How palatable food disrupts appetite regulation

Basic and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology

Volumn 97, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 61-73

  Erlanson Albertsson, Charlotte ^a  

^a LUND UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGOUTI RELATED PROTEIN; ALPHA INTERMEDIN; CHOLECYSTOKININ; DOPAMINE; ENDORPHIN; ENTEROSTATIN; GHRELIN; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1; INSULIN; LEPTIN; MELANIN CONCENTRATING HORMONE; NEUROPEPTIDE Y; OREXIN; PEPTIDE YY; SEROTONIN;

DIGESTIVE TRACT SECRETION; ENERGY BALANCE; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; FEEDING; FEEDING BEHAVIOR; FOOD; FOOD INTAKE; HUNGER; HYPOTHALAMUS FUNCTION; LIPID DIET; NUTRITION; OBESITY; PALATABILITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REWARD; SATIETY; SHORT SURVEY; SUGAR INTAKE; UPREGULATION;

ANIMALS; APPETITE REGULATION; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; FOOD PREFERENCES; HUMANS; HUNGER; REWARD; SATIETY RESPONSE;

AGOUTI;

EID: 22544485065     PISSN: 17427835     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2005.pto_179.x     Document Type: Short Survey

References (155)

1. Air, E. L., M. Z. Strowski, S. C. Benoit, S. L. Conarello, G. M. Salituro, X. M. Guan, K. Liu, S. C. Woods & B. B. Zhang: Small molecule insulin mimetics reduce food intake and body weight and prevent development of obesity. Nature Med. 2002, 8, 179-183.
2. Allen, Y. S., T. E. Adrian, J. M. Allen, K. Tatemoto, T. J. Crow, S. R. Bloom & J. M. Polak: Neuropeptide Y distribution in the rat brain. Science 1983, 221, 877-879.
3. Apfelbaum, M. & A. Mandenoff: Naltrexone suppresses hyperphagia induced in the rat by a highly palatable diet. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1981, 15, 89-91.
4. Appleyard, S. M., M. Hayward, J. I. Young, A. A. Butler, R. D. Cone, M. Rubinstein & M. J. Low: A role for the endogenous opioid beta-endorphin in energy homeostasis. Endocrinology 2003, 144, 1753-1760.
5. Banks, W. A.: Is obesity a disease of the blood-brain barrier? Physiological, pathological, and evolutionary considerations. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2003, 9, 801-809.
6. Banks, W. A., C. R. DiPalma & C. L. Farrell: Impaired transport of leptin across the blood-brain barrier in obesity. Peptides 1999, 20, 1341-1345.
7. Banks, W. A. & C. L. Farrell: Impaired transport of leptin across the blood-brain barrier in obesity is acquired and reversible. Amer. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003, 285, E10-E15.
8. Banks, W. A. & A. J. Kastin: Differential permeability of the blood-brain barrier to two pancreatic peptides: insulin and amylin. Peptides 1998, 19, 883-889.
9. Bannon, A. W., J. Seda, M. Carmouche, J. M. Francis, M. H. Norman, B. Karbon & M. L. McCaleb: Behavioral characterization of neuropeptide Y knockout mice. Brain Res. 2000, 868, 79-87.
10. Baskin, D. G., D. Figlewicz Lattemann, R. J. Seeley, S. C. Woods, D. Porte, Jr. & M. W. Schwartz: Insulin and leptin: dual adiposity signals to the brain for the regulation of food intake and body weight. Brain Res. 1999, 848, 114-123.
11. Batterham, R. L., M. A. Cohen, S. M. Ellis, C. W. Le Roux, D. J. Withers, G. S. Frost, M. A. Ghatei & S. R. Bloom: Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 349, 941-948.
12. Batterham, R. L., M. A. Cowley, C. J. Small, H. Herzog, M. A. Cohen, C. L. Dakin, A. M. Wren, A. E. Brynes, M. J. Low, M. A. Ghatei, R. D. Cone & S. R. Bloom: Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake. Nature 2002, 418, 650-654.
13. Berger, K., U. Sivars, M. S. Winzell, P. Johansson, U. Hellman, C. Rippe & C. Erlanson-Albertsson: Mitochondrial ATP synthase a possible target protein in the regulation of energy metabolism in vitro and in vivo. Nutr. Neurosci. 2002, 5, 201-210.
14. Berger, K., M. S. Winzell, J. Mei & C. Erlanson-Albertsson: Enterostatin and its target mechanisms during regulation of fat intake. Physiol. Behav. 2004, 83, 623-630.
15. Berridge, K. C.: Modulation of taste affect by hunger, caloric satiety, and sensory-specific satiety in the rat. Appetite 1991, 16, 103-120.
16. Berridge, K. C.: Food reward: brain substrates of wanting and liking. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1996, 20, 1-25.
17. Bi, S., E. E. Ladenheim, G. J. Schwartz & T. H. Moran: A role for NPY overexpression in the dorsomedial hypothalamus in hyperphagia and obesity of OLETF rats. Amer. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2001, 281, R254-R260.
18. Billington, C. J., J. E. Briggs, S. Harker, M. Grace & A. S. Levine: Neuropeptide Y in hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: a center coordinating energy metabolism. Amer. J. Physiol. 1994, 266, R1765-R1770.
19. Bittencourt, J. C., F. Presse, C. Arias, C. Peto, J. Vaughan, J. L. Nahon, W. Vale & P. E. Sawchenko: The melanin-concentrating hormone system of the rat brain: an immuno- and hybridization histochemical characterization. J. Comp. Neurol. 1992, 319, 218-245.
20. Bjorbaek, C., J. K. Elmquist, J. D. Frantz, S. E. Shoelson & J. S. Flier: Identification of SOCS-3 as a potential mediator of central leptin resistance. Mol. Cell 1998, 1, 619-625.
21. Blum, K., E. R. Braverman, J. M. Holder, J. F. Lubar, V. J. Monastra, D. Miller, J. O. Lubar, T. J. Chen & D. E. Comings: Reward deficiency syndrome: a biogenetic model for the diagnosis and treatment of impulsive, addictive, and compulsive behaviors. J. Psychoactive Drugs 2000, 32 Suppl, i-iv, 1-112.
22. Blundell, J. E. & A. Gillett: Control of food intake in the obese. Obes. Res. 2001, 9, Suppl 4, 263S-270S.
23. Blundell, J. E. & C. L. Lawton: Serotonin and dietary fat intake: effects of dexfenfluramine. Metabolism 1995, 44, 33-37.
24. Bray, G. A.: Drug treatment of obesity. Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord. 2001, 2, 403-418.
25. Burguera, B., M. E. Couce, G. L. Curran, M. D. Jensen, R. V. Lloyd, M. P. Cleary & J. F. Poduslo: Obesity is associated with a decreased leptin transport across the blood-brain barrier in rats. Diabetes 2000, 49, 1219-1223.
26. Buwalda, B., W. A. Blom, J. M. Koolhaas & G. van Dijk: Behavioral and physiological responses to stress are affected by high-fat feeding in male rats. Physiol. Behav. 2001, 73, 371-377.
27. Cabanac, M. & L. Lafrance: Postingestive alliesthesia: the rat tells the same story. Physiol. Behav. 1990, 47, 539-543.
28. Cabeza de Vaca, S. & K. D. Carr: Food restriction enhances the central rewarding effect of abused drugs. J. Neurosci. 1998, 18, 7502-7510.
29. Callahan, H. S., D. E. Cummings, M. S. Pepe, P. A. Breen, C. C. Matthys & D. S. Weigle: Postprandial suppression of plasma ghrelin level is proportional to ingested caloric load but does not predict intermeal interval in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 89, 1319-1324.
30. Campfield, L. A., F. J. Smith, Y. Guisez, R. Devos & P. Burn: Recombinant mouse OB protein: evidence for a peripheral signal linking adiposity and central neural networks. Science 1995, 269, 546-549.
31. Carr, K. D.: Augmentation of drug reward by chronic food restriction: behavioral evidence and underlying mechanisms. Physiol. Behav. 2002, 76, 353-364.
32. Challis, B. G., A. P. Coll, G. S. Yeo, S. B. Pinnock, S. L. Dickson, R. R. Thresher, J. Dixon, D. Zahn, J. J. Rochford, A. White, R. L. Oliver, G. Millington, S. A. Aparicio, W. H. Colledge, A. P. Russ, M. B. Carlton & S. O'Rahilly: Mice lacking pro-opiomelanocortin are sensitive to high-fat feeding but respond normally to the acute anorectic effects of peptide-YY (3-36). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 4695-4700.
33. Cheung, C. C., D. K. Clifton & R. A. Steiner: Proopiomelanocortin neurons are direct targets for leptin in the hypothalamus. Endocrinology 1997, 138, 4489-4492.
34. Clement, K., C. Vaisse, N. Lahlou, S. Cabrol, V. Pelloux, D. Cassuto, M. Gourmelen, C. Dina, J. Chambaz, J. M. Lacorte, A. Basdevant, P. Bougneres, Y. Lebouc, P. Froguel & B. Guy-Grand: A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature 1998, 392, 398-401.
35. Colantuoni, C., P Rada, J. McCarthy, C. Patten, N. M. Avena, A. Chadeayne & B. G. Hoebel: Evidence that intermittent, excessive sugar intake causes endogenous opioid dependence. Obes. Res. 2002, 10, 478-488.
36. Coll, A. P., I. S. Farooqi, B. G. Challis, G. S. Yeo & S. O'Rahilly: Proopiomelanocortin and energy balance: insights from human and murine genetics. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 89, 2557-2562.
37. Corp, E. S., M. Curcio, J. Gibbs & G. P. Smith: The effect of centrally administered CCK-receptor antagonists on food intake in rats. Physiol. Behav. 1997, 61, 823-827.
38. Covasa, M., J. Grahn & R. C. Ritter: High fat maintenance diet attenuates hindbrain neuronal response to CCK. Regul. Pept. 2000, 86, 83-88.
39. Cummings, D. E. & M. W. Schwartz: Genetics and pathophysiology of human obesity. Annu. Rev. Med. 2003, 54, 453-471.
40. Davidoff, A. J., M. M. Mason, M. B. Davidson, M. W. Carmody, K. K. Hintz, L. E. Wold, D. A. Podolin & J. Ren: Sucrose-induced cardiomyocyte dysfunction is both preventable and reversible with clinically relevant treatments. Amer. J. Physiol Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 286, E718-E724.
41. Del Parigi, A., K. Chen, A. D. Salbe, E. M. Reiman & P. A. Tataranni: Are we addicted to food? Obes. Res. 2003, 11, 493-495.
42. Dhillo, W. S., C. J. Small, S. A. Stanley, P. H. Jethwa, L. J. Seal, K. G. Murphy, M. A. Ghatei & S. R. Bloom: Hypothalamic interactions between neuropeptide Y, agouti-related protein, cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript and alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone in vitro in male rats. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2002, 14, 725-730.
43. Diano, S., B. Horvath, H. F. Urbanski, P. Sotonyi & T. L. Horvath: Fasting activates the nonhuman primate hypocretin (orexin) system and its postsynaptic targets. Endocrinology 2003, 144, 3774-3778.
44. Dornonville de la Cour, C., M. Bjorkqvist, A. K. Sandvik, I. Bakke, C. M. Zhao, D. Chen & R. Hakanson: A-like cells in the rat stomach contain ghrelin and do not operate under gastrin control. Regul. Pept. 2001, 99, 141-150.
45. Drewnowski, A., D. D. Krahn, M. A. Demitrack, K. Nairn & B. A. Gosnell: Taste responses and preferences for sweet high-fat foods: evidence for opioid involvement. Physiol. Behav. 1992, 51, 371-379.
46. Erickson, J. C., G. Hollopeter & R. D. Palmiter: Attenuation of the obesity syndrome of ob/ob mice by the loss of neuropeptide Y [see comments]. Science 1996, 274, 1704-1707.
47. Erlanson-Albertsson, C. & D. York: Enterostatin - a peptide regulating fat intake. Obes. Res. 1997, 5, 360-372.
48. Farooqi, I. S., J. M. Keogh, G. S. Yeo, E. J. Lank, T. Cheetham & S. O'Rahilly: Clinical spectrum of obesity and mutations in the melanocortin 4 receptor gene. New Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348, 1085-1095.
49. Farooqi, I. S. & S. O'Rahilly: Monogenic human obesity syndromes. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 2004, 59, 409-424.
50. Flatt, P. R., C. J. Bailey, P. Kwasowski & S. K. Swanston-Flatt: Effects of diets rich in sucrose, coconut fat and safflowerseed oil on the development of the obese hyperglycaemic (ob/ob) syndrome in mice. Diabetes Res. 1990, 13, 23-28.
51. Frederich, R. C., A. Hamann, S. Anderson, B. Lollmann, B. B. Lowell & J. S. Flier: Leptin levels reflect body lipid content in mice: evidence for diet-induced resistance to leptin action. Nat. Med. 1995, 1, 1311-1314.
52. Friedman, J. M. & J. L. Halaas: Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature 1998, 395, 763-770.
53. Froguel, P., B. Guy-Grand & K. Clement: Genetics of obesity: towards the understanding of a complex syndrome. Presse Med. 2000, 29, 564-571.
54. Gale, S. M., V. D. Castracane & C. S. Mantzoros: Energy homeostasis, obesity and eating disorders: recent advances in endocrinology. J. Nutr. 2004, 134, 295-298.
55. Gallwitz, B. & W. E. Schmidt: [GLP-1 receptor gen "knock out" causes glucose intolerance, but no alterations of eating behavior]. Z. Gastroenterol. 1997, 35, 655-658.
56. Gao, J., L. Ghibaudi, M. van Heek & J. J. Hwa: Characterization of diet-induced obese rats that develop persistent obesity after 6 months of high-fat followed by 1 month of low-fat diet. Brain Res. 2002, 936, 87-90.
57. Gavrila, A., J. L. Chan, L. C. Miller, K. Heist, N. Yiannakouris & C. S. Mantzoros: Circulating melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), agouti-related protein (AGRP), and alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone ({alpha}-MSH) levels in relation to body composition; alterations in response to food deprivation and recombinant human leptin administration. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005, 90, 1047-1054.
58. Gerozissis, K., M. Orosco, C. Rouch & S. Nicolaidis: Insulin responses to a fat meal in hypothalamic microdialysates and plasma. Physiol. Behav. 1997, 62, 767-772.
59. Giraudo, S. Q., C. M. Kotz, M. K. Grace, A. S. Levine & C. J. Billington: Rat hypothalamic NPY mRNA and brown fat uncoupling protein mRNA after high-carbohydrate or high-fat diets. Amer. J. Physiol. 1994, 266, R1578-R1583.
60. Glass, M. J., E. O'Hare, J. P. Cleary, C. J. Billington & A. S. Levine: The effect of naloxone on food-motivated behavior in the obese Zucker rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999, 141, 378-384.
61. Gosnell, B. A.: Sucrose intake predicts rate of acquisition of cocaine self-administration. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2000, 149, 286-292.
62. Gosnell, B. A. & D. D. Krahn: The relationship between saccharin and alcohol intake in rats. Alcohol. 1992, 9, 203-206.
63. Grigson, P. S.: Like drugs for chocolate: separate rewards modulated by common mechanisms? Physiol. Behav. 2002, 76, 389-395.
64. Gutzwiller, J. P., J. Drewe, S. Ketterer, P. Hildebrand, A. Krautheim & C. Beglinger: Interaction between CCK and a preload on reduction of food intake is mediated by CCK-A receptors in humans. Amer. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2000, 279, R189-R195.
65. Hagan, M. M., P. C. Chandler, P. K. Wauford, R. J. Rybak & K. D. Oswald: The role of palatable food and hunger as trigger factors in an animal model of stress induced binge eating. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 2003, 34, 183-197.
66. Hagan, M. M., F. D. Holguin, C. E. Cabello, D. R. Hanscom & D. E. Moss: Combined naloxone and fluoxetine on deprivation-induced binge eating of palatable foods in rats. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1997, 58, 1103-1107.
67. Halford, J. C. & J. E. Blundell: Separate systems for serotonin and leptin in appetite control. Ann. Med. 2000, 32, 222-232.
68. Helm, K. A., P. Rada & B. G. Hoebel: Cholecystokinin combined with serotonin in the hypothalamus limits accumbens dopamine release while increasing acetylcholine: a possible satiation mechanism. Brain Res. 2003, 963, 290-297.
69. Herve, C. & D. Fellmann: Changes in rat melanin-concentrating hormone and dynorphin messenger ribonucleic acids induced by food deprivation. Neuropeptides 1997, 31, 237-242.
70. Huang, X. F., M. Han, T. South & L. Storlien: Altered levels of POMC, AgRP and MC4-R mRNA expression in the hypothalamus and other parts of the limbic system of mice prone or resistant to chronic high-energy diet-induced obesity. Brain Res. 2003, 992, 9-19.
71. Huang, X. F., X. Xin, P. McLennan & L. Storlien: Role of fat amount and type in ameliorating diet-induced obesity: insights at the level of hypothalamic arcuate nucleus leptin receptor, neuropeptide Y and pro-opiomelanocortin mRNA expression. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 2004, 6, 35-44.
72. Ito, M., A. Gomori, A. Ishihara, Z. Oda, S. Mashiko, H. Matsushita, M. Yumoto, H. Sano, S. Tokita, M. Moriya, H. Iwaasa & A. Kanatani: Characterization of MCH-mediated obesity in mice. Amer. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003, 284, E940-E945.
73. Kaga, T., A. Inui, M. Okita, A. Asakawa, N. Ueno, M. Kasuga, M. Fujimiya, N. Nishimura, R. Dobashi, Y. Morimoto, I. M. Liu & J. T. Cheng: Modest overexpression of neuropeptide Y in the brain leads to obesity after high-sucrose feeding. Diabetes 2001, 50, 1206-1210.
74. Kawai, K., K. Sugimoto, K. Nakashima, H. Miura & Y. Ninomiya: Leptin as a modulator of sweet taste sensitivities in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 11044-11049.
75. Kelley, A. E.: Ventral striatal control of appetitive motivation: role in ingestive behavior and reward-related learning. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2004, 27, 765-776.
76. Kelley, A. E., V. P. Bakshi, S. N. Haber, T. L. Steininger, M. J. Will & M. Zhang: Opioid modulation of taste hedonics within the ventral striatum. Physiol. Behav. 2002, 76, 365-377.
77. Kim, E. M., C. C. Welch, M. K. Grace, C. J. Billington & A. S. Levine: Chronic food restriction and acute food deprivation decrease mRNA levels of opioid peptides in arcuate nucleus. Amer. J. Physiol. 1996, 270, R1019-R1024.
78. Kim, J. K., R. E. Gimeno, T. Higashimori, H. J. Kim, H. Choi, S. Punreddy, R. L. Mozell, G. Tan, A. Stricker-Krongrad, D. J. Hirsch, J. J. Fillmore, Z. X. Liu, J. Dong, G. Cline, A. Stahl, H. F. Lodish & G. I. Shulman: Inactivation of fatty acid transport protein 1 prevents fat-induced insulin resistance in skeletal muscle. J. Clin. Invest. 2004, 113, 756-763.
79. Kim, M. S., C. Y. Yoon, K. H. Park, C. S. Shin, K. S. Park, S. Y. Kim, B. Y. Cho & H. K. Lee: Changes in ghrelin and ghrelin receptor expression according to feeding status. Neuroreport 2003, 14, 1317-1320.
80. Klebig, M. L., J. E. Wilkinson, J. G. Geisler & R. P. Woychik: Ectopic expression of the agouti gene in transgenic mice causes obesity, features of type II diabetes, and yellow fur. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 4728-4732.
81. Koob, G. F. & M. Le Moal: Drug abuse: hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science 1997, 278, 52-58.
82. Korner, J., E. Savontaus, S. C. Chua, Jr., R. L. Leibel & S. L. Wardlaw: Leptin regulation of Agrp and Npy mRNA in the rat hypothalamus. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2001, 13, 959-966.
83. Krude, H., H. Biebermann & A. Gruters: Mutations in the human proopiomelanocortin gene. Ann. New Y. Acad. Sci. 2003, 994, 233-239.
84. Krugel, U., T. Schraft, H. Kittner, W. Kiess & P. Illes: Basal and feeding-evoked dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens is depressed by leptin. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2003, 482, 185-187.
85. Lam, W. F., H. A. Gielkens, S. Y. de Boer, C. B. Lamers & A. A. Masclee: Influence of hyperglycemia on the satiating effect of CCK in humans. Physiol. Behav. 1998, 65, 505-511.
86. Lawton, C. L., J. K. Wales, A. J. Hill & J. E. Blundell: Serotoninergic manipulation, meal-induced satiety and eating pattern: effect of fluoxetine in obese female subjects. Obes. Res. 1995, 3, 345-356.
87. Le Magnen, J., P. Marfaing-Jallat, D. Miceli & M. Devos: Pain modulating and reward systems: a single brain mechanism? Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1980, 12, 729-733.
88. Leibel, R. L.: The role of leptin in the control of body weight. Nutr. Rev. 2002, 60, S15-S19; discussion S68-84, 85-87.
89. Levine, A. S., C. M. Kotz & B. A. Gosnell: Sugars and fats: the neurobiology of preference. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 831S-834S.
90. Lin, S., L. H. Storlien & X. F. Huang: Leptin receptor, NPY, POMC mRNA expression in the diet-induced obese mouse brain. Brain Res. 2000, 875, 89-95.
91. Loos, R. J. & C. Bouchard: Obesity-is it a genetic disorder? J. Intern. Med. 2003, 254, 401-425.
92. Lord, J. A., A. A. Waterfield, J. Hughes & H. W. Kosterlitz: Endogenous opioid peptides: multiple agonists and receptors. Nature 1977, 267, 495-499.
93. Maffei, M., J. Halaas, E. Ravussin, R. E. Pratley, G. H. Lee, Y. Zhang, H. Fei, S. Kim, R. Lallone, S. Ranganathan, et al.: Leptin levels in human and rodent: measurement of plasma leptin and ob RNA in obese and weight-reduced subjects. Nature Med. 1995, 1, 1155-1161.
94. Moesgaard, S. G., B. Ahren, R. D. Carr, D. X. Gram, C. L. Brand & F. Sundler: Effects of high-fat feeding and fasting on ghrelin expression in the mouse stomach. Regul. Pept. 2004, 120, 261-267.
95. Montague, C. T., I. S. Farooqi, J. P. Whitehead, M. A. Soos, H. Rau, N. J. Wareham, C. P. Sewter, J. E. Digby, S. N. Mohammed, J. A. Hurst, C. H. Cheetham, A. R. Earley, A. H. Barnett, J. B. Prins & S. O'Rahilly: Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature 1997, 387, 903-908.
96. Moraes, R. C., A. Blondet, K. Birkenkamp-Demtroeder, J. Tirard, T. F. Orntoft, A. Gertler, P. Durand, D. Naville & M. Begeot: Study of the alteration of gene expression in adipose tissue of diet-induced obese mice by microarray and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analyses. Endocrinology 2003, 144, 4773-4782.
97. Moran, T. H., A. R. Baldessarini, C. F. Salorio, T. Lowery & G. J. Schwartz: Vagal afferent and efferent contributions to the inhibition of food intake by cholecystokinin. Amer. J. Physiol. 1997, 272, R1245-R1251.
98. Naslund, E., B. Barkeling, N. King, M. Gutniak, J. E. Blundell, J. J. Holst, S. Rossner & P. M. Hellstrom: Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in obese men. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. 1999, 23, 304-311.
99. Nesse, R. M. & K. C. Berridge: Psychoactive drug use in evolutionary perspective. Science 1997, 278, 63-66.
100. Nestler, E. J. & G. K. Aghajanian: Molecular and cellular basis of addiction. Science 1997, 278, 58-63.
101. Niimi, M., M. Sato & T. Taminato: Neuropeptide Y in central control of feeding and interactions with orexin and leptin. Endocrine 2001, 14, 269-273.
102. Ookuma, K., C. Barton, D. A. York & G. A. Bray: Effect of enterostatin and kappa-opioids on macronutrient selection and consumption. Peptides 1997, 18, 785-791.
103. Owji, A. A., Z. Khoshdel, F. Sanea, M. R. Panjehshahin, M. Shojaee Fard, D. M. Smith, H. A. Coppock, M. A. Ghatei & S. R. Bloom: Effects of intracerebroventricular injection of glucagon like peptide-1 and its related peptides on serotonin metabolism and on levels of amino acids in the rat hypothalamus. Brain Ress 2002, 929, 70-75.
104. Park, M., L. Lin, S. Thomas, H. D. Braymer, P. M. Smith, D. H. Harrison & D. A. York: The F1-ATPase beta-subunit is the putative enterostatin receptor. Peptides 2004, 25, 2127-2133.
105. Pelchat, M.: Of human bondage: Food craving, obsession, compulsion and addiction. Physiol. & Behav. 2002, 76, 347-352.
106. Pert, C. B. & S. H. Snyder: Opiate receptor: demonstration in nervous tissue. Science 1973, 179, 1011-1014.
107. Polson, D. A. & M. P. Thompson: Adiponutrin mRNA expression in white adipose tissue is rapidly induced by meal-feeding a high-sucrose diet. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2003, 301, 261-266.
108. Qu, D., D. S. Ludwig, S. Gammeltoft, M. Piper, M. A. Pelleymounter, M. J. Cullen, W. F. Mathes, R. Przypek, R. Kanarek & E. Maratos-Flier: A role for melanin-concentrating hormone in the central regulation of feeding behaviour. Nature 1996, 380, 243-247.
109. Rada, P., G. P. Mark & B. G. Hoebel: Galanin in the hypothalamus raises dopamine and lowers acetylcholine release in the nucleus accumbens: a possible mechanism for hypothalamic initiation of feeding behavior. Brain Res. 1998, 798, 1-6.
110. Raposinho, P. D., D. D. Pierroz, P. Broqua, R. B. White, T. Pedrazzini & M. L. Aubert: Chronic administration of neuropeptide Y into the lateral ventricle of C57BL/6J male mice produces an obesity syndrome including hyperphagia, hyperleptinemia, insulin resistance, and hypogonadism. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 2001, 185, 195-204.
111. Rossi, M., S. J. Choi, D. O'Shea, T. Miyoshi, M. A. Ghatei & S. R. Bloom: Melanin-concentrating hormone acutely stimulates feeding, but chronic administration has no effect on body weight. Endocrinology 1997, 138, 351-355.
112. Sakurai, T., A. Amemiya, M. Ishii, I. Matsuzaki, R. M. Chemelli, H. Tanaka, S. C. Williams, J. A. Richarson, G. P. Kozlowski, S. Wilson, J. R. Arch, R. E. Buckingham, A. C. Haynes, S. A. Carr, R. S. Annan, D. E. McNulty, W. S. Liu, J. A. Terrett, N. A. Elshourbagy, D. J. Bergsma & M. Yanagisawa: Orexins and orexin receptors: a family of hypothalamic neuropeptides and G protein-coupled receptors that regulate feeding behavior. Cell 1998, 92, 573-585.
113. Saper, C. B., T. C. Chou & J. K. Elmquist: The need to feed: homeostatic and hedonic control of eating. Neuron. 2002, 36, 199-211.
114. Schwartz, M. W., J. L. Marks, A. J. Sipols, D. G. Baskin, S. C. Woods, S. E. Kahn & D. Porte, Jr.: Central insulin administration reduces neuropeptide Y mRNA expression in the arcuate nucleus of food-deprived lean (Fa/Fa) but not obese (fa/fa) Zucker rats. Endocrinology 1991, 128, 2645-2647.
115. Schwartz, M. W., S. C. Woods, D. Porte, Jr., R. J. Seeley & D. G. Baskin: Central nervous system control of food intake. Nature 2000, 404, 661-671.
116. Segal-Lieberman, G., R. L. Bradley, E. Kokkotou, M. Carlson, D. J. Trombly, X. Wang, S. Bates, M. G. Myers, Jr., J. S. Flier & E. Maratos-Flier: Melanin-concentrating hormone is a critical mediator of the leptin-deficient phenotype. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 10085-10090.
117. Shearman, L. P., R. E. Camacho, D. Sloan Stribling, D. Zhou, M. A. Bednarek, D. L. Hreniuk, S. D. Feighner, C. P. Tan, A. D. Howard, L. H. Van der Ploeg, D. E. MacIntyre, G. J. Hickey & A. M. Strack: Chronic MCH-1 receptor modulation alters appetite, body weight and adiposity in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2003, 475, 37-47.
118. Shi, Y.: Beyond skin color: emerging roles of melanin-concentrating hormone in energy homeostasis and other physiological functions. Peptides 2004, 25, 1605-1611.
119. Shigemura, N., R. Ohta, Y. Kusakabe, H. Miura, A. Hino, K. Koyano, K. Nakashima & Y. Ninomiya: Leptin modulates behavioral responses to sweet substances by influencing peripheral taste structures. Endocrinology 2004, 145, 839-847.
120. Sipols, A. J., J. Bayer, R. Bennett & D. P. Figlewicz: Intraventricular insulin decreases kappa opioid-mediated sucrose intake in rats. Peptides 2002, 23, 2181-2187.
121. Smith, G. P. & J. Gibbs: Cholecystokinin: a putative satiety signal. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1975, 3, 135-138.
122. Söderpalm, A. H. & S. Hansen: Alcohol alliesthesia: food restriction increases the palatability of alcohol through a corticosterone- dependent mechanism. Physiol. Behav. 1999, 67, 409-415.
123. Stanley, B. G. & S. F. Leibowitz: Neuropeptide Y injected in the paraventricular hypothalamus: a powerful stimulant of feeding behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1985, 82, 3940-3943.
124. Steinberg, G. R., A. C. Smith, S. Wormald, P. Malenfant, C. Collier & D. J. Dyck: Endurance training partially reverses dietary-induced leptin resistance in rodent skeletal muscle. Amer. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2004, 286, E57-E63.
125. Strubbe, J. H., D. Porte, Jr. & S. C. Woods: Insulin responses and glucose levels in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid during fasting and refeeding in the rat. Physiol. Behav. 1988, 44, 205-208.
126. Sun, G., Z. Tian, T. Murata, K. Narita, K. Honda & T. Higuchi: Central and peripheral immunoreactivity of melanin-concentrating hormone in hypothalamic obese and lactating rats. J. Neuroendocrinol. 2004, 16, 79-83.
127. Szczypka, M. S., M. A. Rainey & R. D. Palmiter: Dopamine is required for hyperphagia in Lep(ob/ob) mice. Nat. Genet. 2000, 25, 102-104.
128. Tartaglia, L. A., M. Dembski, X. Weng, N. Deng, J. Culpepper, R. Devos, G. J. Richards, L. A. Campfield, F. T. Clark, J. Deeds & et al.: Identification and expression cloning of a leptin receptor, OB-R. Cell 1995, 83, 1263-1271.
129. Taubes, G.: As obesity rates rise, experts struggle to explain why. Science 1998, 280, 1367-1368.
130. Tritos, N. A. & E. Maratos-Flier: Two important systems Clark, J. Deeds, et al.: Identification and expression cloning trating hormone. Neuropeptides 1999, 33, 339-349.
131. Tschop, M., D. B. Flora, J. P. Mayer & M. L. Heiman: Hypophysectomy prevents ghrelin-induced adiposity and increases gastric ghrelin secretion in rats. Obes. Res. 2002, 10, 991-999.
132. Tschop, M., D. L. Smiley & M. L. Heiman: Ghrelin induces adiposity in rodents. Nature 2000, 407, 908-913.
133. Tschop, M., C. Weyer, P. A. Tataranni, V. Devanarayan, E. Ravussin & M. L. Heiman: Circulating ghrelin levels are decreased in human obesity. Diabetes 2001, 50, 707-709.
134. Turton, M. D., D. O'Shea, I. Gunn, S. A. Beak, C. M. Edwards, K. Meeran, S. J. Choi, G. M. Taylor, M. M. Heath, P. D. Lambert, J. P. Wilding, D. M. Smith, M. A. Ghatei, J. Herbert & S. R. Bloom: A role for glucagon-like peptide-1 in the central regulation of feeding. Nature 1996, 379, 69-72.
135. Vaccarino, F. J.: Nucleus accumbens dopamine-CCK interactions in psychostimulant reward and related behaviors. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1994, 18, 207-214.
136. van Gitters, G. W., M. Kabir, S. P. Kim, S. D. Mittelman, M. K. Dea, P. L. Brubaker & R. N. Bergman: Elevated glucagon-like peptide-1-(7-36)-amide, but not glucose, associated with hyperinsulinemic compensation for fat feeding. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2002, 87, 5191-5198.
137. Van Ree, J. M., R. J. Niesink, L. Van Wolfswinkel, N. F. Ramsey, M. M. Kornet, W. R. Van Furth, L. J. Vanderschuren, M. A. Gerrits & C. L. Van den Berg: Endogenous opioids and reward. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2000, 405, 89-101.
138. Wang, G. J., N. D. Volkow, J. Logan, N. R. Pappas, C. T. Wong, W. Zhu, N. Netusil & J. S. Fowler: Brain dopamine and obesity. Lancet 2001, 357, 354-357.
139. Welch, C. C., E. M. Kim, M. K. Grace, C. J. Billington & A. S. Levine: Palatability-induced hyperphagia increases hypothalamic Dynorphin peptide and mRNA levels. Brain Res. 1996, 721, 126-131.
140. Williams, L. M., C. L. Adam, J. G. Mercer, K. M. Moar, D. Slater, L. Hunter, P. A. Findlay & N. Hoggard: Leptin receptor and neuropeptide Y gene expression in the sheep brain. J. Neuroendocrinol. 1999, 11, 165-169.
141. Woods, S. C., M. W. Schwartz, D. G. Baskin & R. J. Seeley: Food intake and the regulation of body weight. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2000, 51, 255-277.
142. Woods, S. C., R. J. Seeley, D. G. Baskin & M. W. Schwartz: Insulin and the blood-brain barrier. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2003, 9, 795-800.
143. Wortley, K. E., G. Q. Chang, Z. Davydova & S. F. Leibowitz: Peptides that regulate food intake: orexin gene expression is increased during states of hypertriglyceridemia. Amer. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2003, 284, R1454-R1465.
144. Wren, A. M., L. J. Seal, M. A. Cohen, A. E. Brynes, G. S. Frost, K. G. Murphy, W. S. Dhillo, M. A. Ghatei & S. R. Bloom: Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2001, 86, 5992.
145. Wren, A. M., C. J. Small, C. V. Fribbens, N. M. Neary, H. L. Ward, L. J. Seal, M. A. Ghatei & S. R. Bloom: The hypothalamic mechanisms of the hypophysiotropic action of ghrelin. Neuroendocrinology 2002, 76, 316-324.
146. Wurtman, R. J. & J. J. Wurtman: Brain serotonin, carbohydrate- craving, obesity and depression. Obes. Res. 1995, 3, Suppl 4, 477S-480S.
147. Yeo, G. S., I. S. Farooqi, S. Aminian, D. J. Halsall, R. G. Stanhope & S. O'Rahilly: A frameshift mutation in MC4R associated with dominantly inherited human obesity. Nat. Genet. 1998, 20, 111-112.
148. Yeo, G. S., E. J. Lank, I. S. Farooqi, J. Keogh, B. G. Challis & S. O'Rahilly: Mutations in the human melanocortin-4 receptor gene associated with severe familial obesity disrupts receptor function through multiple molecular mechanisms. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2003, 12, 561-574.
149. Yeomans, M. R. & R. W. Gray: Selective effects of naltrexone on food pleasantness and intake. Physiol. Behav. 1996, 60, 439-446.
150. Yeomans, M. R., R. W. Gray, C. J. Mitchell & S. True: Independent effects of palatability and within-meal pauses on intake and appetite ratings in human volunteers. Appetite 1997, 29, 61-76.
151. Zamir, N., G. Skofitsch & D. M. Jacobowitz: Distribution of immunoreactive melanin-concentrating hormone in the central nervous system of the rat. Brain Res. 1986, 373, 240-245.
152. Zhang, M., C. Balmadrid & A. E. Kelley: Nucleus accumbens opioid, GABaergic, and dopaminergic modulation of palatable food motivation: contrasting effects revealed by a progressive ratio study in the rat. Behav. Neurosci. 2003, 117, 202-211.
153. Zhang, M. & A. E. Kelley: Opiate agonists microinjected into the nucleus accumbens enhance sucrose drinking in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 1997, 132, 350-360.
154. Zhang, M. & A. E. Kelley: Intake of saccharin, salt, and ethanol solutions is increased by infusion of a mu opioid agonist into the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 2002, 159, 415-423.
155. Zigman, J. M. & J. K. Elmquist: Minireview: From anorexia to obesity - the yin and yang of body weight control. Endocrinology 2003, 144, 3749-3756.