS framework in over 4,000 U.S. early childhood and elementary classrooms. New York: Foundation for Child Development. Available at http://www.fcd-us.org/resources/resources_show.htm?doc_id=507559
59. Hanushek, E. A. (2002). The long run importance of school quality (NBER Working Papers 9071). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
60. Harms, T. & Clifford, R. (1998). The Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale. New York: Teachers College Press.
61. Harter, S. (1996). Teacher and classmate influences on scholastic motivation, self-esteem, and level of voice in adolescents. In J. Juvonen & K. Wentzel (Eds.), Social motivation: Understanding children's school adjustment (pp. 11-42). New York: Cambridge University Press.
62. Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Pianta, R., Bryant, D., Early, D., Clifford, R., et al. (2008). Ready to learn? Children's pre-academic achievement in pre-kindergarten programs. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 27-50.
63. Howes, C., Hamilton, C. E., & Matheson, C. C. (1994). Children's relationships with peers: Differential associations with aspects of the teacher-child relationship. Child Development, 65, 253-263.
64. Hughes, J. N., Cavell, T. A., & Willson, V. (2001). Further evidence for the developmental significance of teacher-student relationships: Peers' perceptions of support and conflict in teacher-student relationships., Journal of School Psychology, 39, 289-301.
65. Illinois State Board of Education. (2004). Illinois learning standards- Social/emotional learning (SEL). Retrieved February 16, 2006, from http://www.isbe.net/ils/social_emotional/standards.htm
66. Jerome, E., Hamre, B., & Pianta, R. (in press). Quality and stability of teacher-child relationships: The role of gender, self-reliance, and risk. Social Development.
67. Jones, S. M., Brown, J. L., & Aber, J. L. (2008).Classroom settings as targets of intervention and research. In M. Shinn & H. Yoshikawa (Eds.), Toward positive youth development: Transforming schools and community programs (pp. 58-79). New York: Oxford University Press.
68. Justice, L. M., Meier, J., & Walpole, S. (2005). Learning new words from storybooks: Findings from an intervention with at-risk kindergarteners. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 17-32.
69. Ladd, G. W., Birch, S. H., & Buhs, E. S. (1999). Children's social and scholastic lives in kindergarten: Related spheres of influence? Child Development, 70, 1373-1400.
70. Ladd, H. F. (2008). Teacher effects: What do we know?. Unpublished manuscript, Teacher Quality Conference, Northwestern University.
71. Loeb, S., & Béteille, T. (in press). Teacher quality and teacher labor markets. In G. Sykes, B. L. Schneider, & D. N. Plank (Eds.), Handbook of Education Policy Research.
72. Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1992). Maltreated children's reports of relatedness to their teachers. In R. C. Pianta (Ed.), Relationships between children and non-parental adults: New directions in child development (pp. 81-108). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
73. McCaslin, M., Good, T. L., Nichols, S., Zhang, J., Hummel, C., Bozack, A. R., et al. (2006). Comprehensive school reform: An observational study of teaching in grades 3 to 5. Elementary School Journal, 106, 313-331.
74. Meehan, B. T., Hughes, J. N., & Cavell, T. A. (2003). Teacher-student relationships as compensatory resources for aggressive children. Child Development, 74, 1145-1157.
75. Moos, R. H., & Trickett, E. J. (1974). Classroom Environment Scale: Manual and Form R. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
76. Morrison, F. J., Bachman, H. J., & Connor, C. M. (2003). Improving literacy in America: Lessons from research. New Haven: Yale University Press.
77. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (1996). Observational record of the caregiving environment. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia.
78. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2002a). Early child care and children's development prior to school entry: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. American Educational Research Journal, 39, 133-164.
79. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2002b). The relation of global first-grade classroom environment to structural classroom features and teacher and student behaviors. Elementary School Journal, 102, 367-387.
80. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2004). Classroom Observation System-Fifth Grade. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia.
81. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2005). A day in third grade: A largescale study of classroom quality and teacher and student behavior. Elementary School Journal, 105, 305-323.
82. National Research Council. (2005). How students learn: History, mathematics, and science in the classroom. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
83. Nye, B., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. V. (2004). How large are teacher effects? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26, 237-257.
84. Paris, S. G., & Paris, A. H. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 36, 89-101.
85. Perie, M., Moran, R., & Lutkus, A. D. (2005). NAEYP 2004 trends in academic progress: Three decades of student performance in reading and mathematics (NCES 2005-464). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
86. Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
87. Pianta, R. C. (2003). Standardized observations from pre-K to 3rd grade: A mechanism for improving access to high-quality classroom experiences and practices during the p-3 years(Working paper). New York: Foundation for Child Development.
88. Pianta, R. C., & Allen, J. P. (2008). Building capacity for positive youth development in secondary school classrooms: Changing teachers' interactions with students. In M. Shinn & H. Yoshikawa (Eds.), Toward positive youth development: Transforming schools and community programs (pp. 21-39), New York: Oxford University Press.
89. Pianta, R. C., Belsky, J., Houts, R., Morrison, F., & the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. (2007). Opportunities to learn in America's elementary classrooms. Science, 315, 1795-1796.
90. Pianta, R. C., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Bryant, D., Clifford, R., Early, D., et al. (2005). Features of pre-kindergarten programs, classrooms, and teachers: Do they predict observed classroom quality and childteacher interactions? Applied Developmental Science, 9, 144-159.
91. Pianta, R. C., La Paro, K., & Hamre, B. K. (2008). Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
92. Pianta, R. C., Steinberg, M. S., & Rollins, K. B. (1995). The first two years of school: Teacher-child relationships and deflections in children's classroom adjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 295-312.
93. Pressley, M., Allington, R., Wharton-McDonald, R., Block, C. C., & Morrow, L. M. (2001). Learning to read: Lessons from exemplary first grades. New York: Guilford.
94. Pressley, M., Roehrig, A. D., Raphael, L. M., Dolezal, S. E., Bohn, C., Mohan, L., et al. (2003). Teaching processes in elementary and secondary education. In W. M. Reynolds & G. E. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of psychology, Volume 7: Educational psychology (pp. 153-175). New York: John Wiley.
95. Raudenbush, S., & Sadoff, S. (2008). Statistical inference when classroom quality is measured with error. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 1, 138-154.
96. Raver, C. C. (2004). Placing emotional self-regulation in sociocultural and socioeconomic contexts. Child Development, 75, 346-353.
97. Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Early, D. M., Cox, M. J., Salauja, G., Pianta, R. C., Bradley, R. H., et al. (2002). Early behavioral attributes and teachers' sensitivity as predictors of competent behavior in the kindergarten classroom. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 23, 451-470.
98. Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., & Pianta, R. C. (2000). An ecological perspective on the transition to kindergarten: A theoretical framework to guide empirical research. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21, 491-511.
99. Rivkin, S. G., Hanushek, E. A., & Kain, J. F. (2005). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Econometrica, 73, 417-458.
100. Rockoff, J. (2004). The impact of individual teachers on student achievement: Evidence from panel data. American Economic Review, 94, 247-252.
101. Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (1998). Academic and emotional functioning in early adolescence: Longitudinal relations, patterns, and prediction by experience in middle school. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 321-352.
102. Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (2000). School as a context of early adolescents' academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings. Elementary School Journal, 100, 443-471.
103. Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context. New York: Oxford University Press.
104. Romberg, T. A., Carpenter, T. P., & Dremock, F. (2005). Understanding mathematics and science matters. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
105. Ryan, R., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78.
106. Ryan, R., Stiller, J. D., & Lynch, J. H. (1994). Representations of relationship to teachers, parents, and friends as predictors of academic motivation and self-esteem. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 226-249.
107. Shinn, M., & Yoshikawa, H. (Eds.). (2008). Toward positive youth development: Transforming schools and community programs. New York: Oxford University Press.
108. Silver, R. B., Measelle, J., Essex, M., & Armstrong, J. M. (2005). Trajectories of externalizing behavior problems in the classroom: Contributions of child characteristics, family characteristics, and the teacher-child relationship during the school transition. Journal of School Psychology, 43, 39-60.
109. Skibbe, L., Behnke, M., & Justice, L. (2004). Parental scaffolding of phonological awareness: Interactions between mothers and their preschoolers with language impairment. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 25, 189-203.
110. Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571-581.
111. Smith, P. L., Waller, M. I., & Waller, S. P. (1982). Generalizable observation of the teaching process. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 42, 467-478.
112. Soar, R. S., & Soar, R. M. (1979). Emotional climate and management. In P. Peterson & H. Walberg (Eds.), Research on teaching: Concepts, findings and implications. Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
113. Stallings, J. (1975). Implementation and child effects of teaching practices in Follow Through classrooms. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 40, 1-133.
114. Stipek, D. (1996). Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure. Los Angeles: University of California at Los Angeles, Graduate School of Education.
115. Stipek, D., & Byler, P. (2004). The Early Childhood Classroom Observation Measure. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 375-397.
116. Taylor, B. M., Pearson, P. D., Peterson, D. S., & Rodriguez, M. C. (2003). Reading growth in high-poverty classrooms: The influence of teacher practices that encourage cognitive engagement in literacy learning. Elementary School Journal, 104, 3-28.
117. Tseng, V., & Seidman, E. (2007). A systems framework for understanding social settings. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 217-228.
118. Veenman, M. V. J., Kok, R., & Blöte, A. W. (2005). The relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills at the onset of metacognitive skill development. Instructional Science, 33, 193-211.
119. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
120. Vygotsky, L. S. (1991). Genesis of the higher mental functions. In P. Light, S. Sheldon, & M. Woodyhead (Eds.), Learning to think (pp. 32-41). Florence, KY: Taylor & Frances/Routledge.
121. Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 202-209.
122. Wentzel, K. R. (1999). Social-motivational processes and interpersonal relationships: Implications for understanding motivation at school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 76-97.
123. Wentzel, K. R. (2002). Are effective teachers like good parents? Teaching styles and student adjustment in early adolescence. Child Development, 73, 287-301.
124. Wharton-McDonald, R., Pressley, M., & Hampston, J. M. (1998). Outstanding literacy instruction in first grade: Teacher practices and student achievement. Elementary School Journal, 99, 101-128.
125. Williams, W. M., Blythe, T., White, N., Li, J., Gardner, H., & Sternberg, R. J. (2002). Practical intelligence for school: Developing metacognitive sources of achievement in adolescence. Developmental Review, 22, 162-210. (Reprinted in Mensa Research Journal, 2003, 33(3), 14-59.)
126. Yair, G. (2000). Reforming motivation: How the structure of instruction affects students' learning experiences. British Educational Journal, 26, 191-210.
127. Zins, J. E., Bloodworth, M. R., Weissberg, R. P., & Walberg, H. (2004). The scientific base linking social and emotional learning to school success. In J. E. Zins, R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? (pp. 3-22). New York: Teachers College Press.