Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: Presentation, nosology, and epidemiology

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines

Volumn 47, Issue 3-4, 2006, Pages 313-337

  Egger, Helen Link ^a   Angold, Adrian ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Comorbidity; Diagnosis; Epidemiology; Nosology; Preschoolers; Prevalence

Indexed keywords

AGE; ANXIETY DISORDER; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BIPOLAR DISORDER; CHILD BEHAVIOR CHECKLIST; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMMUNITY CARE; COMORBIDITY; CONDUCT DISORDER; CULTURAL FACTOR; DEPRESSION; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; EMOTIONAL DISORDER; HERITABILITY; HUMAN; MANIA; OPPOSITIONAL DEFIANT DISORDER; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PREVALENCE; PRIMARY MEDICAL CARE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RATING SCALE; RELIABILITY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEX DIFFERENCE; TEMPERAMENT; VALIDITY;

ANXIETY DISORDERS; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COMORBIDITY; HUMANS; MENTAL DISORDERS; MOOD DISORDERS; PREVALENCE; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 33644820619     PISSN: 00219630     EISSN: 14697610     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01618.x     Document Type: Review

References (261)

1. Abikoff, H., & Klein, R.G. (1992). Attention-deficit hyperactivity and conduct disorder: Comorbidity and implications for treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 881-892.
2. Achenbach, T.M. (1990). 'Comorbidity' in child and adolescent psychiatry: Categorical and quantitative perspectives. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 1, 271-278.
3. Achenbach, T.M. (1991). The derivation of taxonomic constructs: A necessary stage in the development of developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & S. Toth (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology, Volume 3: Models and integrations. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
4. Achenbach, T.M. (1995). Diagnosis, assessment, and comorbidity in psychosocial treatment research. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 45-65.
5. Achenbach, T.M., Edelbrock, C., & Howell, C.T. (1987). Empirically based assessment of the behavioral/emotional problems of 2- and 3-year-old children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 629-650.
6. Achenbach, T.M., & Edelbrock, C.S. (1978). The classification of child psychopathology: A review and analysis of empirical efforts. Psychological Review, 85, 1275-1301.
7. Achenbach, T.M., & Rescorla, L.A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA Preschool Forms and Profiles: An integrated system of multi-informant assessment. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
8. Adamec, R.E., & Stark-Adamec, C.S. (1989). Behavioral inhibition and anxiety: Dispositional, developmental, and neural aspects of the anxious personality of the domestic cat. In J.S. Reznick (Eds.), Perspectives on behavioral inhibition (pp. 93-124). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
9. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: Fourth edition text revision. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.
10. Angold, A., & Costello, E.J. (1993). Depressive comorbidity in children and adolescents: Empirical, theoretical, and methodological issues. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1779-1791.
11. Angold, A., & Costello, E.J. (1996). Toward establishing an empirical basis for the diagnosis of Oppositional Defiant Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1205-1212.
12. Angold, A., Costello, E.J., & Erkanli, A. (1999a). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57-87.
13. Angold, A., Costello, E.J., Farmer, E.M.Z., Burns, B.J., & Erkanli, A. (1999b). Impaired but undiagnosed. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 129-137.
14. Angold, A., & Egger, H.L. (2004). Psychiatric diagnosis in preschool children. In R. DelCarmen-Wiggins & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment (pp. 123-139). New York: Oxford University Press.
15. Angold, A., Egger, H.L., Erkanli, A., & Keeler, G. (submitted). Prevalence and comorbidity of psychiatric disorders in preschoolers attending a large pediatric service. Archives of General Psychiatry.
16. Arend, R., Lavigne, J.V., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H.J., & Christoffel, K.K. (1996). Relation between taxonomic and quantitative diagnostic systems in preschool children: Emphasis on disruptive disorders. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 388-387.
17. Barbaresi, W.J. (2003). Use of psychotropic medications in young, preschool children: Primum non nocere. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157, 121-123.
18. Barkley, R., Shelton, T., Crosswait, C., Moorehouse, M., Fletcher, K., Barrett, S., Jenkins, L., & Metevia, L. (2002). Preschool children with disruptive behavior: Three-year outcome as a function of adaptive disability. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 45-67.
19. Barkley, R.A. (1998). Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder - A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd edn). New York: Guilford Press.
20. Barkley, R.A., Anastopoulos, A.D., Guevremont, D.C., & Fletcher, K.E. (1991). Adolescents with ADHD: Patterns of behavioral adjustment, academic functioning, and treatment utilization. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 752-761.
21. Bates, J., & Bayles, K. (1988). Attachment and the development of behavior problems. In J. Belsky & T. Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
22. Battaglia, M., Przybeck, T.R., Bellodi, L., & Cloninger, C.R. (1996). Temperament dimensions explain the comorbidity of psychiatric disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37, 292-298.
23. Behar, L., & Stringfield, S. (1974). A behavior rating scale for the preschool child. Developmental Psychology, 10, 601-610.
24. Bhatia, M.S., Dhar, N.K., Singhal, P.K., Nigam, V.R., Malik, S.C., & Mullick, D.N. (1990). Temper tantrums: Prevalence and etiology in a non-referral outpatient setting. Clinical Pediatrics, 29, 311-315.
25. Biederman, J., Rosenbaum, J.F., Bolduc-Murphy, E.A., Faraone, S.V., Chaloff, J., Hirshfeld, D.R., & Kagan, J.A. (1993). A 3-year follow-up of children with and without behavioral inhibition. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 814-821.
26. Biederman, J., Rosenbaum, J.F., Chaloff, J., & Kagan, J. (1995). Behavioral inhibition as a risk factor for anxiety disorders. In J.S. March (Ed.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 61-81). New York: Guilford Press.
27. Blackman, J.A. (1999). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in preschoolers. Does it exist and should we treat it? Pediatric Clinics of North America, 46, 1011-1025.
28. Boris, N.W., Zeanah, C.H., Larrieu, J.A., Scheeringa, M.S., & Heller, S.S. (1998). Attachment disorders in infancy and early childhood: A preliminary investigation of diagnostic criteria. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 295-297.
29. Burke, M.G. (2003). Depression in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 263-264.
30. Buss, A., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc..
31. Buss, A.H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
32. Campbell, S.B. (1995). Behavior problems in preschool children: A review of recent research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 113-149.
33. Campbell, S.B., & Ewing, L.J. (1990). Follow-up of hard-to-manage preschoolers: Adjustment at age 9 and predictors of continuing symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 871-889.
34. Campbell, S.B., Ewing, L.J., Breaux, A.M., & Szumowski, E.K. (1986). Parent-referred problem three-year-olds: Follow-up at school entry. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 473-488.
35. Canino, G., Shrout, P., Rubio-Stipec, M., Bird, H., Bravo, M., Ramirez, R., Chavez, L., Alegria, M., Bauermeister, J., Hohmann, A., Ribera, J., Garcia, P., & Martinez-Taboas, A. (2004). The DSM-IV rates of child and adolescent disorders in Puerto Rico. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 85-93.
36. Caron, C., & Rutter, M. (1991). Comorbidity in child psychopathology: Concepts, issues and research strategies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1063-1080.
37. Carter, A.S., Briggs-Gowan, M.J., & Davis, N.O. (2004). Assessment of young children's social-emotional development and psychopathology: Recent advances and recommendations for practice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 109-134.
38. Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R.O., Moffitt, T.E., et al. (1995). Temperamental origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: From age three to fifteen. Child Development, 66, 55-68.
39. Caspi, A., Moffitt, T.E., Newman, D.L., & Silva, P.A. (1996). Behavioral observations at age 3 years predict adult psychiatric disorders: Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53 (11), 1033-1039.
40. Caspi, A., & Silva, P.A. (1995). Temperamental qualities at age 3 predict personality traits in young adulthood: Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Child Development, 66, 486-498.
41. Charney, D., Barlow, D.H., & Botteron, K. (2002). Neuroscience research agenda to guide development of a pathophysiologically based classification system. In D. Kupfer, M. First, & D.A. Regier (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
42. Connor, D. (2002). Preschool attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A review of prevalence, diagnosis, neurobiology, and stimulant treatment. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, S1-S9.
43. Cordeiro, M., Caldeira da Silva, P., & Goldschmidt, T. (2003). Diagnostic classification: Results from a clinical experience of three years with DC: 0-3. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 349-364.
44. Costello, E.J., Angold, A., & Keeler, G.P. (1999). Adolescent outcomes of childhood disorders: The consequences of severity and impairment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 121-128.
45. Costello, E.J., Costello, A.J., Edelbrock, C., Burns, B.J., Dulcan, M.K., Brent, D., & Janiszewski, S. (1988). Psychiatric disorders in pediatric primary care: Prevalence and risk factors. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1107-1116.
46. Costello, E.J., Egger, H.L., & Angold, A. (2005). 10-Year research update review: The epidemiology of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders: I. Methods and public health burden. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 972-986.
47. Costello, E.J., & Janiszewski, S. (1990). Who gets treated? Factors associated with referral in children with psychiatric disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 81, 523-529.
48. Coy, K., Speltz, M., DeKlyen, M., & Jones, K. (2001). Social-cognitive processes in preschool boys with and without oppositional defiant disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 107-119.
49. Crowther, J.H., Bond, L.A., & Rolf, J.E. (1981). The incidence, prevalence, and severity of behavior disorders among preschool-age children in day care. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 9, 23-42.
50. Cummings, J.D. (1944). The incidence of emotional symptoms in school children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 14, 151-161.
51. DeBar, L.L., Lynch, F., Powell, J., & Gale, J. (2003). Use of psychotropic agents in preschool children. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 157, 150-157.
52. DeKlyen, M., Biernbaum, M., Speltz, M., & Greenberg, M. (1998). Fathers and preschool behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 34, 264-275.
53. DelCarmen-Wiggins, R., & Carter, A. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
54. Derryberry, D.E., & Rothbart, M. (1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633-652.
55. DeWolfe, N., Byrne, J., & Bawden, H. (2000). ADHD in preschool children: Parent-rated psychosocial correlates. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 42, 825-830.
56. Diamond, A., & Gilbert, J. (1989). Development as progressive inhibitory control of action: Retrieval of a contiguous object. Cognitive Development, 4, 221-249.
57. Dietz, K.R., Lavigne, J.V., Arend, R., & Rosenbaum, D. (1997). Relation between intelligence and psychopathology among preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 99-107.
58. DiLalla, L., & Falligant, E. (1995). An environmental and behavioral genetic perspective on behavioral inhibition in toddlers. In L. DiLalla & S. Dollinger (Eds.), The assessment of biological mechanisms across the lifespan (pp. 91-119). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
59. DiLalla, L.F., Kagan, J., & Reznick, J.S. (1994). Genetic etiology of behavioral inhibition among 2-year-old children. Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 405-412.
60. Dilsaver, S.C. (2004). Preschool-onset mania: Incidence, phenomenology and family history. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82S, S35-S43.
61. Dowsett, S., & Livesey, D. (2000). The development of inhibitory control in preschool children: Effects of 'executive skills' training. Developmental Psychobiology, 36, 161-174.
62. DuPaul, G., McGoey, K., Eckert, T., & Vanbrakle, J. (2001). Preschool children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 508-515.
63. DuPaul, G.J., Power, T.J., Anastopoulos, A.D., & Reid, R. (1998). Manual for the AD/HD Rating Scale-IV. New York: Guilford Press.
64. Earls, F. (1980). Prevalence of behavior problems in 3-year-old children: A cross-national replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 1153-1157.
65. Earls, F. (1982a). Application of DSM-III in an epidemiological study of preschool children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 242-243.
66. Earls, F. (1982b). Temperament characteristics and behavior problems in three-year-old children. In S. Chess & A. Thomas (Eds.), Annual progress in child psychiatry and child development (pp. 330-343). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
67. Earls, F., Jacobs, G., Goldfein, D., Silbert, A., Beardslee, W.R., & Rivinus, T. (1982). Concurrent validation of behavior problems scale to use with 3-year-olds. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 47-57.
68. Earls, F., & Jung, K.G. (1987). Temperament and home environment characteristics as causal factors in the early development of childhood psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 491-498.
69. Earls, F., & Richman, N. (1980a). Behavior problems in pre-school children of West Indian-born parents: A re-examination of family and social factors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 21, 107-117.
70. Earls, F., & Richman, N. (1980b). The prevalence of behavior problems in three-year-old children of West Indian-born parents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 21, 99-106.
71. Egger, H.L., & Angold, A. (2004). The Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA): A structured parent interview for diagnosing psychiatric disorders in preschool children. In R. DelCarmen-Wiggins & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental assessment (pp. 223-243). New York: Oxford University Press.
72. Egger, H.L., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., Potts, E., & Angold, A. (submitted-a). Preschool anxiety disorders in pediatric primary care.
73. Egger, H.L., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., Potts, E., Walter, B., & Angold, A. (in press a). The test-retest reliability of the Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.
74. Egger, H.L., Kondo, D., & Angold, A. (in press b). The epidemiology of Preschool ADHD. Infant and Young Children.
75. Egger, H.L., Kondo, D., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., Potts, E., & Angold, A. (submitted-b). Preschool ADHD in pediatric primary care.
76. Eley, T.C., Bolton, D., O'Connor, T.G., Perrin, S., Smith, P., & Plomin, R. (2003). A twin study of anxiety-related behaviours in pre-school children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 945-960.
77. Emde, R. (2003). RDC-PA: A major step forward and some issues. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1513-1516.
78. Emde, R.N., Bingham, R.D., & Harmon, R.J. (1993). Classification and the diagnostic process in infancy. In C.H. Zeanah, Jr. (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (pp. 225-235). New York: Guilford Press.
79. Fischer, M., Rolf, J.E., Hasazi, J.E., & Cummings, L. (1984). Follow-up of a preschool epidemiological sample: Cross-age continuities and predictions of later adjustment with internalizing and externalizing dimensions of behavior. Child Development, 55, 137-150.
80. Fisher, L., Kagan, J., & Reznick, J. (1994). Genetic etiology of behavioral inhibition among 2-year-old children. Infant Behavioral Development, 17, 405-412.
81. Fombonne, E. (2003). Epidemiological surveys of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders: An update. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33, 365-382.
82. Ford, T., Goodman, R., & Meltzer, H. (2003). The British child and adolescent mental health survey 1999: The prevalence of DSM-IV disorders. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1203-1211.
83. Fox, N., Henderson, H., Rubin, K., Calkins, S., & Schmidt, L. (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1-21.
84. Fox, N.A., Schmidt, L.A., Calkins, S.D., Rubin, K.H., & Coplan, R.J. (1996). The role of frontal activation in the regulation and dysregulation of social behavior during the preschool years. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 89-102.
85. Frick, P. (2004). Integrating research on temperament and childhood psychopathology: Its pitfalls and promise. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 2-7.
86. Gadow, K., & Nolan, E. (2002). Differences between preschool children with ODD, ADHD, and ODD + ADHD symptoms. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 191-201.
87. Gadow, K.D., & Sprafkin, J. (1997). Early Childhood Symptom Inventory-4 Norms Manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.
88. Gadow, K.D., & Sprafkin, J. (2000). Early Childhood Symptom Inventory-4 Screening Manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.
89. Gadow, K.D., Sprafkin, J., & Nolan, E.E. (2001). DSM-IV symptoms in community and clinic preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1383-1392.
90. Gimpel, G., & Kuhn, B. (2000). Maternal report of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in preschool children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 26, 163-179.
91. Gjone, H., & Stevenson, J. (1997). A longitudinal twin study of temperament and behavior problems: Common genetic or environmental influences? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1448-1456.
92. Goldberg, S., Corter, C., Lojkasek, M., & Minde, K. (1990). Prediction of behavior problems in 4-year-olds born prematurely. Developmental and Psychopathology, 2, 15-30.
93. Goldsmith, H., & Lemery, K. (2000). Linking temperamental fearfulness and anxiety symptoms: A behavior-genetic perspective. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 1199-1209.
94. Goldsmith, H.H., Buss, A.H., Plomin, R., Rothbart, M.K., Thomas, A., Chess, S., Hinde, R.A., & McCall, R.B. (1987). Roundtable: What is temperament? Four approaches. Child Development, 58, 505-529.
95. Goodman, S.H., Lahey, B.B., Fielding, B., Dulcan, M., et al. (1997). Representativeness of clinical samples of youths with mental disorders: A preliminary population-based study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 3-14.
96. Goodyer, I. (1990). Recent life events and psychiatric disorder in school age children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 839-848.
97. Goodyer, I., Ashby, L., Altham, P., Vize, C., & Cooper, P. (1993). Temperament and major depression in 11 to 16 year olds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1409-1423.
98. Goodyer, I., Herbert, J., Tamplin, A., Secher, S., & Pearson, J. (1997). Short-term outcome of major depression: II. Life events, family dysfunction, and friendship difficulties as predictors or persistent disorder. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 474-480.
99. Goodyer, I.M. (1995). Life events and difficulties: Their nature and effects. In I.M. Goodyer (Ed.), The depressed child and adolescent: Developmental and clinical perspectives (pp. 171-193). New York: Cambridge University Press.
100. Goodyer, I.M., Herbert, J., Tamplin, A., & Altham, P.M.E. (2000). Recent life events, cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone and the onset of major depression in high-risk adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 499-504.
101. Gray, J.A. (1982). Précis of the neuropsychology of anxiety: An inquiry into the functions of the sept-hippocampal system. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5, 469-534.
102. Greenhill, L.L. (1998). The use of psychotropic medication in preschoolers: Indications, safety, and efficacy. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 576-581.
103. Greenhill, L.L., Jensen, P.S., Abikoff, H., Blumer, J.L., DeVeaugh-Geiss, J., Fisher, C., Hoagwood, K., Kratochvil, C.J., Lahey, B.B., Laughren, T., Leckman, J., Petti, T.A., Pope, K., Shaffer, D., Vitiello, B., & Zeanah, C. (2003). Developing strategies for psychopharmacological studies in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 406-414.
104. Griffiths, W. (1952). Behavior difficulties of children as perceived and judged by parents, teachers, and children themselves. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press.
105. Guedeney, N., Guedeney, A., Rabouam, C., Mintz, A.-S., Danon, G., Huet, M., & Jacqueman, F. (2003). The Zero-to-Three diagnostic classification: A contribution to the validation of this classification from a sample of 85 under-threes. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 313-336.
106. Guerin, D.W., Gottfried, A.W., & Thomas, C.W. (1997). Difficult temperament and behaviour problems: A longitudinal study from 1.5 to 12 years. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 71-90.
107. Henry, B., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T.E., & Silva, P.A. (1996). Temperamental and familial predictors of violent and non-violent criminal convictions: From age 3 to age 18. Developmental Psychology, 32, 614-623.
108. Hinshaw, S.P., Lahey, B.B., & Hart, E.L. (1993). Issues of taxonomy and comorbidity in the development of conduct disorder. Special Issue: Toward a developmental perspective on conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 31-49.
109. Hirshfeld, D.R., Biederman, J., Brody, L., Faraone, S.V., & Rosenbaum, J.F. (1997). Associations between expressed emotion and child behavioral inhibition and psychopathology: A pilot study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 205-213.
110. Hirshfeld, D.R., Rosenbaum, J.F., Biederman, J., Bolduc, E.A., Faraone, S.V., Snidman, N.S., Reznick, J.S., & Kagan, J. (1992). Stable behavioral inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 103-111.
111. Hirshfeld-Becker, D., Biederman, J., Faraone, S., Violette, H., Wrightsman, J., & Rosenbaum, J. (2002). Temperamental correlates of disruptive behavior disorders in young children: Preliminary finding. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 563-574.
112. Hirshfeld-Becker, D.R., Biederman, J., Calltharp, S., Rosenbaum, E.D., Faraone, S.V., & Rosenbaum, J.F. (2003). Behavioral inhibition and disinhibition as hypothesized precursors to psychopathology: Implications for pediatric bipolar disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 53, 985-999.
113. Horwitz, S.M., Leaf, P.J., Leventhal, J.M., Forsyth, B., & Speechley, K.N. (1992). Identification and management of psychosocial and developmental problems in community-based, primary care pediatric practices. Pediatrics, 89, 480-485.
114. Insel, T.R., & Fenton, W.S. (2005). Psychiatric epidemiology: It's not just about counting anymore. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 590-592.
115. Jenkins, S., Bax, M., & Hart, H. (1980). Behaviour problems in pre-school children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 21, 5-17.
116. Jones, L.B., Rothbart, M., & Posner, M.I. (2003). Development of executive attention in preschool children. Developmental Science, 6, 498-504.
117. Kashani,. J.H., Allan, W.D., Beck, N.C.J., Bledsoe, Y., & Reid, J.C. (1997). Dysthymic disorder in clinically referred preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1426-1433.
118. Kashani, J.H., & Carlson, G.A. (1987). Seriously depressed preschoolers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 348-350.
119. Kashani, J.H., Holcomb, W.R., & Orvaschel, H. (1986). Depression and depressive symptoms in preschool children from the general population. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1138-1143.
120. Kashani, J.H., Ray, J.S., & Carlson, G.A. (1984). Depression and depressive-like states in preschool-age children in a child development unit. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1397-1402.
121. Keenan, K., Shaw, D., Delliquadri, E., Giovannelli, J., & Walsh, B.T. (1998). Evidence for the continuity of early problem behaviors: Application of a developmental model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychiatry, 26, 441-452.
122. Keenan, K., Shaw, D.S., Walsh, B., Delliquadri, E., & Giovannelli, J. (1997). DSM-III-R disorders in preschool children from low-income families. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 620-627.
123. Keenan, K., & Wakschlag, L.S. (2000). More than the terrible twos: The nature and severity of behavior problems in clinic-referred preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 33-46.
124. Keenan, K., & Wakschlag, L.S. (2002). Can a valid diagnosis of disruptive behavior disorder be made in preschool children? The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 351-358.
125. Kendall, P.C., Kortlander, E., Chansky, T.E., & Brady, E.U. (1992). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in youth: Treatment implications. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 869-880.
126. Keown, L., & Woodward, L. (2002). Early parent-child relations and family functioning of preschool boys with pervasive hyperactivity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 541-553.
127. Keren, M., Feldman, R., & Tyano, S. (2003). A five-year Israeli experience with the DC: 0-3 classification system. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 337-348.
128. Kessler, R.C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K.R., & Walters, E.E. (2005a). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593-602.
129. Kessler, R.C., Chiu, W.T., Demler, O., & Walters, E.E. (2005b). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archive of General Psychiatry, 62, 617-627.
130. Kessler, R.C., & Wai Tat Chiu, A.M. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archive of General Psychiatry, 62, 617-627.
131. Kim-Cohen, J., Arseneault, L., Caspi, A., Polo-Tomas, M., Taylor, A., & Moffitt, T.E. (2005). Validity of DSM-IV conduct disorder in 41/ 2-5-year-old children: A longitudinal epidemiological study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1108-1117.
132. Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T., Harrington, H., Milne, B., & Poulton, R. (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 709-717.
133. Kingston, L., & Prior, M. (1995). The development of patterns of stable, transient, and school-age onset aggressive behavior in young children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 348-58.
134. Klein, D.N., & Riso, L.P. (1993). Psychiatric disorders: Problems of boundaries and comorbidity. In C.G. Costello (Eds.), Basic issues in psychopathology (pp. 19-66). New York: The Guilford Press.
135. Kochanska, G., Coy, K.C., & Murray, K.T. (2001). The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1091-1111.
136. Kochanska, G., Murray, K.T., & Harlan, E.T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36, 220-232.
137. Koot, H.M., van den Oord, E.J.C.G., Verhulst, F.C., & Boomsma, D.I. (1997). Behavioral and emotional problems in young preschoolers: Cross-cultural testing of the validity of the child behavior checklist/ 2-3. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 183-196.
138. Koot, H.M., & Verhulst, F.C. (1991). Prevalence of problem behavior in Dutch children aged 2-3. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 83 (Suppl. No. 367), 1-37.
139. Lahey, B. (2004). Commentary: Role of temperament in developmental models of psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 88-93.
140. Lahey, B.B., Pelham, W.E., Loney, J., Kipp, H., Ehrhardt, A., Lee, S.S., et al. (2004). Three-year predictive validity of DSM-IV attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children diagnosed at 4-6 years of age. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2014-2020.
141. Lahey, B.B., Pelham, W.E., Stein, M.A., Loney, J., Trapani, C., Nugent, K., Kipp, H., Schmidt, E., Lee, S., Cale, M., Gold, E., Hartung, C.M., Willcutt, E., & Baumann, B. (1998). Validity of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder for younger children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 695-702.
142. Lavigne, J.V., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H.J., Christoffel, K.K., Burns, A., & Smith, A. (1998a). Mental health service use among young children receiving pediatric primary care. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1175-1183.
143. Lavigne, J.V., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H.J., Christoffel, K.K., & Gibbons, R.D. (1998b). Psychiatric disorders with onset in the preschool years: I. Stability of diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1246-1254.
144. Lavigne, J.V., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H.J., Christoffel, K.K., & Gibbons, R.D. (1998c). Psychiatric disorders with onset in the preschool years: II. Correlates and predictors of stable case status. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 1255-1261.
145. Lavigne, J.V., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Sinacore, J., Cicchetti, C., Binns, H.J., Christoffel, K.K., Hayford, J.R., & McGuire, P. (1994). Interrater reliability of the DSM-III-R with preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 679-690.
146. Lavigne, J.V., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Smith, A., Weissbluth, M., Binns, H.J., & Christoffel, K.K. (1999). Sleep and behavior problems among preschoolers. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 20, 164-169.
147. Lavigne, J.V., Binns, H.J., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Christoffel, K.K., Hayford, J.R., & Gibbons, R.D. (1998d). Psychopathology and health care use among preschool children: A retrospective analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 262-270.
148. Lavigne, J.V., Binns, H.J., Christoffel, K.K., Rosenbaum, D., Arend, R., Smith, K., Hayford, J.R., McGuire, P.A., & Pediatric Practice Research Group. (1993). Behavioral and emotional problems among preschool children in pediatric primary care: Prevalence and pediatricians' recognition. Pediatrics, 91, 649-655.
149. Lavigne, J.V., Gibbons, R.D., Christoffel, K.K., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H., Dawson, N., Sobel, H., & Isaacs, C. (1996). Prevalence rates and correlates of psychiatric disorders among preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 204-214.
150. Lavigne, J.V., Schulein, M.J., & Hahn, Y.S. (1986). Psychological aspects of painful medical conditions in children. II. Personality factors, family characteristics and treatment. Pain, 27, 147-169.
151. Lee, C.L., & Bates, J.E. (1985). Mother-child interaction at age two years and perceived difficult temperament. Child Development, 56, 1314-1325.
152. Leibenluft, E., James, R., Blair, R., Charney, D.S., & Pine, D.S. (2003). Irritability in pediatric mania and other childhood psychopathology. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 201-218.
153. Loeber, R., & Keenan, K. (1994). Interaction between conduct disorder and its comorbid conditions: Effects of age and gender. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 497-523.
154. Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1997). The development of juvenile aggression and violence: Some common misconceptions and controversies. American Psychologist, 53, 242-259.
155. Luby, J. (2005). Assessment of mania symptoms in preschool children: Preliminary findings on reliability. In Joint Annual Meeting AACAP & CACAP (p. 83). Toronto, Canada: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.
156. Luby, J., Heffelfinger, A., Mrakotsky, C., Brown, K., Hessler, M., & Spitznagel, E. (2003a). Alterations in stress cortisol reactivity in depressed preschoolers relative to psychiatric and no-disorder comparison groups. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1248-1255.
157. Luby, J., Heffelfinger, A., Mrakotsky, C., Brown, K., Hessler, M., Wallis, J., & Spitznagel, E. (2003b). The clinical picture of depression in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 340-348.
158. Luby, J., Heffelfinger, A., Mrakotsky, C., Hessler, M., Brown, K., & Hildebrand, T. (2002). Preschool major depressive disorder: Preliminary validation for developmentally modified DSM-IV Criteria. Journal of the
159. Luby, J., & Mrakotsky, C. (2003). Depressed preschoolers with bipolar family history: A group at high risk for later switching to mania ? Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 187-197.
160. Luby, J., Mrakotsky, C., Heffelfinger, A., Brown, K., Hessler, M., & Spitznagel, E. (2003c). Modification of DSM-IV criteria for depressed preschool children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1169-1172.
161. MacFarlane, J., Allen, L., & Honzik, M. (1962). A developmental study of the behavior problems of normal children between 21 months and 14 years. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
162. MacFarlane, J.W., Allen, L., & Honzik, M. (1954). A developmental study of the behavior problems of normal children. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
163. March, J.S., Parker, J.D. A., Sullivan, K., Stallings, P., & Conners, C.K. (1997). The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 554-565.
164. Marks, I. (1987). The development of normal fear: A review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28, 667-697.
165. Maziade, M., Côté, R., Bernier, H., Boutin, P., & Thivierge, J. (1989). Significance of extreme temperament in infancy for clinical status in preschool years: I. Value of extreme temperament at 4-8 months for predicting diagnosis at 4.7 years. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 533-543.
166. Maziade, M., Côté, R., Thivierge, J., Boutin, P., & Bernier, H. (1989). Significance of extreme temperament in infancy for clinical status in preschool years: II. Patterns of temperament change and implications for the appearance of disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 544-551.
167. McClellan, J., & Speltz, M. (2003). Psychiatric diagnosis in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 127-128.
168. McGee, R., Partridge, F., Williams, S., & Silva, P.A. (1991). A twelve-year follow-up of preschool hyperactive children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 224-232.
169. McGoey, K., Eckert, T., & DuPaul, G. (2002). Early intervention for preschool-age children with ADHD: A literature review. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10, 14-28.
170. McGuire, J., & Richman, N. (1986). The prevalence of behavioral problems in three types of preschool group. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 455-472.
171. Mesman, J., & Koot, H.M. (2000). Child-reported depression and anxiety in preadolescence: II. Preschool predictors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1379-1386.
172. Mesman, J., & Koot, H.M. (2001). Early preschool predictors of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing DSM-IV diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1029-1036.
173. Minde, K. (1998). The use of psychotropic medication in preschoolers: Some recent developments. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 571-581.
174. Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., Silva, P., & Stanton, W. (1996). Childhood-onset versus adolescent-onset antisocial conduct problems in males: Natural history from ages 3 to 18 years. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 399-424.
175. Muris, P., Mayer, B., Bartelds, E., Tierney, S., & Bogie, N. (2001). The revised version of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED-R): Treatment sensitivity in an early intervention trial for childhood anxiety disorders. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40, 323-336.
176. Nachimias, M., Gunnar, M., Mangelsdorf, S., Parritz, R.H., & Buss, K. (1996). Behavioral inhibition and stress reactivity: The moderating role of attachment security. Child Development, 2, 508-522.
177. Nagin, D., & Tremblay, R.E. (1999). Trajectories of boys' physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violent and nonviolent juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70, 1181-1196.
178. Nelson, C.A., Bloom, F.E., Cameron, J.L., Amaral, D., Dahl, R.E., & Pine, D. (2002). An integrative multidisciplinary approach to the study of brain-behavior relations in the context of typical and atypical development. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 499-520.
179. Nigg, J.T., Goldsmith, H.H., & Sachek, J. (2004). Temperament and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: The development of a multiple pathway model. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 42-53.
180. Nottelmann, E.D., & Jensen, P.S. (1995). Comorbidity of disorders in children and adolescents: Developmental perspectives. In T.H. Ollendick & R.J. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (pp. 109-155), New York: Plenum Press.
181. Ono, Y., Ando, J., Onoda, N., Yoshimura, K., Momose, T., Hirano, M., & Kanba, S (2002). Dimensions of temperament as vulnerability factors in depression. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 948-953.
182. Patel, N.C., Crismon, M.L., Hoagwood, K., & Johnsrud, M.T. (2005). Trends in the use of typical and atypical antipsychotics in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 548-556.
183. Pavuluri, M.N., Janicak, P.G., & Carbray, J. (2002). Topiramate plus risperidone for controlling weight gain and symptoms in preschool mania. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 12, 271-3.
184. Pavuluri, M.N., & Luk, S.-L. (1996). Pattern of preschool behaviour problems in New Zealand, using the Behaviour Check List. Journal of Paediatric Child Health, 32, 132-137.
185. Pavuluri, M.N., Luk, S.L., & McGee, R. (1999). Parent reported preschool attention deficit hyperactivity: Measurement and validity. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 8, 126-133.
186. Pickles, A., & Angold, A. (2003). Natural categories or fundamental dimensions: On carving nature at the joints and the rearticulation of psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 529-551.
187. Pickles, A., Rowe, R., Simonoff, E., Foley, D., Rutter, M., & Silberg, J. (2001). Child psychiatric symptoms and psychosocial impairment: Relationship and prognostic significance. British Journal of Psychiatry, 79, 230-235.
188. Pine, D.S., Alegria, M., Cook, E.H., Jr., Costello, E.J., Dahl, R.E., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K.R., Reiss, A.L., & Vitiello, B. (2002). Advances in developmental science and DSM-V. In D.J. Kupfer, M.B. First, & D.A. Regier (Eds.), A research agenda for DSM-V (pp. 85-122). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
189. Pineda, D., Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Arias, B.E., Henao, G.C., Gomez, L.F., Mejia, S.E., & Miranda, M.L. (1999). Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in 4- to 17-year-old children in the general population. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychiatry, 27, 455-462.
190. Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P.H., Mednick, S.A., & Farrington, D.P. (1998). Fearlessness, stimulation-seeking, and large body size at age 3 years as early predispositions to childhood aggression at age 11 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 745-751.
191. Rappley, M.D., Eneli, I.U., Mullan, P.B., Alvarez, F.J., Wang, J., Luo, Z., et al. (2002). Patterns of psychotropic medication use in very young children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 23-30.
192. Rasmussen, E.R., Neuman, R.J., Heath, A.C., Levy, F., Hay, D.A., & Todd, R.D. (2002). Replication of the latent class structure of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) subtypes in a sample of Australian twins. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 1018-28.
193. Rasmussen, E.R., Neuman, R.J., Heath, A.C., Levy, F., Hay, D.A., & Todd, R.D. (2004). Familial clustering of latent class and DSM-IV defined attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) subtypes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 589-98.
194. Reams, R. (1999). Children birth to three entering the state's custody. Infant Mental Health Journal, 20, 166-174.
195. Rende, R.D. (1993). Longitudinal relations between temperament traits and behavioral syndromes in middle childhood. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 287-290.
196. Richman, N. (1977). Behaviour problems in pre-school children: Family and social factors. British Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 523-527.
197. Richman, N., Stevenson, J., & Graham, P. (1982). Preschool to school: A behavioural study. London: Academic Press.
198. Richman, N., Stevenson, J.E., Graham, P.J., Ridgely, M.S., Goldman, H.H., & Talbott, J.A.C. (1974). Prevalence of behaviour problems in 3-year-old children: An epidemiological study in a London Borough. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16, 277-287.
199. Rie, H.E. (1966). Depression in childhood: A survey of some pertinent contributions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 5, 653-685.
200. Rohde, L., Barbosa, G., Polancyzk, G., Eizirik, M., Rasmussen, E., Neuman, R., & Todd, R.D. (2001). Factor and latent class analysis of DSM-IV ADHD symptoms in a school sample of Brazilian adolescents. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 711-718.
201. Rothbart, M., Ahadi, S., Hersey, K., & Fisher, P. (2001). Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: The Children's Behavior Questionnaire. Child Development, 72, 1394-1408.
202. Rothbart, M., & Bates, J. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 105-176). New York: Wiley.
203. Rowe, D., & Plomin, R. (1977). Temperament in early childhood. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41, 150-156.
204. Rubin, K., Burgess, K., Dwyer, K., & Hastings, P. (2003). Predicting preschoolers' externalizing behaviors from toddler temperament, conflict, and maternal negativity. Developmental Psychology, 39, 164-176.
205. Rutter, M. (1997). Comorbidity: Concepts, claims and choices. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 7, 265-285.
206. Rutter, M. (2000). Genetic studies of autism: From the 1970s to the Millennium. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 3-14.
207. Rutter, M., Birch, H.G., Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1964). Temperamental characteristics in infancy and the later development of behavioural disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 110, 651-661.
208. Sandler, J., & Joffe, W.G. (1965). Notes on childhood depression. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 46, 88-96.
209. Sanson, A., Oberklaid, F., Pedlow, R., & Prior, M. (1991). Risk indicators: Assessment of infancy predictors of preschool behavioural maladjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 609-626.
210. Scheeringa, M.S., Zeanah, C.H., Drell, M.J., & Larrieu, J.A. (1995). Two approaches to the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 191-200.
211. Scheffer, R., & Apps, J.N. (2004). The diagnosis of preschool bipolar disorder presenting with mania: Open pharmacological treatment. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82S, S25-S34.
212. Schmitz, S., Fulker, D., Plomin, R., Zahn-Waxler, C., Emde, R., & DeFries, J.C. (1999). Temperament and problem behavior during early childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23, 333-355.
213. Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Dulcan, M.K., & Davies, M. (1996). The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3 (DISC 2.3): Description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 865-877.
214. Shaw, D., Gilliom, M., Ingoldsby, E., & Nagin, D. (2003). Trajectories leading to school-age conduct problems. Developmental Psychology, 39, 189-200.
215. Shaw, D.S., Keenan, K., Vondra, J.I., Delliquadri, E., & Giovannelli, J. (1997). Antecedents of preschool children's internalizing problems: A longitudinal study of low-income families. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1760-1767.
216. Shaw, D.S., Owens, E.B., Giovannelli, J., & Winslow, E.B. (2001). Infant and toddler pathways leading to early externalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 44-51.
217. Shaw, D.S., Owens, E.B., Vondra, J.I., Keenan, K., & Winslow, E.B. (1996). Early risk factors and pathways in the development of early disruptive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 679-699.
218. Sonuga-Barke, E., Dalen, L., Daley, D., & Remington, B. (2002). Are planning, working memory, and inhibition associated with individual differences in preschool ADHD symptoms? Developmental Neuropsychology, 21, 255-272.
219. Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S. (1998). Categorical models of childhood disorder: A conceptual and empirical analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 115-133.
220. Speltz, M., DeKlyen, M., Calderon, R., Greenberg, M., & Fisher, P. (1999a). Neuropsychological characteristics and test behaviors of boys with early onset conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 315-325.
221. Speltz, M., DeKlyen, M., & Greenberg, M. (1999b). Attachment in boys with early onset conduct problems. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 269-285.
222. Speltz, M., DeKlyen, M., Greenberg, M., & Dryden, M. (1995). Clinic referral for oppositional defiant disorder: Relative significance of attachment and behavioral variables. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 487-507.
223. Speltz, M., McClellan, J., DeKleyn, M., & Jones, K. (1999c). Preschool boys with oppositional defiant disorder: Clinical presentation and diagnostic change. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 838-845.
224. Speltz, M.L., Greenberg, M.T., & Deklyen, M. (1990). Attachment in preschoolers with disruptive behavior: A comparison of clinic-referred and nonproblem children. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 31-46.
225. Spence, S.H. (1997). Structure of anxiety symptoms among children: A confirmatory factor-analytic study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 280-297.
226. Spence, S.H., Rapee, R., McDonald, C., & Ingram, M. (2001). The structure of anxiety symptoms among preschoolers. Behavior Research and Therapy, 39, 1293-1316.
227. Spitzer, R.L., Endicott, J., & Robins, E. (1978). Research diagnostic criteria: Rationale and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 773-782.
228. Sprafkin, J., & Gadow, K.D. (1996). Early Childhood Inventories Manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.
229. Sroufe, L.A. (1990). An organizational perspective on the self. In D. Cicchetti & M. Beeghly (Eds.), The self in transition: Infancy to childhood (pp. 281-307). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
230. Stafford, B., Zeanah, C., & Sheeringa, M. (2003). Exploring psychopathology in early childhood: PTSD and attachment disorders in DC: 0-3 and DSM-IV. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24, 983-409.
231. Stevenson, J., & Goodman, R. (2001). Association between behaviour at age 3 years and adult criminality. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 197-202.
232. Stevenson, J., Richman, N., & Graham, P. (1985). Behaviour problems and language abilities at three years and behavioural deviance at eight years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 215-230.
233. Stubbe, D.E., & Martin, A. (2000). The use of psychotropic medications in young children: The facts, the controversy, and the practice. Connecticut Medicine, 64, 329-333.
234. Suomi, S.J. (1999). Behavioral inhibition and impulsive aggressiveness: Insights from studies with rhesus monkeys. In L. Balter & C.S. Tamis-LeMonda (Eds.), Child psychology: A handbook of contemporary issues (pp. 510-525). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
235. Task Force on Research Diagnostic Criteria: Infancy and Preschool. (2003). Research diagnostic criteria for infants and preschool children: The process and empirical support. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1504-1512.
236. Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. New York: Bruner/Mazel.
237. Thomas, B.H., Byrne, C., Offord, D.R., & Boyle, M.H. (1991). Prevalence of behavioral symptoms and the relationship of child, parent, and family variables in 4- and 5-year-olds: Results from the Ontario Child Health Study. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 12, 177-184.
238. Thomas, J.M., & Clark, R. (1998). Disruptive behavior in the very young child: Diagnostic classification: 0-3 guides identification of risk factors and relational interventions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 19, 229-244.
239. Thomas, J.M., & Guskin, K.A. (2001). Disruptive behavior in young children: What does it mean? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 44-51.
240. Todd, R.D., Rasmussen, E., Neuman, R., Reich, W., Hudziak, J., Bucholz, K., Madden, P., & Health, A. (2001). Familiality and heritability of subtypes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a population sample of adolescent female twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1891-1898.
241. Toolan, J. (1962). Depression in children and adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 32, 404-414.
242. Tremblay, R., Pihl, R., Vitaro, F., & Dobkin, P. (1994). Predicting early onset of male antisocial behavior from preschool behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 732-739.
243. Tremblay, R.E. (2000). The development of aggressive behaviour during childhood: What have we learned in the past century? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 129-141.
244. Tremblay, R.E. (2004). The development of human physical aggression: How important is early childhood? In L.A. Leavitt & D.M.B. Hall (Eds.), Social and moral development: Emerging evidence on the toddler years (pp. 221-38). Brunswick, NJ: Johnson & Johnson Pediatric Institute.
245. Tremblay, R.E., Japel, C., Perusse, D., Boivin, M., Zoccolillo, M., Montplaisir, J., & McDuff, P. (1999). The search for the age of 'onset' of physical aggression: Rousseau and Bandura revisited. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 9, 24-39.
246. Tumuluru, R.V., Weller, E.B., Fristad, M.A., & Weller, R.A. (2003). Mania in six preschool children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 489-494.
247. US Government. (1993). Federal Register, 58, 29425.
248. van den Oord, E.J.C.G., Koot, H.M., Boomsma, D.I., Verhulst, F.C., & Orlebeke, J.F. (1995). A twin-singleton comparison of problem behaviour in 2-3 year-olds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36 (3), 449-458.
249. van den Oord, E.J.C.G., Verhulst, F.C., & Boomsma, D.I. (1996). A genetic study of maternal and paternal ratings of problem behaviors in 3 year-old twins. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 349-357.
250. Volkmar, F.R., Lord, C., & Bailey, A. (2004). Autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 135-170.
251. Wakschlag, L., & Keenan, K. (2001). Clinical significance and correlates of disruptive behavior in environmentally at-risk preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 262-275.
252. Waters, B.G. (1990). Psychopharmacology of the psychiatric disorders of childhood and adolescence. Medical Journal of Australia, 152, 32-39.
253. Wilens, T., Biederman, J., Brown, S., Tanguay, S., Monuteaux, M.C., Blake, C., & Spencer, T. (2002a). Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and school-age youths with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 262-268.
254. Wilens, T.E., Biederman, J., Brown, S., Monuteaux, M., Prince, J., & Spencer, T.J. (2002b). Patterns of psychopathology and dysfunction in clinically referred preschoolers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23, 531-537.
255. Wills, T.A., Windle, M., & Cleary, S.D. (1998). Temperament and novelty seeking in adolescent substance use: Convergence of dimensions of temperament with constructs from Cloninger's theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 387-406.
256. Wolfson, J., Fields, J.H., & Rose, S.A. (1987). Symptoms, temperament, resiliency, and control in anxiety- disordered preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 16-22.
257. World Health Organization. (1992). ICD-10: The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.
258. Zero to Three. (1994). Diagnostic classification: 0-3: Diagnostic classification of mental health and developmental disorders of infancy and early childhood. Arlington, VA: National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.
259. Zero to Three. (2005). Diagnostic classification: 0-3R: Diagnostic classification of mental health and developmental disorders of infancy and early childhood: Revised edition (revised edn). Washington, DC: Zero To Three Press.
260. Zito, J. (2002). Five burning questions. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 23 (Suppl. 1), s23-s30.
261. Zito, J.M., Daniel, J.S., dosReis, S., Gardner, J.F., Boles, M., & Lynch, F. (2000). Trends in the prescribing of psychotropic medications to preschoolers. Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 1025-1030.