Improving intergroup attitudes and reducing stereotype threat: An integrated contact model

European Review of Social Psychology

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 242-284

  Crisp, Richard J ^a   Abrams, Dominic ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENT   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Intergroup contact; Prejudice; Social identity; Stereotype threat

Indexed keywords

EID: 67049141509     PISSN: 10463283     EISSN: 1479277X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10463280802547171     Document Type: Article

References (168)

1. Abrams, D., Crisp, R. J., Marques, S., Fagg, E., Bedford, L., and Provias, D., in press. Threat inoculation: Experienced and imagined intergenerational contact prevent stereotype threat effects on older people's math performance. Psychology and Aging.
2. Abrams, D., Eller, A., and Bryant, J., 2006. An age apart: Effects of intergenerational contact and stereotype threat on performance and intergroup bias. Psychology and Aging, 2: 691–702.
3. Abrams, D., and Emler, N. P., 1992. Self-denial as a paradox of political and regional identity: Findings from a study of 16- and 18-year olds. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22: 279–295.
4. Abrams, D., and Houston, D. M., 2006. Equality, diversity and prejudice in Britain. Results from the 2005 National Survey: Report to the cabinet office equalities review Retrieved June 4, 2008, from: www.theequalitiesreview.org.uk/upload/assets/www.theequalitiesreview.org.uk/kentequality.pdf
5. Abrams, D., Thomas, J., and Hogg, M. A., 1990. Numerical distinctiveness, social identity and gender salience. British Journal of Social Psychology, 29: 87–92.
6. ACE. 2005. How ageist is Britain?, London: Age Concern England.
7. Allport, G. W., 1954. The nature of prejudice, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
8. Ambady, N., Paik, S. K., Steele, J., Smith, A. O., and Mitchell, J. P., 2004. Deflecting negative self-relevant stereotype activation: The effects of individuation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40: 401–408.
9. Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., and Good, C., 2002. Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38: 113–125.
10. Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., and Keough, K., 1999. When White men can't do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35: 29–46.
11. Blanchard-Fields, F., and Horhota, M., 2006. How can the study of aging inform research on social cognition. Social Cognition, 24: 207–217.
12. Blascovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., Lickel, B., and Kowai-Bell, N., 2001. Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatised others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80: 253–267.
13. Blascovich, J., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D., and Steele, C., 2001. African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12: 225–229.
14. Bosson, J. K., Haymovitz, E. L., and Pinel, E. C., 2003. When saying and doing diverge: The effects of stereotype threat on self-reported versus non-verbal anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40: 247–255.
15. Braithwaite, V., 1986. Old age stereotypes: Reconciling contradictions. Journal of Gerontology, 41: 353–360.
16. Brewer, M. B., 1979. Ingroup bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86: 307–324.
17. Brewer, M. B., 1991. The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17: 475–482.
18. Brown, R. J., and Abrams, D., 1986. The effects of intergroup similarity and goal interdependence on intergroup attitudes and task performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22: 78–92.
19. Brown, R. J., and Hewstone, M., 2005. “ An integrative theory of intergroup contact ”. In Advances in experimental social psychology, Edited by: Zanna, M. P., Vol. 37, 255–343. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
20. Brown, R. P., and Pinel, E. C., 2003. Stigma on my mind: Individual differences in the experience of stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39: 626–633.
21. Cadinu, M., Maass, A., Frigerio, S., Impagliazzo, L., and Latinotti, S., 2003. Stereotype threat: The effect of expectancy on performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33: 267–285.
22. Cadinu, M. R., and Rothbart, M., 1996. Self-anchoring and differentiation processes in the minimal group setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70: 661–677.
23. Campbell, D. T., 1956. Enhancement of contrast as a composite habit. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53: 350–355.
24. Census. 2001. National statistics government website: Neighbourhood Statistics Retrieved 24 July 2006 from http://neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk
25. Chasteen, A. L., Schwarz, N., and Park, D. C., 2002. The activation of aging stereotypes in younger and older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 57: 540–547.
26. Clement, R. W., and Krueger, J., 2002. Social categorisation moderates social projection. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38: 219–231.
27. Coupland, N., Coupland, J., and Giles, H., 1991. Language, society and the elderly, Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
28. Crisp, R. J., 2006. “ Commitment and categorisation in common ingroup contexts ”. In Multiple social categorisation: Processes, models and applications, Edited by: Crisp, R. J., and Hewstone, M., 90–111. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
29. Crisp, R. J., Bache, L. M., and Maitner, A. T., in press-a. Social Influence Dynamics of social comparison in counter-stereotype domains: Stereotype boost, not stereotype threat, for women engineering majors
30. Crisp, R. J., and Beck, S. R., 2005. Reducing intergroup bias: The moderating role of ingroup identification. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 8: 173–186.
31. Crisp, R. J., and Hewstone, M., 2007. “ Multiple social categorisation ”. In Advances in experimental social psychology, Edited by: Zanna, M. P., Vol. 39, 163–254. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
32. Crisp, R. J., Stathi, S., Turner, R. N., and Husnu, S., in press-b. “ Imagined intergroup contact: Theory, paradigm, and practice ”. In Social and Personality Psychology Compass
33. Crisp, R. J., Stone, C. H., and Hall, N. R., 2006a. Recategorisation and subgroup identification: Predicting and preventing threats from common ingroups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32: 230–243.
34. Crisp, R. J., and Turner, R. N., in press. Can imagined interactions produce positive perceptions? Reducing prejudice through simulated social contact. American Psychologist.
35. Crisp, R. J., Walsh, J., and Hewstone, M., 2006b. Crossed categorisation in common ingroup contexts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32: 1204–1218.
36. Croizet, J-C., and Claire, T., 1998. Extending the concept of stereotype threat to social class: The intellectual underperformance of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24: 588–594.
37. Croizet, J., Desert, M., Dutrevis, M., and Leyens, J-P., 2001. Stereotype threat, social class, gender and academic under-achievement: When our reputation catches up to us and takes over. Social Psychology of Education, 4: 295–310.
38. Cuddy, A. C., Norton, M. I., and Fiske, S. T., 2005. This old stereotype: The pervasiveness and persistence of the elderly stereotype. Journal of Social Issues, 61: 267–285.
39. Davies, P. G., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D. M., and Gerhardstein, R., 2002. Consuming images: How television commercials that elicit stereotype threat can restrain women academically and professionally. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 1615–1628.
40. Devine, P. G., Evett, S. R., and Vasquez-Suson, K., 1996. “ Exploring the interpersonal dynamics of intergroup contact ”. In Handbook of motivation and cognition: The interpersonal context, Edited by: Sorrentino, R., and Higgins, E. T., Vol. 3, 423–464. New York: The Guilford Press.
41. Directgov. 2006. Employees: age discrimination, Retrieved 12 October 2006, from. http://www.direct.gov.uk/Employment/Employees/DiscriminationAtWork/DiscrimintionAtWorkArticles/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=10026429&chk=q3aE%2B
42. Doise, W., 1978. Groups and individuals: Explanations in social psychology, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
43. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Hodson, G., Riek, M. B., Johnson, K. M., and Houlette, M., 2006. “ Recategorisation and crossed categorisation: The implications of group salience and representations for reducing bias (pp. 65–89) ”. In Multiple social categorisation: Processes, models and applications, Edited by: Crisp, R. J., and Hewstone, M., Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
44. Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., and Validzic, A., 1998. Intergroup bias: Status, differentiation and a common in-group identity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 109–120.
45. Easterbrook, J. A., 1959. The effect of emotion on the utilization and organisation of behaviour. Psychological Review, 66: 183–201.
46. Ellemers, N., Spears, R., and Doosje, B., 2002. Self and social identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 53: 161–186.
47. Ellemers, N., and van Knippenberg, A., 1997. “ Stereotyping in social context ”. In The social psychology of stereotyping and group life, Edited by: Spears, R., and Oakes, P. J., 208–235. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
48. Eller, A., and Abrams, D., 2003. ‘Gringos' in Mexico: Cross-sectional and longitudinal effects of language school-promoted contact on intergroup bias. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6: 55–75.
49. Eller, A., and Abrams, D., 2004. Come together: Longitudinal comparisons of Pettigrew's reformulated intergroup contact model and the Common Ingroup Identity Model in Anglo-French and Mexican-American contexts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34: 229–256.
50. Fingerman, K. L., Hay, E. L., and Birditt, K. S., 2004. The best of ties, the worst of ties: Close, problematic, and ambivalent social relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66: 792–808.
51. Gaertner, S. L., and Dovidio, J. F., 1986. “ Prejudice, discrimination, and racism: Problems, progress and promise ”. In Prejudice, discrimination, and racism, Edited by: Dovidio, J. F., and Gaertner, S. L., 315–332. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
52. Gaertner, S. L., and Dovidio, J. F., 2000. Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model, Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
53. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., and Rust, M. C., 1993. “ The common ingroup identity model: Recategorisation and the reduction of intergroup bias ”. In European review of social psychology, Edited by: Stroebe, W., and Hewstone, M., Vol. 2, 247–278. Chichester, UK: J. Wiley.
54. Gaertner, S. L., Mann, J. A., Dovidio, J. F., Murrell, A. J., and Pomare, M., 1990. How does cooperation reduce intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59: 692–704.
55. Gaertner, S. L., Mann, J. A., Murrell, A. J., and Dovidio, J. F., 1989. Reducing intergroup bias: The benefits of recategorisation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57: 239–249.
56. Galinsky, A. D., Ku, G., and Wang, C. S., 2005. Perspective-taking: Fostering social bonds and facilitating social coordination. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 8: 109–125.
57. Good, C., Aronson, J., and Inzlicht, M., 2003. Improving adolescents' standardized test performance: An intervention to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24: 645–662.
58. Gottfredson, L., 1997. Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence, 24: 79–132.
59. Gold, D. O., Arbuckle, T. Y., and Andres, D., 1994. “ Verbosity in older adults ”. In Interpersonal communication in older adulthood. Interdisciplinary theory and research, Edited by: Hummert, M. L., Wicmann, J. M., and Nussbaum, J. F., 107–129. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
60. Gonzales, P. M., Blanton, H., and Williams, K. J., 2002. The effects of stereotype threat and double-minority status on the test performance of Latino women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 659–670.
61. González, R., and Brown, R. J., 2003. Generalisation of positive attitude as a function of subgroup and superordinate group identifications in intergroup contact. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33: 195–214.
62. Hall, N. R., and Crisp, R. J., 2008. Assimilation and contrast to outgroups: The moderating role of ingroup identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44: 344–353.
63. Halpern, D. F., Benbow, C. P., Geary, D. C., Gur, R. C., Hyde, J. S., and Gernsbacher, M. A., 2007. The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8: 1–51.
64. Harwood, J., Hewstone, M., Paolini, S., and Voci, A., 2005. Grandparent–grandchild contact and attitudes toward older adults: Moderator and mediator effects. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31: 393–406.
65. Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., and McGarty, C., 1995. Social categorisation and group homogeneity – Changes in the perceived applicability of stereotype content as a function of comparative context and trait favourableness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34: 139–160.
66. Helmes, E., and Gee, S., 2000. Development of a training program in clinical geropsychology. Australian Journal on Ageing, 19: 113–117.
67. Hess, T. M., Auman, C., Colcombe, S. J., and Rahhal, T. A., 2003. The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 58: 3–11.
68. Hess, T. M., Hinson, J. T., and Statham, J. A., 2004. Explicit and implicit stereotype activation effects on memory: Do age and awareness moderate the impact of priming. Psychology and Aging, 19: 495–505.
69. Hewstone, M., and Brown, R. J., 1986. “ Contact is not enough: An intergroup perspective on the “Contact Hypothesis”. In Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters, Edited by: Hewstone, M., and Brown, R., 1–44. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
70. Hewstone, M., and Hamberger, J., 2000. Perceived variability and stereotype change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36: 103–124.
71. Hogg, M. A., 2000. “ Subjective uncertainty reduction through self-categorisation: A motivational theory of social identity processes ”. In European review of social psychology, Edited by: Stroebe, W., and Hewstone, M., Vol. 11, 223–255. Chichester, UK: J. Wiley.
72. Hogg, M. A., and Abrams, D., 1988. Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes, London: Routledge.
73. Hogg, M. A., and Turner, J. C., 1985. Interpersonal attraction, social identification and psychological group formation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 15: 51–66.
74. Hornsey, M., and Hogg, M. A., 2000. Subgroup relations: A comparison of mutual intergroup differentiation and common ingroup identity models of prejudice reduction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26: 242–256.
75. Inzlicht, M., and Ben-Zeev, T., 2000. A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychological Science, 11: 365–371.
76. Islam, M. R., and Hewstone, M., 1993. Dimensions of contact as predictors of intergroup anxiety, perceived out-group variability, and out-group attitude: An integrative model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19: 700–710.
77. Johns, M., Schmader, T., and Martens, A., 2005. Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women's math performance. Psychological Science, 16: 175–179.
78. Josephs, R. A., Newman, M. L., Brown, R. P., and Beer, J. M., 2003. Status, testosterone, and human intellectual performance: Stereotype threat as status concern. Psychological Science, 14: 158–163.
79. Keller, J., 2002. Blatant stereotype threat and women's math performance: Self-handicapping as a strategic means to cope with obtrusive negative performance expectations. Sex Roles, 47: 193–198.
80. Keller, J., and Dauenheimer, D., 2003. Stereotype threat in the classroom: Dejection mediates the disrupting threat effect on women's math performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29: 371–381.
81. Kite, M. E., and Johnson, B. T., 1988. Attitudes toward older and younger adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 3: 233–244.
82. Krueger, J., and Zeiger, J. S., 1993. Social categorisation and the truly false consensus effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65: 670–680.
83. Lahey, J. N., 2005. Do older workers face discrimination. Centre for Retirement Research at Boston College, 33: 1–8.
84. Levy, B. R., 1996. Improving memory in old age by implicit self-stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71: 1092–1107.
85. Levy, B. R., Hausdorff, J. M., Henke, R., and Wei, J. Y., 2000. Reducing cardiovascular stress with positive self-stereotypes of old age. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 55: 205–213.
86. Levy, B. R., and Langer, E., 1994. Aging free from negative stereotypes: Successful memory in China and among the American deaf. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66: 989–997.
87. Leyens, J-P., Désert, M., Croizet, J-C., and Darcis, C., 2000. Stereotype threat: Are lower status and history of stigmatisation preconditions of stereotype threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26: 1189–1199.
88. Maass, A., and Cadinu, M., 2003. “ Stereotype threat: When minority members underperform ”. In European review of social psychology, Edited by: Stroebe, W., and Hewstone, M., Vol. 14, 243–275. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
89. Marx, D. M., and Roman, J. S., 2002. Female role models: Protecting women's math test performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 1183–1193.
90. Marx, D. M., and Stapel, D. A., 2005. It depends on your perspective: The role of self-relevance in stereotype-based underperformance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42: 768–775.
91. McCann, R., and Giles, H., 2002. “ Ageism in the workplace: A communication perspective. In. T. Nelson (Ed.) ”. In Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice towards older people, 163–200. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
92. McIntyre, R. B., Paulson, R. M., and Lord, C. G., 2003. Alleviating women's mathematics stereotype threat through salience of group achievements. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39: 83–90.
93. McKay, P. F., Doverspike, D., Bowen-Hilton, D., and Martin, Q. D., 2002. Stereotype threat effects on the raven advanced progressive matrices scores of African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32: 767–787.
94. McLaughlin-Volpe, T., Aron, A., Wright, S. C., and Lewandowski, G., Jr. 2005. “ Exclusion of the self by close others and by groups: Implications of the Self-Expansion Model ”. In The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion, Edited by: Abrams, D., Hogg, M. A., and Marques, J., 113–133. New York: Psychology Press.
95. Mullen, B., Brown, R. J., and Smith, C., 1992. Ingroup bias as a function of salience, relevance and status: An integration. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22: 103–122.
96. National Science Foundation. 2002. Gender differences in the careers of academic scientists and engineers, Arlington, VA: Division of Science Resources Statistics. (NSF 04-323)
97. Nelson, T. D., 2002. Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older people, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
98. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M., and Greenwald, A. G., 2002. Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site. Group Dynamics, 6: 101–115.
99. Nuessel, F., 1982. The language of ageism. The Gerontologist, 22: 273–276.
100. Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., and Turner, J. C., 1994. Stereotyping and social reality, Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
101. Office for National Statistics. 2005. Focus on older people: Demographic profile http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/foop05/Foop_Demoraphic_profile.pdf
102. Osborne, J. W., 2001. Testing stereotype threat: Does anxiety explain race and sex differences in achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26: 291–310.
103. Oskamp, S., and Jones, J. M., 2000. “ Promising practice in reducing prejudice: A report from the President's Initiative on Race ”. In Reducing prejudice and discrimination, Edited by: Oskamp, S., 319–334. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
104. Ouwerkerk, J. W., de Gilder, D., and de Vries, N. K., 2000. When the going gets tough, the tough get going: Social identification and individual effort in intergroup competition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26: 1550–1559.
105. Paolini, S., Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., and Voci, A., 2004. Effects of direct and indirect cross-group friendships on judgements of Catholic and Protestants in Northern Ireland: The mediating role of an anxiety-reduction mechanism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30: 770–786.
106. Pendry, L. F., and Macrae, C. N., 1999. Cognitive load and person memory: The role of perceived group variability. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29: 925–942.
107. Pettigrew, T. F., 1998. Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 47: 65–85.
108. Pettigrew, T. F., and Tropp, L. R., 2006. A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90: 751–783.
109. Phinney, J. S., Ferguson, D. L., and Tate, J. D., 1997. Intergroup attitudes among ethnic minority adolescents: A causal model. Child Development, 68: 955–969.
110. Pinel, E., 2002. Stigma consciousness in intergroup contexts: The power of conviction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38: 178–185.
111. Plant, E. A., and Devine, P. G., 2003. The antecedents and implications of interracial anxiety. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29: 790–801.
112. Pronin, E., Steele, C. M., and Ross, L., 2004. Identity bifurcation in response to stereotype threat: Women and mathematics. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40: 152–168.
113. Quattrone, G. A., and Jones, E. F., 1980. The perception of variability within in-groups and out-groups: Implications for the law of small numbers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38: 141–152.
114. Rahhal, T. A., Hasher, L., and Colcombe, S. J., 2001. Instructional manipulations and age differences in memory: Now you see them, now you don't. Psychology and Aging, 16: 697–706.
115. Ray, S., Sharp, E., and Abrams, D., 2006. Ageism: A benchmark of public attitudes in Britain, London: Age Concern England.
116. Richeson, J. A., and Shelton, J. N., 2003. When prejudice does not pay: Effects of interracial contact on executive function. Psychological Science, 14: 287–290.
117. Roccas, S., and Brewer, M. B., 2002. Social identity complexity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6: 88–106.
118. Rosenthal, H. E. S., and Crisp, R. J., 2006. Reducing stereotype threat by blurring intergroup boundaries. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 32: 501–511.
119. Rosenthal, H. E. S., Crisp, R. J., and Suen, M-W., 2007. Improving performance expectancies in stereotypic domains: Task relevance and the reduction of stereotype threat. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37: 586–597.
120. Roth, M., Huppert, F. A., Mountjoy, C. Q., and Tym, E., 1998. Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG-R), Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
121. Ryan, C. S., Bogart, L. M., and Vender, J. P., 2000. Effects of perceived group variability on the gathering of information about individual group members. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36: 90–101.
122. Ryan, C. S., Judd, C. M., and Park, B., 1996. Effects of racial stereotypes on judgments of individuals: The moderating role of perceived group variability. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32: 71–103.
123. Salthouse, T. A., 1996. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103: 403–428.
124. Schmader, T., 2002. Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38: 194–201.
125. Schmader, T., and Johns, M., 2003. Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85: 440–452.
126. Seibt, B., and Förster, J., 2004. Stereotype threat and performance: How self-stereotypes influence processing by inducing regulatory foci. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87: 38–56.
127. Sekaquaptewa, D., and Thompson, M., 2002. Solo status, stereotype threat, and performance expectancies: Their effects on women's performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39: 68–74.
128. Shapiro, J. R., and Neuberg, S. L., 2007. From stereotype threat to stereotype threats: Implications of a multi-threat framework for causes, moderators, mediators, consequences, and interventions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11: 107–130.
129. Shelton, J. N., and Richeson, J. A., 2005. Intergroup contact and pluralistic ignorance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88: 91–107.
130. Simon, B., and Brown, R., 1987. Perceived intragroup homogeneity in minority-majority contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53: 703–711.
131. Simon, B., and Hamilton, D. L., 1994. Self-stereotyping and social-context – the effects of relative in-group size and in-group status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66: 699–711.
132. Sherif, M., 1966. Group conflict and cooperation, London: Routledge Kegan Paul.
133. Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., and Sherif, C. W., 1961. Intergroup conflict and cooperation. The Robbers' Cave experiment, University of Oklahoma Press.
134. Smith, E. R., and Henry, S. M., 1996. An in-group becomes part of the self: Response time evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22: 635–642.
135. Smith, J. L., and White, P. H., 2002. An examination of implicitly activated, explicitly activated, and nullified stereotypes on mathematical performance: It's not just a woman's issue. Sex Roles, 47: 179–191.
136. Spears, R., Doosje, B., and Ellemers, N., 1997. Self-stereotyping in the face of threats to group status and distinctiveness: The role of group identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 538–553.
137. Spencer, S., Steele, C. M., and Quinn, D., 1999. Stereotype threat and women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35: 4–28.
138. Stangor, C., Carr, C., and Kiang, L., 1998. Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75: 1191–1197.
139. Stathi, S., and Crisp, R. J., 2008. Imagining intergroup contact promotes projection to outgroups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44: 943–957.
140. Steele, C. M., 1997. A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape the intellectual identities and performance of women and African Americans. American Psychologist, 52: 613–629.
141. Steele, C. M., and Aronson, J., 1995. Stereotype threat and intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64: 885–896.
142. Steele, C. M., Spencer, S., and Aronson, J., 2002. “ Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat ”. In Advances in experimental social psychology, Edited by: Zanna, M. P., Vol. 34, 379–440. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
143. Stein, R., Blanchard-Fields, F., and Hertzog, C., 2002. The effects of age-stereotype priming on the memory performance of older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 28: 169–181.
144. Stephan, W., and Stephan, C. W., 2000. “ An integrated threat theory of prejudice ”. In Reducing prejudice and discrimination, Edited by: Oskamp, S., 23–46. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
145. Stephan, W. G., and Stephan, C., 1985. Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41: 157–176.
146. Stone, C. H., and Crisp, R. J., 2007. Superordinate and subgroup identification as predictors of intergroup evaluation in common ingroup contexts. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10: 493–513.
147. Stone, J., 2002. Battling doubt by avoiding practice: The effects of stereotype threat on self-handicapping in white athletes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28: 1667–1678.
148. Stone, J., Lynch, C. I., Sjomeling, M., and Darley, J. M., 1999. Stereotype threat effects on black and white athletic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77: 1213–1227.
149. Tam, T., Hewstone, M., Harwood, J., Voci, A., and Kenworthy, J., 2006. Intergroup contact and grandparent–grandchild communication: The effects of self-disclosure on implicit and explicit biases against older people. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9: 413–429.
150. Tajfel, H., 1959. Quantitative judgment in social perception. British Journal of Psychology, 50: 16–29.
151. Tajfel, H., and Turner, J. C., 1979. “ An integrative theory of intergroup conflict ”. In The social psychology of intergroup relations, Edited by: Austin, W. G., and Worchel, S., 33–47. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
152. Tropp, L. R., 2003. The psychological impact of prejudice: Implications for intergroup contact. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6: 131–149.
153. Tropp, L. R., and Pettigrew, T. F., 2005. Differential relationships between intergroup contact and affective and cognitive dimension of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31: 1145–1158.
154. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., and Wetherell, M. S., 1987. Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorisation theory, Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
155. Turner, J. C., and Reynolds, K. J., 2001. “ The social identity perspective in intergroup relations: Theories, themes and controversies ”. In Handbook of social psychology: Vol 4: Intergroup processes, Edited by: Brown, R., and Gaertner, S., Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
156. Turner, R. N., Crisp, R. J., and Lambert, E., 2007a. Imagining intergroup contact can improve intergroup attitudes. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 10: 427–441.
157. Turner, R. N., Hewstone, M., and Voci, A., 2007b. Reducing explicit and implicit prejudice via direct and extended contact: The mediating role of self-disclosure and intergroup anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93: 369–388.
158. Turner, R. N., Hewstone, M., Voci, A., Paolini, S., and Christ, O., 2007c. Reducing prejudice via direct and extended cross-group friendship. European Review of Social Psychology, 18: 212–255.
159. UK Higher Education Statistics Agency. 2008. Students and qualifiers data tables Retrieved 21 July 2008, from http://www.hesa.ac.uk/index.php/component/option,com_datatables/Itemid,121/
160. van Leeuwen, E., van Knippenberg, D., and Ellemers, N., 2003. Continuing and changing group identities: The effects of merging on social identification and ingroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29: 697–690.
161. Voci, A., and Hewstone, M., 2003. Intergroup contact and prejudice towards immigrants in Italy: The mediational role of anxiety and the moderational role of group salience. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6: 37–54.
162. Wechsler, D., 1998. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-III-R), London: The Psychological Corporation.
163. Whitbourne, S. K., and Sneed, J. R., 2002. “ The paradox of well-being, identity processes, and stereotype threat: Ageism and its potential relationships to the self in later life ”. In Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older people, Edited by: Nelson, T. D., 247–273. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
164. Wilder, D. A., 1993. “ The role of anxiety in facilitating stereotypic judgments of out-group behaviour ”. In Affect, cognition, and stereotyping, Edited by: Mackie, D. M., and Hamilton, D. L., 87–109. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
165. Wilder, D. A., and Shapiro, P., 1991. Facilitation of outgroup stereotypes by enhanced ingroup identity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27: 431–452.
166. Wright, S. C., Aron, A., McLaughlin-Volpe, T., and Ropp, S. A., 1997. The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73: 73–90.
167. Yoon, C., Hasher, L., Feinberg, F., Rahhal, T. A., and Winocur, G., 2000. Cross-cultural differences in memory: The role of culture-based stereotypes about aging. Psychology and Aging, 15: 694–704.
168. Zick, A., Wagner, U., Van Dick, R., and Petzel, T., 2001. Acculturation and prejudice in Germany: Majority and minority perspectives. Journal of Social Issues, 57: 541–555.