New aspects of the hormone and cytokine response to training

European Journal of Applied Physiology

Volumn 91, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 382-391

  Steinacker, Jürgen M ^a   Lormes, Werner ^a   Reissnecker, Susanne ^a   Liu, Yuefei ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ULM   (Germany)

Author keywords

Acute training response; HSP70; IL 6; Leptin; Overtraining

Indexed keywords

CONTRACTILE PROTEIN; CYTOKINE; GLUCOSE TRANSPORTER; GLYCOGEN; GROWTH HORMONE; HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN 72; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMUS RELEASING FACTOR; INSULIN; INTERLEUKIN 6; LEPTIN; MYOSIN; SOMATOMEDIN C; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ADIPOSE TISSUE; ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; BETA ADRENERGIC STIMULATION; BRAIN FUNCTION; CELL METABOLISM; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DOWN REGULATION; ENERGY RESOURCE; EXERCISE; HORMONAL REGULATION; HORMONE RELEASE; HORMONE RESPONSE; HUMAN; HYDROCORTISONE RELEASE; HYPERCORTISOLISM; HYPOTHALAMUS; INSULIN RELEASE; METABOLIC REGULATION; MUSCLE INJURY; MYOPATHY; NERVE CONDUCTION; NERVE STIMULATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN METABOLISM; REVIEW; SENSORY NERVE; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SKELETAL MUSCLE; TRAINING;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; CUMULATIVE TRAUMA DISORDERS; CYTOKINES; EXERCISE; EXERTION; HORMONES; HUMANS; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING; PHYSICAL ENDURANCE; SPORTS;

EID: 1842688765     PISSN: 14396319     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00421-003-0960-x     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Adams GR, Haddad F (1996) The relationships among IGF-I, DNA content, and protein accumulation during skeletal muscle hypertrophy. J Appl Physiol 81:2509-2516
2. Ahima RS, Kelly J, Elmquist JK, Flier JS (1999a) Distinct physiologic and neuronal responses to decreased leptin and mild hyperleptinemia. Endocrinology 140:4923-4931
3. Ahima RS, Prabakaran D, Mantzoros C, Qu D, Lowell B, Maratos-Flier E, Flier JS (1999b) Role of leptin in the neuroendocrine response to fasting. Nature 382:250-252
4. Ai H, Ihlemann J, Hellsten Y, Lauritzen HP, Hardie DG, Galbo H, Ploug T (2002) Effect of fiber type and nutritional state on AICAR- and contraction-stimulated glucose transport in rat muscle. Am J Physiol 282:E1291-E1300
5. Asea A, Kraeft SK, Kurt-Jones EA, Stevenson MA, Chen LB, Finberg RW, Koo GC, Calderwood SK (2000) HSP70 stimulates cytokine production through a CD14-dependent pathway, demonstrating its dual role as a chaperone and cytokine. Nature Med 6:435-442
6. Atalay M, Seene T, Hanninen O, Sen CK (1996) Skeletal muscle and heart antioxidant defences in response to sprint training. Acta Physiol Scand 158:129-134
7. Barron JL, Noakes TD, Levy W, Smith C, Millar RP (1985) Hypothalamic dysfunction in overtrained athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60:803-806
8. Baskin DG, Breininger JF, Schwartz MW (1999) Leptin receptor mRNA identifies a subpopulation of neuropeptide Y neurons activated by fasting in rat hypothalamus. Diabetes 48:828-833
9. Beere HM, Green DR (2001) Stress management - heat shock protein-70 and the regulation of apoptosis. Trends Cell Biol 11:6-10
10. Billeter R, Weber H, Lutz H, Howald H, Eppenberger HM, Jenny E (1980) Myosin types in human skeletal muscle fibers. Histochemistry 65:249-259
11. Boden G, Chen X, Mozzoli M, Ryan I (1996) Effect of fasting on serum leptin in normal human subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:3419-3423
12. Booth FW, Baldwin KM (1996) Muscle plasticity: energy demand and supply processes. In: Rowell LB, Shepherd JT (eds) Handbook of physiology: exercise: regulation and integration of multiple systems. Oxford University Press, New York, Chapter 24, pp 1075-1123
13. Borghouts LB, Keizer HA (2000) Exercise and insulin sensitivity: a review. Int J Sports Med 21:1-12
14. Brüning JC, Gautam D, Burks DJ, Gillette J, Schubert M, Orban PC, Klein R, Krone W, Müller-Wieland D, Kahn CR (2000) Role of brain insulin receptor in control of body weight and reproduction. Science 289:2122-2125
15. Bruunsgaard H, Galbo H, Halkjaer-Kristensen J, Johansen TL, MacLean DA, Pedersen BK (1997) Exercise-induced increase in serum interleukin-6 in humans is related to muscle damage. J Physiol (Lond) 499:833-841
16. Carro E, Senaris R, Considine RV, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C (1997) Regulation of in vivo growth hormone secretion by leptin. Endocrinology 138:2203-2206
17. Carro E, Seoane LM, Senaris R, Considine RV, Casanueva FF, Dieguez C (1998) Interaction between leptin and neuropeptide Y on in vivo growth hormone secretion. Neuroendocrinology 68:187-191
18. Coleman RA, Herrmann TS (1999) Nutritional regulation of leptin in humans. Diabetologia 42:639-646
19. Considine RV (1997a) Weight regulation, leptin and growth hormone. Horm Res 48 [Suppl. 5]:116-121
20. Considine RV (1997b) Invited editorial on "Acute and chronic effects of exercise on leptin levels in humans" [editorial]. J Appl Physiol 83:3-4
21. Coppack SW (2001) Pro-inflammatory cytokines and adipose tissue. Proc Nutr Soc 60:349-356
22. Croisier JL, Camus G, Venneman I, Deby-Dupont G, Juchmes-Ferir A, Lamy M, Crielaard JM, Deby C, Duchateau J (1999) Effects of training on exercise-induced muscle damage and interleukin 6 production. Muscle Nerve 22:208-212
23. Del Aguila LF, Krishan RK, Ulbrecht JS, Farell PA, Correll PH, Lang CH, Zierath JR, Kirwan JP (2000) Muscle damage impairs insulin stimulation of IRS-1, PI3-kinase, and Act-kinase in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 279:E206-E212
24. Drenth JP, Van Uum SH, Van Deuren M, Pesman GJ, van der Meer JW (1995) Endurance run increases circulating IL-6 and IL-1ra but downregulates ex vivo TNF-alpha and IL-1 beta production. J Appl Physiol 79:1497-1503
25. Eisenberg BR, Goldspink PH, Wenderoth MP (1991) Distribution of myosin heavy chain mRNA in normal and hyperthyroid heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 23:287-296
26. Ennion S, Sant'ana PJ, Sargeant AJ, Young A, Goldspink G (1995) Characterization of human skeletal muscle fibres according to the myosin heavy chains they express. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 16:35-43
27. Febbraio MA, Koukoulas I (2000) HSP72 gene expression progressively increases in human skeletal muscle during prolonged, exhaustive exercise. J Appl Physiol 89:1055-1060
28. Febbraio MA, Steensberg A, Walsh R, Koukoulas I, van Hall G, Saltin B, Pedersen BK (2002) Reduced glycogen availability is associated with an elevation in HSP72 in contracting human skeletal muscle. J Physiol (Lond) 538:911-917
29. Fehmann HC, Peiser C, Bode HP, Stamm M, Staats P, Hedetoft C, Lang RE, Goke B (1997) Leptin: a potent inhibitor of insulin secretion. Peptides 18:1267-1273
30. Fehrenbach E, Niess AM, Schlotz E, Passek F, Dickhuth HH, Northoff H (2000) Transcriptional and translational regulation of heat shock proteins in leukocytes of endurance runners. J Appl Physiol 89:704-710
31. Ferry RJ, Katz LEL, Grimberg A, Cohen P, Weinzimer SA (1999) Cellular actions of insulin-like growth factor binding proteins. Horm Metab Res 31:192-202
32. Flier JS (1998) Clinical review 94: What's in a name? In search of leptin's physiologic role. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:1407-1413
33. Friedman JE, Ferrara CM, Aulak KS, Hatzoglou M, McCune SA, Park S, Sherman WM (1997) Exercise training down-regulates ob gene expression in the genetically obese SHHF/Mcc-fa(cp) rat. Horm Metab Res 29:214-219
34. Friedman JM, Halaas JL (1998) Leptin and the regulation of body weight in mammals. Nature 395:763-770
35. Fry AC, Kraemer WJ (1997) Resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching. Neuroendocrine responses. Sports Med 23:106-129
36. Gaillard RC, Spinedi E, Chautard T, Pralong FP (2000) Cytokines, leptin, and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 917:647-6
37. Gleeson M (2000) Interleukins and exercise. J Physiol (Lond) 529:1
38. Haas HS, Schauenstein K (1997) Neuroimmunomodulation via limbic structures - the neuroanatomy of psychoimmunology. Prog Neurobiol 51:195-222
39. Hackney AC, Sinning WE, Bruor BC (1990) Hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis function in endurance-trained males. Int J Sports Med 11:298-303
40. Haddad F, Qin AX, Zeng M, McCue SA, Baldwin KM (1998) Effects of isometric training on skeletal myosin heavy chain expression. J Appl Physiol 84:2036-2041
41. Hammond GI, Lai KL, Markert GI (1982) Diverse forms of stress lead to new proteins of gene expression through a common and essential pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:3485-3488
42. Heiman ML, Ahima RS, Craft LS, Schoner B, Stephens TW, Flier JS (1997) Leptin inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in response to stress. Endocrinology 138:3859-3863
43. Heuser IJ, Wark HJ, Keul J, Holsboer F (1991) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in elderly endurance athletes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73:485-488
44. Hickey MS, Considine RV, Israel RG, Mahar TL, McCammon MR, Tyndall GL, Houmard JA, Caro JF (1996) Leptin is related to body fat content in male distance runners. Am J Physiol 271:E938-E940
45. Hotamisligil GS (1999) Mechanisms of TNF-alpha-induced insulin resistance [see comments]. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 107:119-125
46. Jost J, Weiss M, Weicker H (1989) Comparison of sympatho-adrenergic regulation at rest and of the adrenoceptor system in swimmers, long-distance runners, weight lifters, wrestlers and untrained men. Eur J Appl Physiol 58:596-604
47. Katsuki A, Sumida Y, Murashima S, Murata K, Takarada Y, Ito K, Fujii M, Tsuchihashi K, Goto H, Nakatani K, Yano Y (1998) Serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha are increased in obese patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:859-862
48. Keller C, Steensberg A, Pilegaard H, Osada T, Saltin B, Pedersen BK, Neufer PD (2001) Transcriptional activation of the IL-6 gene in human contracting skeletal muscle: influence of muscle glycogen content. FASEB J 15:2748-2750
49. Kirwan JP, Jing M (2002) Modulation of insulin signalling in human skeletal muscle in response to exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 30:85-90
50. Kohrt WM, Landt M, Birge SJ Jr. (1996) Serum leptin levels are reduced in response to exercise training, but not hormone replacement therapy, in older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:3980-3985
51. Kraemer RR, Kraemer GR, Acevedo EO, Hebert EP, Temple E, Bates M, Etie A, Haltom R, Quinn S, Castracane VD (1999) Effects of aerobic exercise on serum leptin levels in obese women. Eur J Appl Physiol 80:154-158
52. Lehmann M, Jakob E, Spori U, Bergdolt E, Keul J (1985) [Free and conjugated plasma catecholamines, lactate behavior and oxygen uptake at rest and in staged physical exertion as well as - alpha receptor density in intact thrombocytes in trained athletes]. Z Kardiol 74:32-38
53. Lehmann M, Gastmann U, Petersen KG, Bachl N, Seidel A, Khalaf AN, Fischer S, Keul J (1992a) Training-overtraining: performance, and hormone levels, after a defined increase in training volume versus intensity in experienced middle- and long-distance runners. Br J Sports Med 26:233-242
54. Lehmann M, Baumgartl P, Wiesenack C, Seidel A, Baumann H, Fischer S, Spori U, Gendrisch G, Kaminski R, Keul J (1992b) Training-overtraining: influence of a defined increase in training volume vs training intensity on performance, catecholamines and some metabolic parameters in experienced middle- and long-distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol 64:169-177
55. Lehmann M, Schnee W, Scheu R, Stockhausen W, Bachl N (1992c) Decreased nocturnal catecholamine excretion: parameter for an overtraining syndrome in athletes? Int J Sports Med 13:236-242
56. Lehmann M, Foster C, Keul J (1993a) Overtraining in endurance athletes: a brief review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:854-862
57. Lehmann M, Knizia K, Gastmann U, Petersen KG, Khalaf AN, Bauer S, Kerp L, Keul J (1993b) Influence of 6-week, 6 days per week, training on pituitary function in recreational athletes. Br J Sports Med 27:186-192
58. Lehmann M, Lormes W, Opitz-Gress A, Steinacker JM, Netzer N, Foster C, Gastmann U (1997) Training and overtraining: an overview and experimental results in endurance sports. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 37:7-17
59. Lehmann M, Foster C, Dickhuth HH, Gastmann U (1998) Autonomic imbalance hypothesis and overtraining syndrome. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:1140-1145
60. Lehmann M, Foster C, Gastmann U, Keizer HA, Steinacker JM (1999a) Definition, types, symptoms, findings underlying mechanisms, and frequency of overtraining and overtraining syndrome. In: Lehmann M, Foster C, Gastmann U, Keizer HA, Steinacker JM (eds) Overload, performance incompetence, and regeneration in sport. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, Plenum, New York, pp 1-6
61. Lehmann M, Gastmann U, Baur S, Liu Y, Lormes W, Opitz-Gress A, Reissnecker S, Simsch C, Steinacker JM (1999b) Selected parameters and mechanisms of peripheral and central fatigue and regeneration in overtrained athletes. In: Lehmann M, Foster C, Gastmann U, Keizer HA, Steinacker JM (eds) Overload, performance incompetence and regeneration in sport. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, Plenum, New York, pp 7-26
62. Lehmann M, Petersen KG, Liu Y, Gastmann U, Lormes W, Steinacker JM (2000) Chronische und erschöpfende Belastungen im Sport - Einfluss von Leptin und Inhibin [Chronic exhaustive exercise in sports - Influence of leptin and inhibin]. Dtsch Z Sportmed 51:234-243
63. Li H, Matheny M, Scarpace PJ (1997) Beta 3-adrenergic-mediated suppression of leptin gene expression in rats. Am J Physiol 272:E1031-E1036
64. Liu Y, Steinacker JM (2001) Changes in skeletal muscle heat shock proteins: pathological significance. Front Biosci 6:D12-D25
65. Liu Y, Mayr S, Opitz-Gress A, Zeller C, Lormes W, Baur S, Lehmann M, Steinacker JM (1999) Human skeletal muscle HSP70 response to training in highly trained rowers. J Appl Physiol 86:101-104
66. Liu Y, Lormes W, Baur C, Opitz-Gress A, Altenburg D, Lehmann M, Steinacker JM (2000) Human skeletal muscle HSP70 response to physical training depends on exercise intensity. Int J Sports Med 21:351-355
67. Liu Y, Lormes W, Baur C, Steinacker JM (2003a) Effects of high resistance and low intense endurance training on myosin heavy chain isoform expression in highly trained rowers. Int J Sports Med 24:264-270
68. Liu Y, Schlumberger A, Wirth K, Schmidtbleicher D, Steinacker JM (2003b) Different effects on skeletal myosin heavy chain isoform expression: strength vs. combination training. J Appl Physiol 94:2282-2288
69. Locke M (1997) The cellular stress response to exercise: role of stress proteins. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 25:105-136
70. Locke M, Noble EG, Atkinson BG (1990) Exercising mammals synthesize stress proteins. Am J Physiol 358:C723-C729
71. Locke M, Noble EG, Atkinson BG (1991) Inducible isoform of HSP70 is constitutively expressed in a muscle fiber type specific pattern. Am J Physiol 61:C774-C779
72. Mantzoros CS, Qu D, Frederich RC, Susulic VS, Lowell BB, Maratos-Flier E, Flier JS (1996) Activation of beta(3) adrenergic receptors suppresses leptin expression and mediates a leptin-independent inhibition of food intake in mice. Diabetes 45:909-914
73. Mantzoros CS, Moschos S, Avramopoulos I, Kaklamani V, Liolios A, Doulgerakis DE, Griveas I, Katsilambros N, Flier JS (1997) Leptin concentrations in relation to body mass index and the tumor necrosis factor-alpha system in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:3408-3413
74. Mastorakos G, Chrousos GP, Weber JS (1993) Recombinant interleukin-6 activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:1690-1694
75. Mercer JG, Moar KM, Rayner DV, Trayhurn P, Hoggard N (1997) Regulation of leptin receptor and NPY gene expression in hypothalamus of leptin-treated obese (ob/ob) and cold-exposed lean mice. FEBS Lett 402:185-188
76. Minokoshi Y, Kim YB, Peroni OD, Fryer LG, Muller C, Carling D, Kahn BB (2002) Leptin stimulates fatty-acid oxidation by activating AMP-activated protein kinase. Nature 415:339-343
77. Mizuno A, Murakami T, Otani S, Kuwajiama M, Shima K (1999) Leptin affects pancreatic endocrine functions through the sympathetic nervous system. Endocrinology 139:3863-3870
78. Mohamed-Ali V, Pinkney JH, Coppack SW (1998) Adipose tissue as an endocrine and paracrine organ. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 22:1145-1158
79. Mohamed-Ali V, Flower L, Sethi J, Hotamisligil G, Gray R, Humphries SE, York DA, Pinkney J (2001) Beta-adrenergic regulation of IL-6 release from adipose tissue: in vivo and in vitro studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:5864-5869
80. Moseley P (2000) Stress proteins and the immune response. Immunopharmacology 48:299-302
81. Mosser DD, Caron AW, Bourget L, Meriin AB, Sherman MY, Morimoto RI, Massie B (2000) The chaperone function of hsp70 is required for protection against stress-induced apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 20:7146-7159
82. Nara M, Kanda T, Tsukui S, Inukai T, Shimomura Y, Inoue S, Kobayashi I (1999) Running exercise increases tumor necrosis factor-alpha secreting from mesenteric fat in insulin-resistant rats. Life Sci 65:237-244
83. Nehlsen-Cannarella SL, Fagoaga OR, Nieman DC, Henson DA, Butterworth DE, Schmitt RL, Bailey EM, Warren BJ, Utter A, Davis JM (1997) Carbohydrate and the cytokine response to 2.5 h of running. J Appl Physiol 82:1662-1667
84. Nieman DC, Pedersen BK (1999) Exercise and immune function. Recent developments [In Process Citation]. Sports Med 27:73-80
85. Niess AM, Sommer AM, Schneider M, Angres C, Tschositsch K, Golly IC, Battenfeld N, Northoff H, Biesalski HK, Dickhuth HH, Fehrenbach E (2000) Physical exercise-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and heme oxygenase-1 in human leukocytes: effects of RRR-alpha-tocopherol supplementation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2:113-126
86. Northoff H, Berg A (1991) Immunologic mediators as parameters of the reaction to strenuous exercise. Int J Sports Med 12:S9-S15
87. Northoff H, Weinstock C, Berg A (1994) The cytokine response to strenuous exercise. Int J Sports Med 15:S167-S171
88. Ostrowski K, Hermann C, Bangash A, Schjerling P, Nielsen JN, Pedersen BK (1998) A trauma-like elevation of plasma cytokines in humans in response to treadmill running. J Physiol (Lond) 513:889-894
89. Ostrowski K, Rohde T, Asp S, Schjerling P, Pedersen BK (1999) Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine balance in strenuous exercise in humans. J Physiol (Lond) 515:287-291
90. Park SH, Gammon SR, Knippers JD, Paulsen SR, Rubink DS, Winder WW (2002) Phosphorylation-activity relationships of AMPK and acetyl-CoA carboxylase in muscle. J Appl Physiol 92:2475-2482
91. Paroo Z, Tiidus PM, Noble EG (1999) Estrogen attenuates HSP 72 expression in acutely exercised male rodents. Eur J Appl Physiol 80:180-184
92. Parry-Billings M, Budgett R, Koutedakis Y, Blomstrand E, Brooks S, Williams C, Calder PC, Pilling S, Baigrie R, Newsholme EA (1992) Plasma amino acid concentrations in the overtraining syndrome: possible effects on the immune system. Med Sci Sports Exerc 24:1353-1358
93. Path G, Bornstein SR, Gurniak M, Chrousos GP, Scherbaum WA, Hauner H (2001) Human breast adipocytes express interleukin-6 (IL-6) and its receptor system: increased IL-6 production by beta-adrenergic activation and effects of IL-6 on adipocyte function. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:2281-2288
94. Pedersen BK, Ostrowski K, Rohde T, Bruunsgaard H (1998) The cytokine response to strenuous exercise. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 76:505-511
95. Pedersen BK, Steensberg A, Schjerling P (2001a) Muscle-derived interleukin-6: possible biological effects. J Physiol (Lond) 536:329-337
96. Pedersen BK, Steensberg A, Fischer C, Keller C, Ostrowski K, Schjerling P (2001b) Exercise and cytokines with particular focus on muscle derived IL-6. Exerc Immunol Rev 7:18-31
97. Peraldi P, Spiegelman B (1998) TNF-alpha and insulin resistance: summary and future prospects. Mol Cell Biochem 182:169-175
98. Perusse L, Collier G, Gagnon J, Leon AS, Rao DC, Skinner JS, Wilmore JH, Nadeau A, Zimmet PZ, Bouchard C (1997) Acute and chronic effects of exercise on leptin levels in humans. J Appl Physiol 83:5-10
99. Pette D, Staron RS (1997) Mammalian skeletal muscle fiber type transitions. Int Rev Cytol 170:143-223
100. Pockley AG, Shepherd J, Corton JM (1998) Detection of heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) and anti-Hsp70 antibodies in the serum of normal individuals. Immunol Invest 27:367-377
101. Podhorska-Okolow M, Sandri M, Zampieri S, Brun B, Rossini K, Carraro U (1998) Apoptosis of myofibres and satellite cells: exercise-induced damage in skeletal muscle of the mouse. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 24:518-531
102. Powers SK, Demirel HA, Vincent HK, Coombes JS, Naito H, Hamilton KL, Shanely RA, Jessup J (1998) Exercise training improves myocardial tolerance to in vivo ischemia in the rat. Am J Physiol 275:R1468-R1477
103. Pratt WB (1998) The hsp90-based chaperone system: involvement in signal transduction from a variety of hormone and growth factor receptors. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 217:420-434
104. Puntschart A, Vogt M, Widmer HR, Hoppeler H, Billeter R (1996) Hsp70 expression in human skeletal muscle after exercise. Acta Physiol Scand 157:411-417
105. Richter EA, Derave W, Wojtaszewski JF (2001) Glucose, exercise and insulin: emerging concepts. J Physiol (Lond) 535:313-322
106. Ritchie DG (1990) Interleukin 6 stimulates hepatic glucose release from prelabeled glycogen pools. Am J Physiol 258:E57-E64
107. Rizk NM, Joost HG, Eckel J (2001) Increased hypothalamic expression of the p75 tumor necrosis factor receptor in New Zealand obese mice. Horm Metab Res 33:520-524
108. Rohde T, MacLean DA, Richter EA, Kiens B, Pedersen BK (1997) Prolonged submaximal eccentric exercise is associated with increased levels of plasma IL-6. Am J Physiol 273:E85-E91
109. Saghizadeh M, Ong JM, Garvey WT, Henry RR, Kern PA (1996) The expression of TNF-α by human muscle. Relationship to insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 97:1111-1116
110. Schiffiano S, Reggiani C (1996) Molecular diversity of myofibrillar proteins: gene regulation and functional significance. Physiol Rev 76:371-423
111. Schwartz MW, Seeley RJ, Campfield LA, Burn P, Baskin DG (1996) Identification of targets of leptin action in rat hypothalamus. J Clin Invest 98:1101-1106
112. Shizuya K, Komori T, Fujiwara R, Miyahara S, Ohmori M, Nomura J (1998) The expressions of mRNAs for interleukin-6 (IL-6) and the IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) in the rat hypothalamus and midbrain during restraint stress. Life Sci 62:2315-2320
113. Simsch C, Lormes W, Petersen KG, Baur S, Liu Y, Hackney AC, Lehmann M, Steinacker JM (2002) Training intensity influences leptin and thyroid hormones in highly trained rowers. Int J Sports Med 23:422-427
114. Smith LL (2000) Cytokine hypothesis of overtraining: a physiological adaptation to excessive stress? Med Sci Sports Exerc 32:317-331
115. Snyder AC, Kuipers H, Cheng B, Servais R, Fransen E (1995) Overtraining following intensified training with normal muscle glycogen. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27:1063-1070
116. Spinedi E, Gaillard RC (1998) A regulatory loop between the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and circulating leptin: a physiological role of ACTH. Endocrinology 139:4016-4020
117. Starkie RL, Arkinstall MJ, Koukoulas I, Hawley JA, Febbraio MA (2001) Carbohydrate ingestion attenuates the increase in plasma interleukin-6, but not skeletal muscle interleukin-6 mRNA, during exercise in humans. J Physiol (Lond) 533:585-591
118. Steensberg A, van Hall G, Osada T, Sacchetti M, Saltin B, Klarlund PB (2000) Production of interleukin-6 in contracting human skeletal muscles can account for the exercise-induced increase in plasma interleukin-6. J Physiol (Lond) 529 Pt 1:237-242
119. Steensberg A, Febbraio MA, Osada T, Schjerling P, van Hall G, Saltin B, Pedersen BK (2001) Interleukin-6 production in contracting human skeletal muscle is influenced by pre-exercise muscle glycogen content. J Physiol (Lond) 537:633-639
120. Steinacker JM, Laske R, Hetzel WD, Lormes W, Liu Y, Stauch M (1993) Metabolic and hormonal reactions during training in junior oarsmen. Int J Sports Med 14 [Suppl. 1]:S24-S28
121. Steinacker JM, Kellmann M, Böhm BO, Liu Y, Opitz-Gress A, Kallus KW, Lehmann M, Altenburg D, Lormes W (1999) Clinical findings of stress and regeneration in rowers before world championships. In: Lehmann M, Foster C, Gastmann U, Keizer HA, Steinacker JM (eds) Overload, performance incompetence, and regeneration in sport. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, Plenum, New York, pp 71-80
122. Steinacker JM, Lormes W, Kellmann M, Liu Y, Reissnecker S, Opitz-Gress A, Baller B, Günther K, Petersen KG, Kallus KW, Lehmann M, Altenburg D (2000a) Training of junior rowers before World Championships. Effects on performance, mood state and selected hormonal and metabolic responses. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 40:327-335
123. Steinacker JM, Lormes W, Liu Y, Baur S, Menold E, Altenburg D, Petersen KG, Lehmann M (2000b) Leptin and somatotropic hormones during intensive resistance training and endurance training in rowers (abstract). Int J Sports Med 20:S52-S53
124. Steinacker JM, Wang L, Lormes W, Reißnecker S, Liu Y (2002) Strukturanpassungen des Skelettmuskels auf Training. Dtsch Z Sportmed 53:354-360
125. Stupnicki R, Obminski Z, Klusiewicz A, Viru A (1995) Pre-exercise serum cortisol concentration and responses to laboratory exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 71:439-443
126. Svanberg E, Kiri A, Isgaard J, Goldspink G (2000) Semi-starvation alters myofibrillar mRNA concentrations to expedite rapid recovery of muscle protein stores following feeding. Eur J Clin Invest 30:722-728
127. Tannenbaum GS, Gurd W, Lapointe M (1998) Leptin is a potent stimulator of spontaneous pulsatile growth hormone (GH) secretion and the GH response to GH-releasing hormone. Endocrinology 139:3871-3875
128. Todryk SM, Melcher AA, Dalgleish AG, Vile RG (2000) Heat shock proteins refine the danger theory. Immunology 99:334-337
129. Urhausen A, Gabriel HH, Kindermann W (1998) Impaired pituitary hormonal response to exhaustive exercise in overtrained endurance athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30:407-414
130. Utsuyama M, Hirokawa K (2002) Differential expression of various cytokine receptors in the brain after stimulation with LPS in young and old mice. Exp Gerontol 37:411-420
131. Uysal KT, Wiesbrock SM, Marino MW, Hotamisligil GS (1997) Protection from obesity-induced insulin resistance in mice lacking TNF-alpha function. Nature 389:610-614
132. Wallenius K, Sjogren K, Peng XD, Park S, Wallenius V, Liu JL, Umaerus M, Wennbo H, Isaksson O, Frohman L, Kineman R, Ohlsson C, Jansson JO (2001) Liver-derived IGF-I regulates GH secretion at the pituitary level in mice. Endocrinology 142:4762-4770
133. Walsh RC, Koukoulas I, Garnham A, Moseley PL, Hargreaves M, Febbraio MA (2001) Exercise increases serum Hsp72 in humans. Cell Stress Chaperones 6:386-393
134. Weicker H, Strobel G (1997) Endocrine regulation of metabolism during exercise. In: Steinacker JM, Ward SA (eds) The physiology and pathophysiology of exercise tolerance. Plenum, London, pp 113-121
135. Widegren U, Wretman C, Lionikas A, Hedin G, Henriksson J (2000) Influence of exercise intensity on ERK/MAP kinase signalling in human skeletal muscle. Pflugers Arch 441:317-322
136. Winder WW (2001) Energy-sensing and signaling by AMP-activated protein kinase in skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 91:1017-1028
137. Withers DJ (2001) Insulin receptor substrate proteins and neuroendocrine function. Biochem Soc Trans 29:525-529
138. Wittert GA, Livesey JH, Espiner EA, Donald RA (1996) Adaptation of the hypothalamopituitary adrenal axis to chronic exercise stress in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28:1015-1019
139. Yu M, Blomstrand E, Chibalin AV, Krook A, Zierath JR (2001) Marathon running increases ERK1/2 and p38 MAP kinase signalling to downstream targets in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol (Lond) 536:273-282