An age apart: The effects of intergenerational contact and stereotype threat on performance and intergroup bias

Psychology and Aging

Volumn 21, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 691-702

  Abrams, Dominic ^a   Eller, Anja ^b   Bryant, Jacqueline ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENT   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Ingroup bias; Intergenerational contact; Older people; Stereotype threat; Test performance

Indexed keywords

ANXIETY; ARTICLE; COGNITION; HUMAN; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; STEREOTYPY; TASK PERFORMANCE; THEORETICAL STUDY;

AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; ANXIETY; BIAS (EPIDEMIOLOGY); COGNITION DISORDERS; FEAR; FEMALE; GROUP PROCESSES; HUMANS; INTERGENERATIONAL RELATIONS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 33845996152     PISSN: 08827974     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0882-7974.21.4.691     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2002). Category activation effects in judgment and behaviour: The moderating role of perceived comparability. British Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 123-138.
2. Abrams, D., Ando, K., & Hinkle, S. W. (1998). Psychological attachment to the group: Cross-cultural differences in organizational identification and subjective norms as predictors of workers' turnover intentions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1027-1039.
3. Abrams, D., Viki, G. T., Bardi, A., Houston, D. M., Randsley de Moura, G. R., Ray, S., & Sopp, L. (2005, July). Age related prejudice and discrimination in Britain: Results from the first national survey. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the British Society of Gerontology, Keele, United Kingdom.
4. Age Concern England. (2005). How ageist is Britain? London: Author. Retrieved from http://www.ageconcern.org.uk/AgeConcern/Documents/ how_ageist_is_britain.pdf
5. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
6. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
7. Anderson, K., Harwood, J., & Hummert, M. L. (2005). The grandparent-grandchild relationship. Human Communication Research, 31, 268-294.
8. Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, C., & Keough, K. (1999). When White men can't do math: Necessary and sufficient factors in stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 29-46.
9. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
10. Blascovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., Lickel, B., & Kowai-Bell, N. (2001). Perceiver threat in social interactions with stigmatized others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 253-267.
11. Blascovich, J., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D., & Steele, C. (2002). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12, 225-229.
12. Bosson, J. K., Haymovitz, E. L., & Pinel, E. C. (2003). When saying and doing diverge: The effects of stereotype threat on self-reported versus non-verbal anxiety. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 247-255.
13. Braithwaite, V. (1986). Old age stereotypes: Reconciling contradictions. Journal of Gerontology, 41, 353-360.
14. Brown, R. J., & Hewstone, M. (2005). An integrative theory of intergroup contact. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 255-343.
15. Brownley, K. A., Hurwitz, B. E., & Schneiderman, N. (2000). Cardiovascular psychophysiology. In L. G. Tassinary & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (2nd ed., pp. 224-264). New York: Cambridge University Press.
16. Caspi, A. (1984). Contact hypothesis and inter-age attitudes: A field study of cross-age contact. Social Psychology Quarterly, 47, 74-80.
17. Chasteen, A. L., Schwarz, N., & Park, D. C. (2002). The activation of aging stereotypes in younger and older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 57, 540-547.
18. Coupland, N., Coupland, J., & Giles, H. (1991). Language, society and the elderly. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell.
19. Croizet, J., Desert, M., Dutrevis, M., & Leyens, J.-P. (2001). Stereotype threat, social class, gender and academic under-achievement: When our reputation catches up to us and takes over. Social Psychology of Education, 4, 295-310.
20. Croizet, J. C., Despres, G., Buazins, M. E., Huguet, P., Leyens, J.-P., & Meot, A. (2004). Stereotype threat undermines intellectual performance by triggering a disruptive mental load. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 721-731.
21. Cuddy, A. C., Norton, M. I., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). This old stereotype: The pervasiveness and persistence of the elderly stereotype. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 267-285.
22. Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (2002). Self and social identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 161-186.
23. Eller, A., & Abrams, D. (2003). 'Gringos' in Mexico: Cross-sectional and longitudinal effects of language school-promoted contact on intergroup bias. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 55-75.
24. Eller, A., & Abrams, D. (2004). Come together: Longitudinal comparisons of Pettigrew's reformulated intergroup contact model and the common ingroup identity model in Anglo-French and Mexican-American contexts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 229-256.
25. Fingerman, K. L. (1998). Tight lips? Aging mothers' and adult daughters' responses to interpersonal tensions in their relationships. Personal Relationships, 5, 121-138.
26. Fingerman, K. L., Hay, E. L., & Birditt, K. S. (2004). The best of ties, the worst of ties: Close, problematic, and ambivalent social relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 66, 792-808.
27. Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
28. Gold, D. O., Arbuckle, T. Y., & Andres, D. (1994). Verbosity in older adults. In M. L. Hummert, J. M. Wicmann, & J. F. Nussbaum (Eds.), Interpersonal communication in older adulthood: Interdisciplinary theory and research (pp. 107-129). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
29. Griff, M., Lambert, D., Dellman-Jenkins, M., & Fruit, D. (1996). Intergenerational activity analysis with three groups of older adults: Frail, community-living, and Alzheimer's. Educational Gerontology, 22, 601-612.
30. Hagestad, G. O., & Uhlenberg, P. (2005). The social separation of old and young: A root of ageism. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 343-360.
31. Harwood, J., Hewstone, M., Paolini, S., & Voci, A. (2005). Grandparent-grandchild contact and attitudes toward older adults: Moderator and mediator effects. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 393-406.
32. Helmes, E., & Gee, S. (2000). Development of a training program in clinical geropsychology. Australian Journal on Ageing, 19, 113-117.
33. Hess, T. M., Auman, C., Colcombe, S. J., & Rahhal, T. A. (2003). The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 58, 3-11.
34. Hess, T. M., Hinson, J. T., & Statham, J. A. (2004). Explicit and implicit stereotype activation effects on memory: Do age and awareness moderate the impact of priming? Psychology and Aging, 19, 495-505.
35. Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. London: Routledge.
36. Hornsey, M., & Hogg, M. A. (2000). Subgroup relations: A comparison of mutual intergroup differentiation and common ingroup identity models of prejudice reduction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 242-256.
37. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003). Effect of social category priming on social attitudes. Psychological Science, 14, 315-319.
38. Kite, M. E., & Johnson, B. T. (1988). Attitudes toward older and younger adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 3, 233-244.
39. Kite, M. E., Stockdale, G. D., Whitley, B. E., Jr., & Johnson, B. T. (2005). Attitudes toward younger and older adults: An updated meta-analytic review. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 241-266.
40. Knox, V. J., Gekoski, W. L., & Johnson, E. A. (1986). Young people's contact with and perceptions of the elderly. The Gerontologist, 26, 309-313.
41. Levin, S., van Laar, C., & Sidanius, J. (2003). The effects of ingroup and outgroup friendships on ethnic attitudes in college: A longitudinal study. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 76-92.
42. Levy, B. R. (1996). Improving memory in old age by implicit self-stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1092-1107.
43. Levy, B. R., Hausdorff, J. M., Hencke, R., & Wei, J. Y. (2000). Reducing cardiovascular stress with positive self-stereotypes of old age. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 55, 205-213.
44. Levy, B. R., & Langer, E. (1994). Aging free from negative stereotypes: Successful memory in China and among the American deaf. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 989-997.
45. Luescher, K., & Pillemer, K. (1998). Intergenerational ambivalence: A new approach to the study of parent-child relations in later life. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 413-425.
46. McCann, R., & Giles, H. (2002). Ageism in the workplace: A communication perspective. In. T. Nelson (Ed.), Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice towards older people (pp. 163-200). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
47. McFarland, L. A., Lev-Arey, D. M., & Ziegert, J. C. (2003). An examination of stereotype threat in a motivational context. Human Performance, 16, 181-205.
48. McLaughlin-Volpe, T., Aron, A., Wright, S. C., & Lewandowski, G., Jr. (2005). Exclusion of the self by close others and by groups: Implications of the self-expansion model. In D. Abrams, M. A. Hogg, and J. Marques (Eds.), The social psychology of inclusion and exclusion (pp. 113-133). New York: Psychology Press.
49. Nelson, T. D. (Ed.). (2002). Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
50. Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration web site. Group Dynamics, 6, 101-115.
51. Nuessel, F. (1982). The language of ageism. The Gerontologist, 22, 273-276.
52. O'Brien, L. T., & Crandall, C. S. (2003). Stereotype threat and arousal: Effects on women's math performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 782-789.
53. Osborne, J. W. (2001). Testing stereotype threat: Does anxiety explain race and sex differences in achievement? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26, 291-310.
54. Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 65-85.
55. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751-783.
56. Pinquart, M., Wenzel, S., & Sorensen, S. (2000). Changes in attitudes among children and elderly adults in intergenerational group work. Educational Gerontology, 26, 523-540.
57. Pronin, E., Steele, C. M., & Ross, L. (2004). Identity bifurcation in response to stereotype threat: Women and mathematics. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 152-168.
58. Quinn, D. M., & Spencer, S. J. (2001). The interference of stereotype threat with women's generation of mathematical problem-solving strategies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 55-71.
59. Rahhal, T. A., Hasher, L., & Colcombe, S. J. (2001). Instructional manipulations and age differences in memory: Now you see them, now you don't. Psychology and Aging, 16, 697-706.
60. Roth, M., Huppert, F. A., Mountjoy, C. Q., & Tym, E. (1998). Cambridge Cognitive Examination-Revised (CAMCOG-R). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
61. Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403-428.
62. Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 194-201.
63. Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 440-452.
64. Schwartz, L. K., & Simmons, J. P. (2001). Contact quality and attitudes towards the elderly. Educational Gerontology, 27, 127-137.
65. Seibt, B., & Förster, J. (2004). Stereotype threat and performance: How self-stereotypes influence processing by inducing regulatory foci. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 38-56.
66. Smith, E. R. (1999). Affective and cognitive implications of group membership becoming part of the self: New models of prejudice and of the self-concept. In D. Abrams & M. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity and social cognition (pp. 183-196). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
67. Smith, J. L. (2004). Understanding the process of stereotype threat: A review of mediational variables and new performance goal directions. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 177-206.
68. Snyder, M., Tanke, E. D., & Berscheid, E. (1977). Social perception and interpersonal behavior: On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 656-666.
69. Spencer, S., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. (1999). Stereotype threat and women's math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-28.
70. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape the intellectual identities and performance of women and African Americans. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
71. Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
72. Stein, R., Blanchard-Fields, F., & Hertzog, C. (2002). The effects of age-stereotype priming on the memory performance of older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 28, 169-181.
73. Stephan, W., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 23-46). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
74. Stricker, L. J., & Ward, W. C. (2004). Stereotype threat, inquiring about test takers' ethnicity and gender, and standardized test performance. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 34, 665-693.
75. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
76. Tropp, L. R., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2005). Relationships between intergroup contact and prejudice among minority and majority status groups. Psychological Science, 16, 951-957.
77. Wechsler, D. (1998). The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-III-R). London: Psychological Corporation.
78. Wheeler, C. S., & Petty, R. E. (2001). The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 797-826.
79. Whitbourne, S. K., & Sneed, J. R. (2002). The paradox of well-being, identity processes, and stereotype threat: Ageism and its potential relationships to the self in later life. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older people (pp. 247-273). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
80. Williams, A., & Giles, H. (1996). Intergenerational conversations: Young adults' retrospective accounts. Human Communication Research, 23, 220-250.
81. Williams, A., & Nussbaum, J. F. (2001). Intergenerational communication across the lifespan. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
82. Williams, A., Ota, H., Giles, H., Pierson, H. D., Gallois, C., Ng, S., Lim, T., Ryan, E. B., Somera, L., Mather, J., Cai, D., & Harwood, J. (1997). Young people's beliefs about intergenerational communication: An initial cross-cultural comparison. Communication Research, 24, 370-393.
83. Wright, S. C., Aron, A., McLaughlin-Volpe, T., & Ropp, S. A. (1997). The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross-group friendships and prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 73-90.
84. Yoon, C., Hasher, L., Feinberg, F., Rahhal, T. A., & Winocur, G. (2000). Cross-cultural differences in memory: The role of culture-based stereotypes about aging. Psychology and Aging, 15, 694-704.
85. Yzerbyt, V. Y., Muller, D., & Judd, C. M. (2004). Adjusting researchers' approach to adjustment: On the use of covariates when testing interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 424-431.