Ernst Mayr and the integration of geographic and ecological factors in speciation

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society

Volumn 95, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 26-46

  Nosil, Patrik ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Divergent natural selection; Gene flow; Niche dimensionality; Reproductive isolation; Sympatric speciation; Timema walking stick insects

Indexed keywords

ALLOMETRY; DIVERGENCE; ECOLOGICAL APPROACH; GENE FLOW; GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION; NATURAL SELECTION; NICHE; REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION; SPECIATION (BIOLOGY); SYMPATRY;

HEXAPODA; PHASMATODEA; TIMEMA;

EID: 52649172125     PISSN: 00244066     EISSN: 10958312     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01091.x     Document Type: Review

References (210)

1. Barluenga M, Stölting KN, Salzburger W, Muschick M, Meyer A. 2006. Sympatric speciation in Nicaraguan crater lake cichlid fish. Nature 439 : 719 723.
2. Barton NH. 1979. The dynamics of hybrid zones. Heredity 43 : 341 359.
3. Barton NH. 1983. Multilocus clines. Evolution 37 : 454 471.
4. Barton NH, Hewitt GM. 1985. Analysis of hybrid zones. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16 : 113 148.
5. Barton NH, Hewitt GM. 1989. Adaptation, speciation and hybrid zones. Nature 341 : 497 503.
6. Beerli P, Felsenstein J. 2001. Maximum-likelihood estimation of a migration matrix and effective population sizes in n subpopulations by using a coalescent approach. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98 : 4563 4568.
7. Beltrán M, Jiggins CD, Bull V, Linares M, Mallet J, McMillan WO, Bermingham E. 2002. Phylogenetic discordance at the species boundary: comparative gene genealogies among rapidly radiating Heliconius butterflies. Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 : 2176 2190.
8. Berlocher SH, Feder JL. 2002. Sympatric speciation in phytophagous insects: moving beyond controversy? Annual Review of Entomology 47 : 773 815.
9. Bernays EA. 1991. Evolution of insect morphology in relation to plants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 333 : 257 264.
10. Blair WF. 1950. Ecological factors in speciation of Peromyscus. Evolution 4 : 253 275.
11. Bolnick DA, Nosil P. 2007. Natural selection in populations subject to a migration load. Evolution 61 : 2229 2243.
12. Bolnick DI, Fitzpatrick BM. 2007. Sympatric speciation: models and empirical evidence. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 38 : 459 487.
13. Boughman JW. 2002. How sensory drive can promote speciation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10 : 1 7.
14. Bradshaw HD, Schemske DW. 2003. Allele substitution at a flower colour locus produces a pollinator shift in monkeyflowers. Nature 426 : 176 178.
15. Bulmer MG. 1972. Multiple niche polymorphism. The American Naturalist 106 : 254 257.
16. Bush GL, Butlin RK. 2004. Sympatric speciation in insects: an overview. In : Dieckmann U, Doebeli M, Metz H, Tautz D, eds. Adaptive speciation, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 229 248.
17. Butlin RK. 1995. Reinforcement: an idea evolving. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10 : 432 433.
18. Campbell D, Bernatchez L. 2004. Generic scan using AFLP markers as a means to assess the role of directional selection in the divergence of sympatric whitefish ecotypes. Molecular Biology and Evolution 21 : 945 956.
19. Carroll SP, Boyd C. 1992. Host race radiation in the soapberry bug: natural history with the history. Evolution 46 : 1052 1069.
20. Coyne JA. 1994. Ernst Mayr and the origin of species. Evolution 48 : 19 30.
21. Coyne JA, Orr HA. 1989. Patterns of speciation in Drosophila. Evolution 43 : 362 381.
22. Coyne JA, Orr HA. 2004. Speciation. Sunderland, MA : Sinauer Associates, Inc.
23. Craig TP, Horner JD, Itami JK. 1997. Hybridization studies on the host races of Eurosta solidaginis: implications for sympatric speciation. Evolution 51 : 1552 1560.
24. Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP. 2000. Phylogenetic evidence for the evolution of ecological specialization in Timema walking-sticks. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13 : 249 262.
25. De Queiroz K. 2005. Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 : 6600 6607.
26. Dettman JR, Sirjusingh C, Kohn LM, Anderson JB. 2007. Incipient speciation by divergent adaptation and antagonistic epistasis in yeast. Nature 447 : 585 588.
27. Dhondt AA, Adriaensen F, Matthysen E, Kempenaers B. 1990. Nonadaptive clutch size in tits. Nature 348 : 723 725.
28. Dieckmann U, Doebeli M, Metz JAJ, Tautz D. 2004. Adaptive speciation. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
29. Dobzhansky T. 1935. A critique of the species concept in biology. Philosophy and Science 2 : 344 355.
30. Dobzhansky T. 1937. Genetics and the origin of species. New York, NY : Columbia University Press.
31. Dopman ED, Perez L, Bogdanowicz SM, Harrison RG. 2005. Consequences of reproductive barriers for genealogical discordance in the European corn borer. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 : 14706 14711.
32. Drès M, Mallet J. 2002. Host races in plant-feeding insects and their importance in sympatric speciation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 357 : 471 492.
33. Egan SP, Nosil P, Funk DJ. 2008. Selection and genomic differentiation during ecological speciation: isolating the contributions of host-association via a comparative genome scan of Neochlamisus bebbianae leaf beetles. Evolution 62 : 1162 1181.
34. Elton CS. 1927. Animal ecology. London : Sidwich & Jackson.
35. Emelianov I, Marec F, Mallet J. 2004. Genomic evidence for divergence with gene flow in host races of the larch budmoth. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 271 : 97 105.
36. Emerson BA. 2008. Speciation on islands - what are we learning? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 95 : 47 52.
37. Endler JA. 1973. Gene flow and population differentiation. Science 179 : 243 250.
38. Endler JA. 1977. Geographic variation, speciation and clines. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press.
39. Endler JA. 1986. Natural selection in the wild. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press.
40. Endler JA. 1992. Signals, signal conditions, and the direction of evolution. The American Naturalist 139 : 125 153.
41. Feder JL, Berlocher SH, Roethele JB, Dambroski H, Smith JJ, Perry WL, Gavrilovic V, Filchak KE, Rull J, Aluja M. 2003a. Allopatric genetic origins for sympatric host-plant shifts and race formation in Rhagoletis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100 : 10314 10319.
42. Feder JL, Opp SB, Wlazlo B, Reynolds K, Go W, Spsisak S. 1994. Host fidelity is an effective premating barrier between sympatric races of the apple maggot fly. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91 : 7990 7994.
43. Feder JL, Roethele FB, Filchak K, Niedbalski J, Romero-Severson J. 2003b. Evidence for inversion polymorphism related to sympatric host race formation in the apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella. Genetics 163 : 939 953.
44. Felsenstein J. 1976. The theoretical population genetics of variable selection and migration. Annual Review of Genetics 10 : 253 280.
45. Felsenstein J. 1981. Skepticism towards Santa Rosalia, or why are there so few kinds of animals? Evolution 35 : 124 138.
46. Fisher RA. 1930. The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford : Claredon Press.
47. Fisher RA. 1950. Gene frequencies in a cline determined by selection and diffusion. Biometrics 6 : 353 361.
48. Forister ML. 2004. Oviposition preference and larval performance within a diverging lineage of lycaenid butterflies. Ecological Entomology 29 : 264 272.
49. Fuller RC, Houle D, Travis J. 2005. Sensory bias as an explanation for the evolution of mate preferences. The American Naturalist 166 : 437 446.
50. Funk DJ. 1998. Isolating a role for natural selection in speciation: host adaptation and sexual isolation in Neochlamisus bebbianae leaf beetles. Evolution 52 : 1744 1759.
51. Funk DJ, Filchak KE, Feder JL. 2002. Herbivorous insects: model systems for the comparative study of speciation ecology. Genetica 116 : 251 267.
52. Funk DJ, Nosil P. 2007. Comparative analyses and ecological speciation in herbivorous insects. In : Tilmon K, ed. Ecology and evolution of herbivorous insects. Berkeley, CA : California University Press, 117 135.
53. Funk DJ, Nosil P, Etges W. 2006. Ecological divergence exhibits consistently positive associations with reproductive isolation across disparate taxa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 : 3209 3213.
54. Funk DJ, Omland KE. 2003. Species-level paraphyly and polyphyly: frequency, causes, and consequences, with insights from animal mitochondrial DNA. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 34 : 397 423.
55. Garcia-Ramos G, Kirkpatrick M. 1997. Genetic models of adaptation and gene flow in peripheral populations. Evolution 51 : 21 28.
56. Gavrilets S. 2004. Fitness landscapes and the origin of species. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press.
57. Geraldes A, Ferrand N, Nachman NW. 2006. Contrasting patterns of introgression at X-linked loci across the hybrid zone between subspecies of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Genetics 173 : 919 933.
58. Grant PR, Grant BR. 1997. Genetics and the origin of bird species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94 : 7768 7775.
59. Grant PR, Grant BR. 2002. Unpredictable evolution in a 30-year study of Darwin's finches. Science 296 : 707 711.
60. Grant PR, Grant BR, Petren K. 2005. Hybridization in the recent past. The American Naturalist 166 : 56 67.
61. Gray SM, McKinnon JS. 2007. Linking color polymorphism maintenance and speciation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22 : 71 79.
62. Green RH. 1971. A multivariate statistical approach to the Hutchinsonian niche: bivalve mollusks of central Canada. Ecology 52 : 543 556.
63. Grinnell J. 1917. The niche relationships of the California thrasher. Auk 34 : 427 433.
64. Haffer J. 2006. The history of the biological species concept. Acta Zoologica Sinica 52 : 415 420.
65. Haldane JBS. 1930. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part IV. Isolation. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 26 : 220 230.
66. Haldane JBS. 1932. The causes of evolution. New York, NY : Longmans.
67. Haldane JBS. 1948. The theory of a cline. Journal of Genetics 48 : 277 284.
68. Harmon LJ, Kolbe JJ, Cheverud JM, Losos JB. 2005. Convergence and the multidimensional niche. Evolution 59 : 409 421.
69. Hawthorne DJ, Via S. 2001. Genetic linkage of ecological specialization and reproductive isolation in pea aphids. Nature 412 : 904 907.
70. Hendry AP, Day T, Taylor EB. 2001. Population mixing and the adaptive divergence of quantitative traits in discrete populations: a theoretical framework for empirical tests. Evolution 55 : 459 466.
71. Hendry AP, Taylor EB. 2004. How much of the variation in adaptive divergence can be explained by gene flow? An evaluation using lake-stream stickleback pairs. Evolution 58 : 2319 2331.
72. Hendry AP, Taylor EB, McPhail JD. 2002. Adaptive divergence and the balance between selection and gene flow: lake and stream stickleback in the Misty system. Evolution 56 : 1199 1216.
73. Hey J. 2006. Recent advances in assessing gene flow between diverging populations and species. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 16 : 592 596.
74. Hey J, Waples RS, Arnold ML, Butlin RK, Harrison RG. 2003. Understanding and confronting species uncertainty in biology and conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18 : 597 603.
75. Howard DJ, Gregory PG, Chu JM, Cain ML. 1998. Conspecific sperm precedence is an effective barrier to hybridization between closely related species. Evolution 52 : 511 516.
76. Hurd LE, Eisenburg RM. 1975. Divergent selection for geotactic response and the evolution of reproductive isolation in sympatric and allopatric populations of houseflies. The American Naturalist 109 : 353 358.
77. Hutchinson GE. 1957. Concluding remarks. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 22 : 415 427.
78. Hutchinson GE. 1959. Homage to Santa Rosalia or Why are there so many kinds of animals? The American Naturalist 93 : 145 159.
79. Jiggins CD, Estrada C, Rodrigues A. 2004. Mimicry and the evolution of premating isolation in Heliconius melpomene Linnaeus. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 17 : 680 691.
80. Jiggins CD, Mallet J. 2001. Bimodal hybrid zones and speciation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15 : 250 255.
81. Jiggins CD, Naisbit RE, Coe RL, Mallet J. 2001. Reproductive isolation caused by colour pattern mimicry. Nature 411 : 302 305.
82. Johannesson K, Johannesson B, Rolan-Alvarez E. 1993. Morphological differentiation and genetic cohesiveness over a microenvironmental gradient in the marine snail Littorina saxatilis. Evolution 47 : 1770 1787.
83. Kawecki TJ, Ebert D. 2004. Conceptual issues in local adaptation. Ecology Letters 7 : 1225 1241.
84. King RB, Lawson R. 1995. Color-pattern variation in Lake Erie water snakes: the role of gene flow. Evolution 49 : 885 896.
85. Kingsolver JG, Hoekstra HE, Hoekstra JM, Berrigan D, Vignieri SN, Hill CE, Hoang A, Gibert P, Beerli P. 2001. The strength of phenotypic selection in natural populations. The American Naturalist 157 : 245 261.
86. Kirkpatrick M. 1996. Good genes and direct selection in evolution of mating preferences. Evolution 50 : 2125 2140.
87. Kirkpatrick M, Barton N. 2006. Chromosome inversions, local adaptation and speciation. Genetics 173 : 419 434.
88. Kirkpatrick M, Barton NH. 1997. The strength of indirect selection on female mating preferences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94 : 1282 1286.
89. Kirkpatrick M, Ravigné V. 2002. Speciation by natural and sexual selection: models and experiments. The American Naturalist 159 : S22 S35.
90. Kirkpatrick M, Ryan MJ. 1991. The evolution of mating preferences and the paradox of the lek. Nature 350 : 33 38.
91. Knapp S. 2008. Species concepts and floras - what are species for? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 95 : 17 25.
92. Lande R. 1979. Quantitative genetic-analysis of multivariate evolution, applied to brain - body size allometry. Evolution 33 : 402 416.
93. Langerhans RB, Gifford ME, Joseph EO. 2007. Ecological speciation in Gambusia fishes. Evolution 61 : 2056 2074.
94. Law JH, Crespi BJ. 2002. The evolution of geographic parthenogenesis in Timema walking sticks. Molecular Ecology 11 : 1471 1489.
95. Lenormand T. 2002. Gene flow and the limits to natural selection. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 17 : 183 189.
96. Liou LW, Price TD. 1994. Speciation by reinforcement of premating isolation. Evolution 48 : 1451 1459.
97. Lu G, Bernatchez L. 1999. Correlated trophic specialization and genetic divergence in sympatric lake whitefish ecotypes (Coregonus clupeaformis): support for the ecological speciation hypothesis. Evolution 53 : 1491 1505.
98. Lynch M, Walsh B. 1998. Genetics and analysis of quantitative traits. Sunderland, MA : Sinauer Associates.
99. Maan ME, Hofker KD, Van Aphen JJM, Seehausen O. 2006. Sensory drive in cichlid speciation. The American Naturalist 167 : 947 954.
100. Macnair MR, Christie P. 1983. Reproductive isolation as a pleiotropic effect of copper tolerance in Mimulus guttatus? Heredity 50 : 295 302.
101. Macnair MR, Gardner M. 1998. The evolution of edaphic endemics. In : Howard DJ, Berlocher SH, eds. Endless forms: species and speciation. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 157 171.
102. Maguire B Jr. 1967. A partial analysis of the niche. The American Naturalist 101 : 515 523.
103. Mallet J. 1995. A species definition for the modern synthesis. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10 : 294 299.
104. Mallet J. 2006. Mayr's view of Darwin: was Darwin wrong about speciation? Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 95 : 3 16.
105. Mallet J. 2008. What does Drosophila genetics tell us about speciation? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21 : 186 193.
106. Mallet J, Barton NH. 1989. Strong natural selection in a warning-color hybrid zone. Evolution 43 : 421 431.
107. Mallet J, Barton NH, Jose Santisteban C, Manuel Muedas M, Eeley H. 1990. Estimates of selection and gene flow from measures of cline width and linkage disequilibrium in Heliconius hybrid zones. Genetics 124 : 921 936.
108. Mallet J, Beltran M, Neukirchen W, Linares M. 2007. Natural hybridization in heliconiine butterflies: the species boundary as a continuum. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7 : 28.
109. May RM, Endler JA, McMurtie RE. 1975. Gene frequency clines in the presence of selection opposed by gene flow. The American Naturalist 109 : 650 676.
110. Mayr E. 1942. Systematics and the origin of species. New York, NY : Columbia University Press.
111. Mayr E. 1947. Ecological factors in speciation. Evolution 1 : 263 288.
112. Mayr E. 1963. Animal species and evolution. Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press.
113. Mayr E. 2001. What evolution is. New York, NY : Basic Books.
114. Moore J-S, Gow JL, Taylor EB, Hendry AP. 2007. Quantifying the constraining influence of gene flow on adaptive divergence in the lake-stream threespine stickleback system. Evolution 61 : 2015 2026.
115. Moran NA. 1986. Morphological adaptation to host plants in Uroleucon (Homoptera: Aphididae). Evolution 40 : 1044 1050.
116. Morjan CL, Rieseberg LH. 2004. How species evolve collectively: implications of gene flow and selection for the spread of advantageous alleles. Molecular Ecology 13 : 1341 1356.
117. Morton ES. 1975. Ecological sources of selection on avian sounds. The American Naturalist 109 : 17 34.
118. Muller HJ. 1942. Isolating mechanisms, evolution and temperature. Biological Symposia 6 : 71 125.
119. Navarro A, Barton NH. 2003. Accumulating postzygotic isolation genes in parapatry: a new twist on chromosomal speciation. Evolution 57 : 447 459.
120. Niemiller ML, Fitzpatrick BM, Miller BT. 2008. Recent divergence-with-gene-flow in Tennessee Cave Salamanders (Plethodontidae: Gyrinophilus) inferred from gene genealogies. Molecular Ecology 17 : 2258 2275.
121. Noor MAF. 1995. Speciation driven by natural selection in Drosophila. Nature 375 : 674 675.
122. Noor MAF, Garfield DA, Schaeffer SW, Machado CA. 2007. Divergent between the Drosophila pseudoobscura and D. persimilis genome sequences in relation to chromosomal inversions. Genetics 177 : 1417 1428.
123. Noor MAF, Grams KK, Bertucci LA, Reiland J. 2001. Chromosomal inversions and the reproductive isolation of species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98 : 12084 12088.
124. Nosil P. 2004. Reproductive isolation caused by visual predation on migrants between divergent environments. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 271 : 1521 1528.
125. Nosil P. 2007. Divergent host-plant adaptation and reproductive isolation between ecotypes of Timema cristinae walking-sticks. The American Naturalist 169 : 151 162.
126. Nosil P. 2008. Speciation with gene flow could be common. Molecular Ecology 17 : 2103 2106.
127. Nosil P, Crespi BJ. 2004. Does gene flow constrain trait divergence or vice-versa? A test using ecomorphology and sexual isolation in Timema cristinae walking-sticks. Evolution 58 : 101 112.
128. Nosil P, Crespi BJ. 2006a. Experimental evidence that predation promotes divergence during adaptive radiation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 : 9090 9095.
129. Nosil P, Crespi BJ. 2006b. Ecological divergence promotes the evolution of cryptic reproductive isolation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 273 : 991 997.
130. Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Gries R, Gries G. 2007. Natural selection and divergence in mate preference during speciation. Genetica 128 : 309 327.
131. Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP. 2002. Host-plant adaptation drives the parallel evolution of reproductive isolation. Nature 417 : 441 443.
132. Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP. 2003. Reproductive isolation driven by the combined effects of ecological adaptation and reinforcement. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 270 : 1911 1918.
133. Nosil P, Egan SP, Funk DJ. 2008. Heterogeneous genomic differentiation between walking-stick ecotypes: 'isolation-by-adaptation' and multiple roles for divergent selection. Evolution 62 : 313 336.
134. Nosil P, Harmon LJ. 2008. Niche dimensionality and ecological speciation. In : Butlin R, Bridle J, Schluter D, eds. Ecology and speciation. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
135. Nosil P, Rundle HD. 2008. Ecological speciation: natural selection and the formation of new species. In : Losos J, ed. Autecology. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press.
136. Nosil P, Sandoval CP. 2008. Ecological niche dimensionality and the evolutionary diversification of stick insects. PLoS ONE 3 : E1907.
137. Nosil P, Vines TH, Funk DJ. 2005. Perspective: reproductive isolation caused by natural selection against immigrants from divergent habitats. Evolution 59 : 705 719.
138. Ortiz-Barrientos D, Noor MAF. 2005. Evidence for a one-allele assortative mating locus. Science 310 : 1467 1467.
139. Ortiz-Barrientos D, Reiland J, Hey J, Noor MAF. 2002. Recombination and the divergence of hybridizing species. Genetica 116 : 167 178.
140. Patten MA, Rotenberry JT, Zuk M. 2004. Habitat selection, acoustic adaptation, and the evolution of reproductive isolation. Evolution 58 : 2144 2155.
141. Pianka E. 1978. Evolutionary ecology, 3rd edn. New York, NY : Harper & Row.
142. Price T. 2008. Speciation in birds. Greenwood Village, CO : Roberts and Company.
143. Putnam AS, Scriber JM, Andolfatto P. 2007. Discordant divergence times among Z chromosome regions between two ecologically distinct swallowtail butterfly species. Evolution 61 : 912 927.
144. Ramsey J, Bradshaw HD Jr., Schemske DW. 2003. Components of reproductive isolation between the monkeyflowers Mimulus lewissii and M. cardinalis (Phrymaceae). Evolution 57 : 1520 1534.
145. Ramsey J, Schemske DW. 1998. Pathways mechanisms and rates of polyploid formation in flowering plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29 : 467 501.
146. Rausher MD. 1982. Population differentiation in Euphydryas editha butterflies: larval adaptation to different hosts. Evolution 36 : 581 590.
147. Reimchen TE. 1979. Substratum heterogeneity, crypsis, and colour polymorphism in an intertidal snail. Canadian Journal of Zoology 57 : 1070 1085.
148. Reimchen TE, Nosil P. 2002. Temporal variation in divergent selection on spine number in threespine stickleback. Evolution 56 : 2472 2483.
149. Reimchen TE, Nosil P. 2004. Variable predation regimes predict the evolution of sexual dimorphism in a population of threespine stickleback. Evolution 58 : 1274 1281.
150. Rice WR. 1985. Disruptive selection on habitat preference and the evolution of reproductive isolation: an exploratory experiment. Evolution 39 : 645 656.
151. Rice WR, Hostert EE. 1993. Laboratory experiments on speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? Evolution 47 : 1637 1653.
152. Rice WR, Salt GW. 1988. Speciation via disruptive selection on habitat preference: experimental evidence. The American Naturalist 131 : 911 917.
153. Rice WR, Salt GW. 1990. The evolution of reproductive isolation as a correlated character under sympatric conditions: experimental evidence. Evolution 44 : 1140 1152.
154. Riechert SE. 1993. Investigation of potential gene flow limitation of behavioral adaptation in an aridlands spider. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 32 : 355 363.
155. Riechert SE, Hall RF. 2000. Local population success in heterogeneous habitats: reciprocal transplant experiments completed on a desert spider. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13 : 541 550.
156. Riechert SE, Singer FD, Jones TC. 2001. High gene flow levels lead to gamete wastage in a desert spider system. Genetica 112-113 : 297 319.
157. Rieseberg LH. 2001. Chromosomal rearrangements and speciation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16 : 351 358.
158. Rolan-Alvarez E, Elrandsson J, Johannesson K, Cruz R. 1999. Mechanisms of incomplete prezygotic reproductive isolation in an intertidal snail: testing behavioural models in wild populations. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 12 : 879 890.
159. Ross KG, Keller L. 1995. Joint influence of gene flow and selection on a reproductively important genetic polymorphism in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta. The American Naturalist 146 : 325 348.
160. Roughgarden J. 1979. Theory of population genetics and evolutionary ecology: an introduction. New York, NY : MacMillan.
161. Rueffler C, Van Dooren TJM, Leimar O, Abrams PA. 2006. Disruptive selection and then what? Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21 : 238 245.
162. Rundle HD. 2002. A test of ecologically dependent postmating isolation between sympatric sticklebacks. Evolution 56 : 322 329.
163. Rundle HD, Nagel L, Boughman JW, Schluter D. 2000. Natural selection and parallel speciation in sympatric sticklebacks. Science 287 : 306 308.
164. Rundle HD, Nosil P. 2005. Ecological speciation. Ecology Letters 8 : 336 352.
165. Rundle HD, Schluter D. 2004. Natural selection and ecological speciation in sticklebacks. In : Dieckmann U, Doebeli M, Metz JAJ, Tautz D, eds. Adaptive speciation. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 192 209.
166. Rundle HD, Whitlock M. 2001. A genetic interpretation of ecologically dependent isolation. Evolution 55 : 198 201.
167. Ryan MJ, Cocroft RB, Wilczynski W. 1990. The role of environmental selection in intraspecific divergence of mate recognition signals in the cricket frog, Acris crepitans. Evolution 44 : 1869 1872.
168. Ryan MJ, Rand AS. 1993. Species recognition and sexual selection as a unitary problem in animal communication. Evolution 47 : 647 657.
169. Sandoval CP. 1994a. The effects of relative geographic scales of gene flow and selection on morph frequencies in the walking stick Timema cristinae. Evolution 48 : 1866 1879.
170. Sandoval CP. 1994b. Differential visual predation on morphs of Timema cristinae (Phasmatodeae: Timemidae) and its consequences for host range. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 52 : 341 356.
171. Sandoval CP. 2000. Presence of a walking-stick population (Phasmatoptera: Timematodea) after a wildfire. Southwestern Naturalist 45 : 19 25.
172. Sandoval CP, Nosil P. 2005. Counteracting selective regimes and host preference evolution in ecotypes of two species of walking-sticks. Evolution 59 : 2405 2413.
173. Savolainen V, Anstett MC, Lexer C, Hutton I, Clarkson JJ, Norup MV, Powell MP, Springate D, Salamin N, Baker WJ. 2006. Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island. Nature 441 : 210 213.
174. Schemske DW, Bradshaw HD. 1999. Pollinator preference and the evolution of floral traits in monkeyflowers (Mimulus). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96 : 11910 11915.
175. Schluter D. 1996. Ecological speciation in postglacial fishes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences 351 : 807 814.
176. Schluter D. 1998. Ecological causes of speciation. In : Howard DJ, Berlocher SH, eds. Endless forms: species and speciation. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 114 129.
177. Schluter D. 2000. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
178. Schluter D. 2001. Ecology and the origin of species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16 : 372 380.
179. Schluter D, Nagel LM. 1995. Parallel speciation by natural selection. The American Naturalist 146 : 292 301.
180. Schoener TW. 1989. The ecological niche. In : Cherrett JM, ed. Ecological concepts. Oxford : Blackwell Scientific, 79 113.
181. Seehausen O. 2008. The sequence of events along a 'speciation transect' in the Lake Victoria cichlid fish Pundamilia. In : Butlin R, Bridle J, Schluter D, eds. Ecology and speciation. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
182. Servedio M. 2001. Beyond reinforcement: the evolution of premating isolation by direct selection on preferences and postmating, prezygotic incompatibilities. Evolution 55 : 1909 1920.
183. Servedio MR, Noor MAF. 2003. The role of reinforcement in speciation: theory and data. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 34 : 339 364.
184. Slabbekoorn H, Smith TB. 2002. Habitat-dependent song divergence in the little greenbul: an analysis of selection pressures on acoustic signals. Evolution 56 : 1849 1858.
185. Slatkin M. 1973. Gene flow and selection in a cline. Genetics 75 : 733 756.
186. Slatkin M. 1981. Pleiotropy and parapatric selection. Evolution 36 : 263 270.
187. Slatkin M. 1985. Gene flow in natural populations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16 : 393 430.
188. Smith JW, Benkman CW. 2007. A coevolutionary arms race causes ecological speciation in crossbills. The American Naturalist 169 : 455 465.
189. Smith TB, Wayne RK, Girman DJ, Bruford MW. 1997. A role for ecotones in generating rainforest biodiversity. Science 276 : 1855 1857.
190. Soans AB, Pimentel D, Soans JS. 1974. Evolution of reproductive isolation in allopatric and sympatric populations. The American Naturalist 108 : 117 124.
191. Storfer A, Cross J, Rush R, Caruso J. 1999. Adaptive coloration and gene flow as a constraint to local adaptation in the streamside salamander, Ambystoma barbouri. Evolution 53 : 889 898.
192. Storfer A, Sih A. 1998. Gene flow and ineffective antipredator behavior in a stream-breeding salamander. Evolution 52 : 558 565.
193. Svensson EI, Abbot JK, Gosden TP, Coreau A. 2008. Female polymorphisms, sexual conflict and limits to speciation processes in animals. Evolutionary Ecology doi: 10.1007/s10682-007-9208-2.
194. Turelli M, Barton NH, Coyne JA. 2001. Theory and speciation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16 : 330 343.
195. Vandermeer JH. 1972. Niche theory. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 3 : 107 132.
196. Via S. 1999. Reproductive isolation between sympatric races of pea aphids. I. Gene flow restriction and habitat choice. Evolution 53 : 1446 1457.
197. Via S. 2001. Sympatric speciation in animals: the ugly duckling grows up. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16 : 381 390.
198. Via S, Bouck AC, Skillman S. 2000. Reproductive isolation between divergent races of pea aphids on two hosts. II. Selection against migrants and hybrids in the parental environments. Evolution 54 : 1626 1637.
199. Via S, Hawthorne DJ. 2002. The genetic architecture of ecological specialization: correlated gene effects on host use and habitat choice in pea aphids. The American Naturalist 159 : S76 S88.
200. Vickery VR. 1993. Revision of Timema Scudder (Phasmatoptera: Timematodea) including three new species. The Canadian Entomologist 125 : 657 692.
201. Vines TH, Köhler SC, Thiel M, Ghira I, Sands IR, MacCallum CJ, Barton NH, Nürnberger B. 2003. The maintenance of reproductive isolation in a mosaic hybrid zone between the fire-bellied toads Bombina bombina and B. ariegate. Evolution 57 : 1876 1888.
202. Vines TH, Schluter D. 2006. Strong assortative mating between allopatric sticklebacks as a by-product of adaptation to different environments. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 273 : 911 916.
203. Wallace AR. 1864. The Malayan Papilionidae or swallow-tailed butterflies, as illustrative of the theory of natural selection. In : Wallace AR, ed. Contributions to the theory of natural selection. London, 130 200.
204. Wiens JJ, Graham CH. 2005. Niche conservatism: integrating evolution, ecology, and conservation biology. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 : 519 539.
205. Won YJ, Hey J. 2005. Divergence population genetics of chimpanzees. Molecular Biology and Evolution 22 : 297 307.
206. Wright S. 1931. Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics 16 : 97 159.
207. Wright S. 1940. Breeding structure of populations in relation to speciation. The American Naturalist 74 : 232 248.
208. Wright S. 1943. Isolation by distance. Genetics 28 : 114 138.
209. Wu CI. 2001. The genic view of the process of speciation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 14 : 851 865.
210. Xie X, Rull J, Michel A, Velez S, Forbes AA, Lobo N, Aluja M, Feder JL. 2007. Hawthorn-infesting populations of Rhagoletis pomonella in Mexico and speciation mode plurality. Evolution 61 : 1091 1105.