A mechanical actuator driven electrochemically by artificial molecular muscles

ACS Nano

Volumn 3, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 291-300

  Juluri, Bala Krishna ^a   Kumar, Ajeet S ^b   Liu, Yi ^c   Ye, Tao ^b,g   Yang, Ying Wei ^d   Flood, Amar H ^e   Fang, Lei ^f   Stoddart, J Fraser ^f   Weiss, Paul S ^b   Huang, Tony Jun ^a  

^a The Pennsylvania State University   (United States)

^b PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^e INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Bistable rotaxanes; Electrochemistry; Microcantilever; Molecular machines; NEMS; Supramolecular chemistry

Indexed keywords

1-DODECANETHIOL; BISTABILITIES; BISTABLE ROTAXANES; DUMBBELL MOLECULES; ELECTROCHEMICAL POTENTIALS; EXTERNAL POWER SUPPLIES; GOLD CHEMISTRIES; GOLD FILMS; MECHANICAL ACTUATORS; MICROCANTILEVER; MOLECULAR MACHINES; NANO-ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEMS; NANO-METER SCALE; PALINDROMIC; POTENTIAL STEP EXPERIMENTS; PRE COATINGS; REDOX ACTIVITIES; ROTAXANE; SCAN RATES; SELF-ASSEMBLED; THERMAL RELAXATIONS;

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY; CHEMICAL SENSORS; DEFLECTION (STRUCTURES); ELECTRIC BATTERIES; ELECTROCHEMISTRY; ELECTROLYTIC ANALYSIS; ELECTROLYTIC CELLS; GOLD; MACROMOLECULES; MUSCLE; REDOX REACTIONS; SUPRAMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY; TELEPHONE SYSTEMS;

COMPOSITE MICROMECHANICS;

ROTAXANE;

ARTICLE; BIOMIMETICS; CHEMISTRY; ELECTROCHEMISTRY; INSTRUMENTATION; MECHANICS; METHODOLOGY; MUSCLE; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; PHYSIOLOGY; TEMPERATURE; TIME;

BIOMIMETICS; ELECTROCHEMISTRY; MECHANICAL PROCESSES; MUSCLES; OXIDATION-REDUCTION; ROTAXANES; TEMPERATURE; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 63449103763     PISSN: 19360851     EISSN: 1936086X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1021/nn8002373     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Lyshevski, S. E. Nano-and Micro-Electromechanical Systems: Fundamentals of Nano- and Microengineering; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 2005.
2. Ozin, G. A.; Manners, I.; Fournier-Bidoz, S.; Arsenault, A. Dream Nanomachines. Adv. Mater. 2005, 17, 3011-3018.
3. Liu, C. Foundations of MEMS; Pearson Education: Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2006.
4. Gianchandani, Y.; Tabata, O.; Zappe, H. Comprehensive Microsystems: Elsevier: Amsterdam, 2007.
5. Browne, W. R.; Feringa, B. L. Making Molecular Machines Work. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2006, 1, 25-35.
6. Feringa, B. L. The Art of Building Small: From Molecular Switches to Molecular Motors. J. Org. Chem. 2007, 72, 6635-6652.
7. Baranoff, E.; Barigelletti, F.; Bonnet, S.; Collin, J.-P.; Flamigni, L.; Mobian, P.; Sauvage, J.-P. From Photoinduced Charge Separation to Light-Driven Molecular Machines. Struct. Bonding (Berlin) 2007, 123, 41 -78.
8. Kay, E. R.; Leigh, D. A.; Zerbetto, F. Synthetic Molecular Motors and Mechanical Machines. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 72-191.
9. 11 Bits Per Square Centimetre. Nature 2007, 445, 414-417.
10. Craighead, H.G. Nanoelectromechanical Systems. Science 2000, 290, 1532-1535.
11. Baughman, R. H.; Cui, C. X.; Zakhidov, A. A.; Iqbal, Z.; Barisci, J. N.; Spinks, G. M.; Wallace, G. G.; Mazzoldi, A.; De Rossi, D.; Rinzler, A. G.; Jaschinski, O.; Roth, S.; Kertesz, M. Carbon Nanotube Actuators. Science 1999, 284, 1340-1344.
12. Juodkazis, S.; Mukai, N.; Wakaki, R.; Yamaguchi, A.; Matsuo, S.; Misawa, H. Reversible Phase Transitions in Polymer Gels Induced by Radiation Forces. Nature 2000, 408, 178-181.
13. Fritz, J.; Bailer, M. K.; Lang, H. P.; Rothuizen, H.; Vettiger, P.; Meyer, E.; Guntherodt, H. J.; Gerber, C.; Gimzewski, J. K. Translating Biomolecular Recognition into Nanomechanics. Science 2000, 288, 316-318.
14. Wu, G.; Ji, H.; Hansen, K.; Thundat, T.; Datar, R.; Cote, R.; Hagan, M. F.; Chakraborty, A. K.; Majumdar, A. Origin of Nanomechanical Cantilever Motion Generated from Biomolecular Interactions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2001, 98, 1560-1564.
15. Lahav, M.; Durkan, C.; Gabai, R.; Katz, E.; Willner, I.; Welland, M. E. Redox Activation of a Polyaniline-Coated Cantilever: An Electro-Driven Microdevice. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 4219-4221.
16. Tabard-Cossa, V.; Godin, M.; Grutter, P.; Burgess, I.; Lennox, R. B. Redox-lnduced Surface Stress of Polypyrrole-Based Actuators. J. Phys. Chem. B 2005, 109, 17531 -17537.
17. Raguse, B.; Muller, K. H.; Wieczorek, L. Nanoparticle Actuators. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 922-926.
18. Bay, L.; West, K.; Sommer-Larsen, P.; Skaarup, S.; Benslimane, M. A Conducting Polymer Artificial Muscle with 12% Linear Strain. Adv. Mater. 2003, 15, 310-313.
19. Shu, W. M.; Liu, D. S.; Watari, M.; Riener, C. K.; Strunz, T.; Welland, M. E.; Balasubramanian, S.; McKendry, R. A. DNA Molecular Motor Driven Micromechanical Cantilever Arrays. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 17054-17060.
20. Braun, T.; Backmann, N.; Vogtli, M.; Bietsch, A.; Engel, A.; Lang, H.-P.; Gerber, C.; Hegner, M. Conformational Change of Bacteriorhodopsin Quantitatively Monitored by Microcantilever Sensors. Biophys. J. 2006, 90, 2970-2977.
21. Ren, Q.; Zhao, Y. P.; Han, L.; Zhao, H. B. A Nanomechanical Device Based on Light-Driven Proton Pumps. Nanotechnology 2006, 17, 1778-1785.
22. Ji, H. F.; Feng, Y.; Xu, X. H.; Purushotham, V.; Thundat, T.; Brown, G. M. Photon-Driven Nanomechanical Cyclic Motion. Chem. Commun. 2004, 22, 2532-2533.
23. Huang, T. J.; Juluri, B. K. Biological and Biomimetic Molecular Machines. Nanomedicine 2008, 3, 107-124.
24. Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Raymo, F. M.; Stoddart, J. F. Artificial Molecular Machines. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2000, 39, 3348-3391.
25. Balzani, V.; Venturi, M.; Credi, A. Molecular Devices and Machines: A Journey into the Nanoworld; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2003.
26. Flood, A. H.; Ramirez, R. J. A.; Deng, W. Q.; Muller, R. P.; Goddard, W. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Meccano on the Nanoscale - A Blueprint for Making Some of the World's Tiniest Machines. Aust. J. Chem. 2004, 57, 301-322.
27. Huang, T. J.; Tseng, H.-R.; Sha, L.; Lu, W. X.; Brough, B.; Flood, A. H.; Yu, B. D.; Celestre, P. C.; Chang, J. P.; Stoddart, J. F.; Ho, C. M. Mechanical Shuttling of Linear Motor-Molecules in Condensed Phases on Solid Substrates. Nano Lett. 2004, 4, 2065-2071.
28. Kottas, G. S.; Clarke, L. I.; Horinek, D.; Michl, J. Artificial Molecular Rotors. Chem. Rev. 2005, 105, 1281 -1376.
29. Huang, T. J.; Flood, A. H.; Brough, B.; Liu, Y.; Bonvallet, P. A.; Kang, S. S.; Chu, C. W.; Guo, T. F.; Lu, W. X.; Yang, Y.; Stoddart, J. F.; Ho, C. M. Understanding and Harnessing Biomimetic Molecular Machines for NEMS Actuation Materials. IEEE Trans. 2006, 3, 254-259.
30. Khuong, T. A. V.; Nunez, J. E.; Godinez, C. E.; Garcia-Garibay, M. A. Crystalline Molecular Machines: A Quest Toward Solid-State Dynamics and Function. Acc. Chem. Res. 2006, 39, 413-422.
31. Huang, T. J. Recent Developments in Artificial Molecular Machine-Based Active Nanomaterials and Nanosystems. MRS Bull. 2008, 33, 226-231.
32. Champin, B.; Mobian, P.; Sauvage, J. P. Transition Metal Complexes as Molecular Machine Prototypes. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2007, 36, 358-366.
33. Kay, E. R; Leigh, D. A. Beyond Switches: Rotaxane- and Catenane-Based Synthetic Molecular Motors. Pure Appl. Chem. 2008, 80, 17-29.
34. Badjic, J. D.; Balzani, V.; Credi, A.; Stoddart, J. F. A Molecular Elevator. Science 2004, 303, 1845-1849.
35. Moonen, N. N. P.; Flood, A. H.; Fernández, J. M.; Stoddart, J. F. Towards a Rational Design of Molecular Switches and Sensors from Their Basic Building Blocks. Top. Curr. Chem. 2005, 262, 99-132.
36. Badjic, J. D.; Ronconi, C. M.; Stoddart, J. F.; Balzani, V.; Silvi, S.; Credi, A. Operating Molecular Elevators. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 1489-1499.
37. Heath, J. R.; Ratner, M. A. Molecular Electronics. Phys. Today 2003, 56, 43-49.
38. Mantooth, B. A.; Weiss, P. S. Fabrication, Assembly, and Characterization of Molecular Electronic Components. Proc. IEEE 2003, 91, 1785-1802.
39. Flood, A. H.; Stoddart, J. F.; Steuerman, D. W.; Heath, J. R. Whence Molecular Electronics. Science 2004, 306, 2055-2056.
40. Moore, A. M.; Dameron, A. A.; Mantooth, B. A.; Smith, R. K.; Fuchs, D. J.; Ciszek, J. W.; Maya, F.; Yao, Y.; Tour, J. M.; Weiss, P. S. Molecular Engineering and Measurements to Test Hypothesized Mechanisms in Single Molecule Conductance Switching. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 1959-1967.
41. Collier, C. P.; Mattersteig, G.; Wong, E. W.; Luo, Y.; Beverly, K.; Sampaio, J.; Raymo, F. M.; Stoddart, J. F.; Heath, J. R. A [2]Catenane Based Solid-State Electronically Reconfigurable Switch. Science 2000, 289, 1172-1175.
42. Pease, A. R.; Jeppesen, J. O.; Stoddart, J. F.; Luo, Y.; Collier, C. P.; Heath, J. R. Switching Devices Based on Interlocked Molecules. Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34, 433-444.
43. Luo, Y.; Collier, C. P.; Jeppesen, J. O.; Nielsen, K. A.; Delonno, G.; Ho, G.; Perkins, J.; Tseng, H.-R.; Yamamoto, T.; Stoddart, J. F.; Heath, J. R. Two-Dimensional Molecular Electronics Circuits. ChemPhysChem 2002, 3, 519-525.
44. Tseng, H.-R.; Vignon, S. A.; Celestre, P. C.; Perkins, J.; Jeppesen, J. O.; Di Fabio, A.; Ballardini, R.; Gandolfi, M. T.; Venturi, M.; Balzani, V.; Stoddart, J. F. Redox-Controllable Amphiphilic [2]Rotaxanes. Chem. - Eur. J. 2004, 10, 155-172.
45. Jang, S. S.; Jang, Y. H.; Kim, Y.-H.; Goddard, W. A., Ill; Choi, J. W.; Heath, J. R.; Laursen, B. W.; Flood, A. H.; Stoddart, J. F.; Nørgaard, K.; Bjørnholm, T. Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Amphiphilic Bistable [2]Rotaxane Langmuir Monolayers at Air/Water Interfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 14804-14816.
46. Deng, W.-Q.; Flood, A. H.; Stoddart, J. F.; Goddard, W. A. Electronic Paper Display Design Based on a Tristable [2]Catenane. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 15994-15995.
47. Dichtel, W. R.; Heath, J. R.; Stoddart, J. F. Designing Bistable [2]Rotaxanes for Molecular Electronic Devices. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A 2007, 365, 1607-1625.
48. Nguyen, T. D.; Tseng, H.-R.; Celestre, P. C.; Flood, A. H.; Liu, Y.; Stoddart, J. F.; Zink, J. I. A Reversible Molecular Valve. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2005, 102, 10029-10034.
49. Nguyen, T. D.; Liu, Y.; Saha, S.; Leung, K. C.-F.; Stoddart, J. F.; Zink, J. I. Design and Optimization of Molecular Nanovalves Based on Redox-Switchable Rotaxanes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 626-634.
50. Saha, S.; Leung, K. C.-F.; Nguyen, T. D.; Stoddart, J. F.; Zink, J. I. Nanovalves. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2007, 17, 685-693.
51. Angelos, S.; Johansson, E.; Stoddart, J. F.; Zink, J. I. Mesostructured Silica Supports for Functional Materials and Molecular Machines. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2007, 17, 2261-2271.
52. Angelos, S.; Yang, Y.-W.; Patel, K.; Stoddart, J. F.; Zink, J. I. Supramolecular Nanovalves Based on Cucurbit[6]uril Pseudorotaxanes. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2008, 47, 2222-2226.
53. Patel, K.; Angelos, S.; Dichtel, W. R.; Coskun, A.; Yang, Y.-W.; Zink, J. I.; Stoddart, J. F. Enzyme-Responsive Snap-Top Covered Silica Nanocontainers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 2382-2383.
54. Steuerman, D. W.; Tseng, H.-R.; Peters, A. J.; Flood, A. H.; Jeppesen, J. O.; Nielsen, K. A.; Stoddart, J. F.; Heath, J. R. Molecular-Mechanical Switch-Based Solid-State Electrochromic Devices. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2004, 43, 6486-6491.
55. Deng, W. Q.; Flood, A. H.; Stoddart, J. F.; Goddard, W. A. An Electrochemical Color-Switchable RGB Dye: Tristable [2]Catenane. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 15994-15995.
56. Ikeda, T.; Saha, S.; Aprahamian, I.; Leung, K. C. F.; Williams, A.; Deng, W. Q.; Flood, A. H.; Goddard, W. A., Ill; Stoddart, J. F. Toward Electrochemically Controllable Tristable Three-Station [2]Catenanes. Chem. Asian J. 2007, 2, 76-93.
57. Aprahamian, I.; Yasuda, T.; Ikeda, T.; Saha, S.; Dichtel, W. R.; Isoda, K.; Kato, T.; Stoddart, J. F. A Liquid-Crystalline Bistable [2]Rotaxane. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 4675-4679.
58. Ikeda, T.; Aprahamian, I.; Stoddart, J. F. Blue-Colored Donor-Acceptor [2]Rotaxane. Org. Lett. 2007, 9, 1481-1484.
59. Berna, J.; Leigh, D. A.; Lubomska, M.; Mendoza, S. M.; Perez, E. M.; Rudolf, P.; Teobaldi, G.; Zerbetto, F. Macroscopic Transport by Synthetic Molecular Machines. Nat. Mater. 2005, 4, 704-710.
60. Eelkema, R.; Pollard, M. M.; Vicario, J.; Katsonis, N.; Ramon, B. S.; Bastiaansen, C. W. M.; Broer, D. J.; Feringa, B. L. Nanomotor Rotates Microscale Objects. Nature 2006, 440, 163.
61. Stoddart, J. F. Whither and Thither Molecular Machines. Chem. Aust. 1992, 59, 576-581.
62. Tseng, H.-R.; Vignon, S. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Toward Chemically Controlled Nanoscale Molecular Machinery. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2003, 42, 1491-1495.
63. Aprahamian, I.; Miljanic, O. S.; Dichtel, W. R.; Isoda, K.; Yasuda, T.; Kato, T.; Stoddart, J. F. Clicked Interlocked Molecules. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 2007, 80, 1856-1869.
64. Jeppesen, J. O.; Nygaard, S.; Vignon, S. A.; Stoddart, J. F. Honing up a Genre of Amphiphilic Bistable [2]Rotaxanes for Device Settings. fur. J. Org. Chem. 2005, 196-220.
65. Huang, T. J.; Brough, B.; Ho, C M.; Liu, Y.; Flood, A. H.; Bonvallet, P. A.; Tseng, H.-R.; Stoddart, J. F.; Bailer, M.; Magonov, S. A Nanomechanical Device Based on Linear Molecular Motors. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004, 85, 5391-5393.
66. Liu, Y.; Flood, A. H.; Bonvallett, P. A.; Vignon, S. A.; Northrop, B. H.; Tseng, H.-R.; Jeppesen, J. O.; Huang, T. J.; Brough, B.; Bailer, M.; Magonov, S.; Solares, S. D.; Goddard, W. A.; Ho, C. M.; Stoddart, J. F. Linear Artificial Molecular Muscles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 9745-9759.
67. Kovacs, G. T. A. Micromachined Transducers Sourcebook; McGraw-Hill: New York, 1998.
68. Hess, H. Materials Science - Toward Devices Powered by Biomolecular Motors. Science 2006, 312, 860-861.
69. Tseng, H.-R.; Wu, D. M.; Fang, N. X. L.; Zhang, X.; Stoddart, J. F. The Metastability of an Electrochemically Controlled Nanoscale Machine on Gold Surfaces. ChemPhysChem 2004, 5, 111-116.
70. Choi, J. W.; Flood, A. H.; Steuerman, D. W.; Nygaard, S.; Braunschweig, A. B.; Moonen, N. N. P.; Laursen, B. W.; Luo, Y.; Delonno, E.; Peters, A. J. Ground-State Equilibrium Thermodynamics and Switching Kinetics of Bistable [2]Rotaxanes Switched in Solution, Polymer Gels, and Molecular Electronic Devices. Chem. - Eur. J. 2006, 12, 261-279.
71. Goodsell, D. S. Our Molecular Nature: The Body's Motors, Machines, and Messages; Copernicus: New York, 1996.
72. Geeves, M. A. Stretching the Lever-Arm Theory. Nature 2002,415, 129-131.
73. Spudich, J. A.; Rock, R. S. A Crossbridge Too Far. Nat. Cell Biol. 2002, 4, E8-E10.
74. Flood, A. H.; Peters, A. J.; Vignon, S. A.; Steuerman, D. W.; Tseng, H.-R.; Kang, S.; Heath, J. R.; Stoddart, J. F. The Role of Physical Environment on Molecular Electromechanical Switching. Chem. - Eur. J. 2004, 10, 6558-6564.
75. 4 Electrolyte. Surf. Sci. 1997, 375, 107-119.
76. Tabard-Cossa, V.; Godin, M.; Beaulieu, L. Y.; Grütter, P. A Differential Microcantilever-Based System for Measuring Surface Stress Changes Induced by Electrochemical Reactions. Sens. Actuators, B 2005, 107, 233-241.
77. Quist, F.; Tabard-Cossa, V.; Badia, A. Nanomechanical Cantilever Motion Generated by a Surface-Confined Redox Reaction. J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 10691 -10695.
78. Zhou, F.; Biesheuvel, P. M.; Choi, E.-Y.; Shu, W.; Poetes, R.; Steiner, U.; Huck, W. TS Polyelectrolyte Brush Amplified Electroactuation of Microcantilevers. Nano Lett. 2008, 8, 725-730.
79. Finklea, H. O.; Avery, S.; Lynch, M.; Furtsch, T. Blocking Oriented Monolayers of Alkyl Mercaptans on Gold Electrodes. Langmuir 1987, 3, 409-413.
80. Chidsey, C. E. D.; Loiacono, D. N. Chemical Functionality in Self-Assembled Monolayers: Structural and Electrochemical Properties. Langmuir 1990, 6, 682-691.
81. Alleman, K. S.; Weber, K.; Creager, S. E. Electrochemical Rectification at a Monolayer-Modified Electrode. J. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 17050-17058.
82. Smith, R. K.; Lewis, P. A.; Weiss, P. S. Patterning Self-Assembled Monolayers. Prog. Surf. Sci. 2004, 75,1 -68.
83. Mullen, T. J.; Dameron, A. A.; Weiss, P. S. Directed Assembly and Separation of Self-Assembled Monolayers via Electrochemical Processing. J. Phys. Chem. B 2006, 110, 14410-14417.
84. Nelson, J. B.; Schwartz, D. T. Electrochemical Factors Controlling the Patterning of Metals on SAM-Coated Substrates. Langmuir 2007, 23, 9661 -9666.
85. Dowling, N. E. Mechanical Behavior of Materials; Prentice Hall: New York, 1999.
86. Herod, T. E.; Schlenoff, J. B. Doping-lnduced Strain in Polyaniline: Stretchoelectrochemistry. Chem. Mater. 1993, 5, 951-955.
87. Hughes, M.; Spinks, G. M. Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Actuators. Adv. Mater. 2005, 17, 443-446.
88. Ebron, V. H.; Yang, Z.; Seyer, D. J.; Kozlov, M. E.; Oh, J.; Xie, H.; Razal, J.; Hall, L. J.; Ferraris, J. P.; MacDiarmid, A. G.; Baughman, R. H. Fuel-Powered Artificial Muscles. Science 2006, 311, 1580-1583.
89. Mirfakhrai, T.; Oh, J.; Kozlov, M.; Fok, E. C. W.; Zhang, M.; Fang, S.; Baughman, R. H.; Madden, J. D. W. Electrochemical Actuation of Carbon Nanotube Yarns. Smart Mater. Struct. 2007, 16, S243-S249.
90. Smela, E.; Lu, W.; Mattes, B. R. Polyaniline Actuators: Part 1. PANI(AMPS) in HCI. Synth. Met. 2005, 151, 25-42.
91. Stranick, S. J.; Parikh, A. N.; Allara, D. L.; Weiss, P. S. A New Mechanism for Surface Diffusion: Motion of a Substrate - Adsorbate Complex. J. Phys. Chem. B 1994, 98, 11136-11142.
92. Yu, M.; Bovet, N.; Satterley, C. J.; Bengió, S.; Lovelock, K. R. J.; Milligan, P. K.; Jones, R. G.; Woodruff, D. P.; Dhanaket, V. True Nature of an Archetypal Self-Assembly System: Mobile Au-Thiolate Species on Au(111). Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 97, 166102-1 -166102-4.
93. Moore, A. M.; Mantooth, B. A.; Donhauser, Z. J.; Yao, Y.; Tour, J. M.; Weiss, P. S. Real-Time Measurements of Conductance Switching and Motion of Single Oligo(phenylene ethynylene) Molecules, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129,10352-10353.
94. Brantley, W. A. Calculated Elastic Constants for Stress Problems Associated with Semiconductor Devices. J. Appl. Phys. 1973, 44, 534-535.
95. Brough, B.; Northrop, B. H.; Schmidt, J. J.; Tseng, H.-R.; Houk, K. N.; Stoddart, J. F.; Ho, C. M. Evaluation of Synthetic Linear Motor-Molecule Actuation Energetics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2006, 103, 8583-8588.
96. Holland, N. B.; Hugel, T.; Neuert, G.; Cattani-Scholz, A.; Renner, C.; Oesterhelt, D.; Moroder, L.; Seitz, M.; Gaub, H. E. Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy of Azobenzene Polymers: Switching Elasticity of Single Photochromic Macromolecules. Macromolecules 2003, 36, 2015-2023.